Journal of Analytical Psychology, 2019, 64, 1, 6–22

Psychological individuation and spiritual

enlightenment: some comparisons and points
of contact1

Murray Stein, Zürich

Abstract: In his writings on individuation Jung often references Eastern religions and
philosophies such as Buddhism, Taoism, and Hinduism. This essay discusses
differences and similarities between analytical psychology’s concept of individuation,
especially in its advanced stages, and enlightenment as expressed in such texts as Zen
(Chan) Buddhism’s Ten Ox-Herding Pictures. I advance the argument that important
common features can be found while cultural differences must also be respected. There
is here a convergence between West and East that can foster dialogue and mutuality.

Keywords: enlightenment, individuation, unio mentalis, unus mundus, Zen Buddhism

The attainment of enlightenment, as understood traditionally in the East2, and the

process of individuation, as understood by analytical psychology in the West, share
a common goal: the transformation of consciousness. For both, the transformation
of consciousness means overcoming the habitual patterns of thought that become
locked into place by routine and repetition, the largely unconscious patterns of
behaviour and attitude engrained by family and collective culture, and the rigid
psychological formations created by life experiences such as trauma, social class
and political identifications and other influences. Therefore it is fair to say that,
at a minimum, the transformation of consciousness is a point of contact between
the two disciplines, a goal shared by both developmental pathways, by Eastern
traditions of meditation and by Western analytical psychology, as different as
their methods for attaining this may be.

1 th
A talk given at the 8 Conference on Analytical Psychology and Chinese Culture, Xi’an, China,
April 2-4, 2018, with some revisions.
2
In this paper I am considering comparisons primarily, though not exclusively, with Zen (Chan in
the Chinese) Buddhism’s notion of enlightenment (satori in Japanese, wu in Chinese). Samadhi is a
state of mind somewhat different but for my purposes here in the same category of mental
transcendence.

0021-8774/2019/6401/6 © 2019, The Society of Analytical Psychology

Published by Wiley Publishing, 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford OX4 2DQ, UK and 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148, USA.
DOI: 10.1111/1468-5922.12462
Individuation and enlightenment 7

However, the question remains: is the net result of the individuation processes
as engaged and facilitated by Jungian analysis the same as that attained through
Eastern meditation practices such as Zen Buddhism, for instance? Are the results
commensurate or do they diverge to an extent that renders them incomparable?
Does the enlightened person of Buddhism in any way resemble the individuated
person as understood by analytical psychology? In this paper I will reflect on
some similarities and differences and draw some preliminary conclusions.
In a broad and simple sense, and in general, East and West are very different
when it comes to an understanding of what is meant by the development of
consciousness. In the East it has traditionally been spoken of as the steps
taken and followed toward spiritual enlightenment (Satori or Wu or
Samadhi) emphasizing mental unity, a still mind, and awareness of the
inter-connectedness of all things; in the secular and modern West, we speak of
psychological development, which is commonly regarded as producing greater
ego strength, resilience and assertive individuality. Since the beginning of the
19th century in the West, however, and with increasing depth and intensity in
the late 20th century and into the 21st century, there has been a great deal of
interest shown in the spiritual practices and disciplines of the East and in
drawing comparisons between East and West with regard to possibilities for
advanced psychological and spiritual development that go beyond ego
development. Many people in the West have read the translated spiritual
classics of the East, and many have learned the practices of yoga and various
forms of meditation. The interest among psychotherapists in mindfulness
training, for example, has exploded in recent years.
Already a century ago, C.G. Jung was deeply engaged in this comparative
study, and while he frequently cited major differences in his extensive writings
on Eastern religion and philosophy, he also looked for similarities based on
archetypal factors in the psyche. In fact, it was these similarities between
individuation, as he experienced it in himself in his Red Book period and with
his patients thereafter, and what he discovered in the Chinese alchemical text,
The Secret of the Golden Flower sent to him in translation by his friend
Richard Wilhelm, that he concluded that there is an archetypal basis for the
individuation process, i.e., that it is a human universal. In Memories, Dreams,
Reflections, he wrote: ‘I devoured the manuscript at once, for the text gave
me undreamed-of confirmation of my ideas about the mandala and the
circumambulation of the center. That was the first event which broke through
my isolation. I became aware of an affinity; I could establish ties with
something and someone’ (Jung 1961, p. 197). From this we get a strong hint
that there are important and essential underlying similarities between ancient
Chinese spiritual practices and the individuation process as described by Jung.
In his “Commentary on ‘The Secret of the Golden Flower,’” he draws many
parallels between individuation and ancient Chinese alchemy practices.
A question to be considered, however, is this: individuation considers and
presupposes the singularity and uniqueness of every human being, qua
8 Murray Stein

individuals, and promotes each person’s fullest possible self-realization as the

goal of psychological development. Is this not the exact contrary and opposite
of the Eastern project of reaching enlightenment (Chinese ‘Wu,’ Japanese
‘Satori’, Indian ‘Samadhi’), which aims at destroying any sense of uniqueness
and individuality (ego) in favor of ‘the unity of all’, ‘Buddha nature’,
awareness of ‘the Void’? How can they be reconciled? Or can’t they? The
West’s inveterate emphasis on the separate and individual ego vs. the East’s
emphasis on non-ego and non-duality, are they reconcilable? I believe that to
an extent they are, and that is because of Jung’s understanding of
individuation as it unfolds in its most advanced stages, usually in the second
half of life but sometimes earlier. Jung makes it possible to narrow, if not
completely close, the gap between enlightenment as realized by people of the
East following their traditional practices, and individuation as realized by
modern people of the West engaging in the process of individuation as
outlined and supported by analytical psychology.
To make my argument, I will speak of three stages of mature (or, as I call it, ‘late
stage’) individuation as described by Jung in Mysterium Coniunctionis, his last
major work. I can briefly summarize these stages as follows: a) attainment of
mental discipline and self-knowledge, b) embodiment of insights, and c) unus
mundus awareness. Each of these stages has significant similarities with stages
on the way to enlightenment as depicted in such classic texts as the Ten
Ox-Herding Pictures of Zen Buddhism, which I will also bring into the
discussion.

Stage One – The First Conjunction: Unio Mentalis

The initial task in tackling the challenge of individuation, as Jung has described
this process of lifelong psychological development, is to achieve a state of
unified consciousness as an individual. Jung, following the work of the
philosopher and alchemist, Gerhard Dorn, calls this stage of development
unio mentalis (Latin: ‘union of mind’). This is not a simple matter, as we shall
see, and it has many levels and phases.
Psychological life begins in infancy and initially takes the form of a kind of
archipelago, a scattering of unstable islands of consciousness in a sea of
psychic fluidity. Out of these scattered moments of consciousness there
eventually emerges a dominant focal point, which we call the ego (the ‘I’), a
centre of consciousness that responds to stimuli and eventually to a given
name, and the other bits of conscious experience establish more or less stable
links to it, and become associated as attached memories and fantasies, or they
disappear into the unconscious. This is the earliest attempt at forming the
stability of consciousness, which we are calling unio mentalis.
In the course of childhood and adolescence that follows, this ‘I’ achieves an
increasingly enlarged identity and extends its range of fixed associations
through a process of projection and introjection, a development that Michael
Individuation and enlightenment 9

Fordham discusses as de-integration and integration cycles. The ego-identity

and social persona that are formed and developed through this process in
these early stages of life, are made up of bits of family and ancestral material,
cultural patterns and influences, and inherent pieces of the self like gender
and psychological type preferences (the intrapsychic contribution). The ego is
embedded in this matrix and unconsciously identifies with it. This unity can
be fragile, however, and subject to falling apart (dissociating) under stress and
social pressure. Under the massive influence of emotions generated by
unconscious complexes, which are often created by split-off and repressed
traumas, a person will often regress to earlier stages of identity in childhood.
Ego-identity is also largely embedded in, and associated with, the physical
body. The psyche and body are fused into a single unit that often becomes
untethered from the higher cognitive functions of the mind. Out of this a
tension develops that can be the source of a neurotic split between body and
mind-body, a conflict between instincts and ideals. This creates a divided
identity in which persona and shadow vie for the upper hand in
consciousness. While young persons may feel to themselves to be individuals,
actually they are not to any significant extent. This young and not yet mature
ego-identity is typically a more or less stereotypical and standard
representative of a collective pattern laid down and established in the
prevalent culture of family, peer groups and society. And typically it is divided
along the lines indicated.
True individuation in the sense that Jung speaks of it, as the attainment of a
unified sense of wholeness, uniqueness, self-knowledge and full realization of
inner potentials, cannot effectively begin until a severe reduction of this first
attempt at unity has taken place. This conglomerate of amassed bits and pieces
of psychic material that passes as identity has to be ‘seen through’ to a degree
in order for the centre of awareness, the innermost kernel of ego
consciousness, to be freed from extraneous contaminations and identifications.
This process of ‘seeing through’ and separation is the forerunner and
presupposition for achieving unio mentalis in the next phase. In my book, The
Principle of Individuation, I discuss this as the ‘separation movement’ within
the overall individuation process. In Jungian analysis this is the reductive
phase of treatment.
In analytical psychology, the method of treatment for achieving the more
advanced stages of unio mentalis is the analysis of complexes, projections,
defenses and identifications. The purpose of this is to clear away the obstacles
that interfere with gaining a state of consciousness of self that is not distorted
by unconscious factors like complexes, projections, wishes, fears, and cultural
biases. In short, as Jung writes: ‘... the ego-personality’s coming to terms with
its own background, the shadow, corresponds to the union of spirit and soul
in the unio mentalis …’ (Jung, 1970, para. 707). The shadow means here not
only inferior parts of the psyche but everything that distorts perception of self
and world.
10 Murray Stein

This is a slow work and often takes quite a long time and much patience to
achieve. It is similar to what meditation seeks to achieve in Ch’an Buddhism,
for instance. There is a wonderful passage in ‘Master Hsu Yun’s Discourses
and Dharma Words’, which Jung was reading in his last days of life3. The
text reads:

‘… when the sun rises and sunlight enters (the house) through an opening, the dust is
seen moving in the ray of light whereas the empty space is unmoving. Therefore, that
which is still is voidness and that which moves is dust. Foreign dust illustrates false
thinking and voidness illustrates self-nature … This serves to illustrate the eternal
(unmoving) self-nature which does not follow false thinking in its sudden rise and fall.’

(Luk, 1970, p. 36)

In a similar vein, Jung says about unio mentalis: ‘The declared aim of the
treatment [of analysis] is to set up a rational, spiritual psychic position
over against the turbulence of the emotions’ (Jung 1970, para. 696). Such
a consciousness can observe thought and emotion (dust) within a larger
context of self awareness (the room). This requires also making
unconscious contents conscious since this is often what stirs the dust into
movement. Careful observation of these dust particles and the forces
behind them that cause their stirrings brings conscious and unconscious
into a new relation. This is achieved by what Jung called ‘the transcendent
function’, a neutral observation point between conscious and unconscious
(Jung, 1969b).
In the alchemical metaphor, this process of bringing conscious and
unconscious together in a new formation of psyche is described as: first
separating ‘soul’ (symbolized by water) from ‘body’ (symbolized by matter),
and second uniting it with ‘spirit’ (symbolized by air). The alchemist does this
by applying heat to the material (prima materia) in the alchemical vessel,
allowing the moisture produced to rise as steam, and letting it condense at the
top of the flask as droplets of water. These droplets represent the union of soul
and spirit. This is termed unio mentalis: the separation of soul from body and
the union of soul and spirit. In some alchemical texts such as the Rosarium
Philosophorum, which Jung discusses in ‘The Psychology of the Transference’,
this union of soul and spirit, or anima and animus, is depicted in sexual imagery.
The Ten Ox-Herding Pictures of Zen Buddhism along with their Verses
(waka in Japanese) depict the process of gradual enlightenment as understood
and achieved through the practice of disciplined introspection and

3
‘The book C.G. Jung was reading on his deathbed was Charles Luk’s Chan and Zen Teaching:
First Series, and he expressly asked his secretary to write to tell the author that ‘He was
enthusiastic…. When he read what Hsu Yun said, he sometimes felt as if he himself could have
said exactly this! It was just ‘it’!’ Unpublished letter from Dr. Marie-Louise von Franz to Charles
Luk dated September 12, 1961. On back cover of the book (Berkeley, CA: Shambhala, 1970).
Individuation and enlightenment 11

meditation4. In the following I am using the set of ten drawings and commentary
attributed to Kuo-an Shih-yuan, a Chinese Zen master of the 12th century. As
Roshi Philip Kapleau says of this set: ‘It is this version that has gained the
widest acceptance in Japan, [and] has proved itself over the years to be a source
of instruction and unfailing inspiration to Zen students’ (Kapleau 1980, p.
313). The pictures are meant to be ‘a depiction of … the realization of Oneness
… the ultimate goal of Zen’ (ibid., p. 313).
Picture #6, titled ‘Riding the Ox Home’, can be taken as an equivalent of the
achievement of unio mentalis.

This picture, which culminates the search for, retrieval and taming of the Ox
in Pictures 1-5, symbolizes a state of harmonious relation between soul and
spirit and sets the stage for the further development in Pictures 7-105. In the
symbolic world of Zen Buddhism, the Ox indicates much more than only the
realm of instincts, as we might mistakenly interpret it. It is also a symbol of
the ‘self-nature’ or ‘mind’ (Miyuki 1994, p. 30) or the soul as we might say
using the alchemical metaphor. To find it and bring it into fruitful contact
with ego-consciousness, is the equivalent of the coniunctio of Pictures #6 and
#7 of the Rosarium Philosophorum. Similarly, in Jung’s understanding of the
unconscious, the term ‘shadow’ refers not only to our repressed instincts (sex,
aggression) but to a doorway to deeper layers of the psyche that ultimately
4
For details about the history and use of this series of pictures and verses in Zen (Chan) Buddhism,
see Mokusen Miyuki’s definitive essay, ‘Self-Realization in the Ten Ox-Herding Pictures’, in
Buddhism and Jungian Psychology (Tempe, AZ: New Falcon Publication, 1994), pp. 29-42.
Miyuki, who was both a Buddhist master and a Jungian analyst, argues for a near identity
between the goals of Zen Buddhism and Jung’s account of the individuation process.
5
I am using the images and Verses from ‘The Ten Ox-Herding Pictures by Shuhbun’, with
permission from the Shokokuji-Temple, Kyoto, Japan.
12 Murray Stein

makes possible a dynamic contact with the soul, and can lead to an awareness
of the total psyche (self). This contact may be imaged as sexual union as it is in
alchemy. The achievement of unio mentalis is therefore more than the
attainment of rational control over the emotions, which it certainly is, but
beyond that as self-experience that unites conscious and unconscious aspects
of the self. Jung writes:
The unio mentalis … means knowledge of oneself... the alchemists regarded the self as
a substance incommensurable with the ego, hidden in the body, and identical with the
image of God … The psychic preparation [of unio mentalis] is therefore an attempt …
to bring about a union of opposites in accordance with the great Eastern philosophies,
and to establish for this purpose a principle freed from the opposites and similar to the
atman or tao … today we would describe [this] as a transcendental principle. This
“unum” is nirdvandva (free from the opposites), like the atman (self). (Ibid, para. 711)
Here we see Jung explicitly bringing the individuation process into contact with
Eastern religion and philosophy. This union of the opposites, ego-consciousness
and unconscious, is a vision shared by both.
In Pictures 7, 8, and 9 of the Ox-Herding Series, we see clearly depicted the
process of opening ‘the doors of perception’ (Blake 1982, p. 39) and arriving
at a state of deep self-knowledge (i.e. ego-self axis constellation) (Neumann,
1989, p. 3-62) or satori of the type Jung speaks of in his discussion of unio
mentalis. Picture #7 shows the man gazing serenely at a landscape with a
mountain and the moon on the horizon.

His consciousness is undisturbed by complexes or projections. He is simply

‘seeing’ the objects in front of him. The mood is contemplative. The Ox has
Individuation and enlightenment 13

disappeared, perhaps having been absorbed into his consciousness. With this
picture we approach the deepest (or highest) levels of unio mentalis, which
will eventually culminate in the union of self and world.
Picture #8 features only the Enso, a symbol of non-dualistic consciousness,
satori, wu, the experience of ‘self-nature’ without ego-centredness or
interference.

This is a breakthrough out of all ego (individual and cultural) restrictions or

contaminations into pure awareness. It is ‘empty’. There is no ‘person’ in the
picture, only a simple mandala, symbol of wholeness. The Verse for this
picture reads:

Everything has disappeared – the whip in my hands,

The reins for the cattle, even I myself, and so my ox.
The blue sky spreads out so far and wide,
No answer can be found.
How can snow survive in a blazing kiln?
Finally, I comprehend the teaching
Of the ancient patriarch6.

6 th
Tr. by Yuri Yoshikawa. Of this image Kaku-an, the 12 century Zen master, writes: ‘All
confusion is set aside, and eternity alone prevails; even the idea of holiness does not obtain. He
does not linger about where the Buddha is, and as to where there is no Buddha he speedily passes
by. When there exists no form of dualism, even a thousand-eyed one fails to detect a loophole. A
holiness before which birds offer flowers is but a farce.’ In Man and Transformation, (ed.) Joseph
Campbell (New York: Pantheon, 1964), Pl. VIII.
14 Murray Stein

Suzuki says of this picture that the man has come ‘to experience a second
awakening, for “the man”, the consciousness of the Self, is still left, and
this must go with the rest … The mystery is that the inward way is, in
spite of its eternally being empty (sunya) in possession of infinite values. It
never exhausts itself’ (Suzuki 1964, p. 200).
In the following Picture, #9 entitled ‘Returning to the Source’, we see an old
tree with its ancient roots exposed.

This symbolizes consciousness of archetypal roots beyond the personal

history of ego development in time and space. This image, implying further
contact with ‘the spirit of the ancient patriarchs’, elevates consciousness to the
state of pure nature, paradoxically a kind of transcendence and even
divinization. Unio mentalis has here reached its furthest point of development
in the Ox-Herding series. The deepest roots of the human psyche are
exposed to consciousness. This brings direct awareness of the archetypal field
that underlies all human consciousness. This is the goal of the analytic
process as well, which is dedicated to gaining self-knowledge through
separation from all identifications and entanglements with unconscious
contents (cleansing the doors of perception) and bearing witness to the
archetypal powers that underlie individual and cultural psychologies. In
Jungian analysis, this is a goal seldom reached but always kept in mind as the
Individuation and enlightenment 15

ultimate attainment of unio mentalis, the intimate relationship between ego-

consciousness and the unconscious.

Stage 2 – The Second Conjunction: Uniting Unio Mentalis with the Body
As we see in the Ox-Herding Pictures, the ‘body’ of the individual person
disappears or is left behind during this steep ascent to the state of
consciousness we are calling unio mentalis. In fact, it is a mystical state. In
other words, one leaves the everyday world (Samsara) for a time in order
to reach unio mentalis at its furthest extent. This may be only momentary,
or it may perseverate over a longer period. There are many accounts of
this mystical state of mind in the literature of the world religions, and we
find the same in Jung’s Red Book. It is not unique to any particular
culture or religion, although it is mostly disregarded or ignored in modern
secular cultures and often pathologized. Erich Neumann argues that
everyone is a mystic, potentially, for the simple reason that everyone’s
consciousness rests upon archetypal layers of the psyche, and when these
are exposed or when they spontaneously express themselves in
consciousness, the individual falls into the grip of mystical experience
(Neumann, 1968, 375-415). Sometimes these experiences are frightening
and unwelcome. What one does with them makes all the difference. They
can be life changing in a positive or a negative sense.
As we are speaking of unio mentalis, however, it follows upon careful
preparation. This is provided by traditions that are familiar with this type of
experience and by the analytical framework and understanding in Jungian
analysis. Following upon this elevation of consciousness into the realms
archetypal and self-fields, the challenge is to return to the world of the body
as a new person, and not ‘fall back’ into old emotional patterns and habits.
The transformation achieved must somehow enter into practical activities and
make a difference in everyday attitude and behaviour. In alchemy, this was
symbolized by the droplets of water at the top of the vessel being returned to
the charred remains of matter at the bottom. This brought an enlivening
effect to the dead material. This ‘return’ is what we see in the final Ox-
Herding Picture, #10, entitled ‘Entering the Marketplace’.
In Jungian analysis, we look for changes in consciousness not only while the
client is in the sheltered space of the analytic container, but also in attitude and
behaviour outside the consulting room. The term ‘transformation’, as used in
Jungian discourse, covers both the ‘aesthetic’ and the ‘ethical/meaning’
dimensions of life. One may greatly enjoy and appreciate the journey to
expanded consciousness of the inner world by writing and drawing and
painting one’s dreams and active imaginations, using sand trays, and other
visionary experiences, but this process of individuation must also make a
difference in everyday life. One has to extract the meaning of the mystical
16 Murray Stein

experience and do something with it. In Picture #10 of the Ox-Herding series,
this step is named ‘Entering the Marketplace’.

The Verse for this Picture is:

He comes into the market bare-chested and barefooted;

Though covered with dirt and dust, his face beams with delight.
He doesn’t use magic like a legendary wizard.
But he makes dead trees bloom.

(Tr. by Yuri Yoshikawa)

The transformed enlightened person now re-enters the world that he left after
Picture #6. He brings with him the result of his experiences. Unio mentalis
has come back into the body; the soul/spirit unit now returns to the physical
and material world. This is an image of integration.
As an example of this movement toward integration of unio mentalis and
‘body’, I cite the initiative of Professor Heyong Shen and his work with
orphans left behind after the earthquake in the southwest of China in 2008.
His ‘psychology of the heart’ philosophy, based on analytical psychology and
ancient Chinese wisdom, is aimed to engage with the world practically. It
begins in analytical work toward insight and deeper consciousness (unio
mentalis), and then it carries the insights gained from this into the everyday
Individuation and enlightenment 17

world in the practical works of compassion and widely delivered therapy for
traumatized children. Professor Shen mentioned this project in his Plenary
Lecture at the IAAP Congress in Kyoto in 2016: ‘Members of our Chinese
Federation of Analytical Psychology went to the earthquake zone and set up
the “Garden of the Heart & Soul” for the psychological relief. Now, we have
76 work-stations with thousands of volunteers at the orphanages of China’
(Shen 2016, p. 177).
What this movement toward practical transformation of attitude and
behaviour aims for is the penetration of the consciousness achieved in unio
mentalis into what Jung calls ‘the spirit of the times’ in his Red Book. We
all live in a world that is deeply conditioned by history and cultural
complexes. The purpose of the work toward achieving the stage of unio
mentalis is to separate ego-consciousness from this; the purpose of the work
of integrating unio mentalis with the left-behind ‘body’ is to bring this
consciousness back into the world and to let it make a difference in our
local surroundings. Because the shadow has been made conscious in unio
mentalis, the actions taken in this stage are relatively free of its usual
malicious side-effects.

Stage 3 – The Third Conjunction: Unus Mundus - The Union of Personal with
Impersonal Self
Of this third stage of the alchemical coniunctio as described by Gerhard Dorn,
Jung writes: ‘The thought Dorn expresses by the third stage of conjunction is
universal: it is the relation or identity of the personal with the suprapersonal
atman, and of the individual tao with the universal tao’ (ibid, para. 762). In
this sentence Jung again references Chinese Daoism. He goes on to relate this
to the individuation process. Here we arrive at the third and highest degree of
conjunction, ‘the union of the whole man with the unus mundus … a union
with the world – not the world of multiplicity as we see it but with a
potential world, the eternal Ground of all empirical being, just as the self is
the ground and origin of the individual personality past, present and future’
(ibid., para. 760).
The final picture in the Ox-Herding Series implies this stage of coniunctio.
The text reads: ‘He doesn’t use magic like a legendary wizard./ But he makes
dead trees bloom.’ (See above for the full verse.) This means that the subject
is so deeply connected to unus mundus that without doing anything, his mere
presence is salutary. Synchronicity accompanies him as he walks through the
marketplace. His teaching is not by words alone, although he does speak and
teach, but the influence of his presence extends beyond the range of his
individual personality, and touches the surrounding world through the
channel of invisible unity with the unus mundus. This is a stage of
individuation in which ego-consciousness and the collective unconscious are
18 Murray Stein

united and synthesized. This takes stage 2 with its strong ethical dimension a
step further to include the ecological dimension in the broadest sense of the
word, nature itself. Stage 3 introduces what we might call consciousness of
‘the empathy of all things’ in a wide context, both of space and time. Thanks
to the work of Joseph Cambray (2009), the theme of empathy has been
introduced into the discussion of synchronicity.
It is this type of consciousness that accounts for the magic of the Rainmaker,
one of Jung’s favorite stories of China told to him by his friend, Richard
Wilhelm (Jung 1997, p. 333). This is an example of the union of the personal
with the suprapersonal dimensions of the psyche, which means union with the
unus mundus, the ground of being. I think it is highly significant that Jung
chose a story like this to illustrate third stage individuation. Synchronicity is
the union of personal and impersonal, self and world, which come together in
a moment of meaningful coincidence.

Conclusion
My argument is that there are significant points of connection and similarity
between Jung’s psychological concept of individuation in its advanced stages
and the Eastern vision of Enlightenment in some of its more accessible
aspects. These parallels can be seen by comparing Jung’s late theory of three
advanced stages of individuation with the Ten Ox-Herding Pictures of Zen
Buddhism and various Zen and Ch’an teachings. To carry out a more
extensive and detailed comparison and contrast, based on case material,
would be a huge undertaking, and one that remains for the future.
On a purely cultural level, the paths seem very different because of divergent
intellectual formulations and articulated philosophies and disparate forms of
practice. On the one hand, there is the practice of intense and focused
meditation over a long period of time, and on the other hand, we have the
work of Jungian analysis with its spaced regularity, and emphasis on dreams
and active imagination. On a more subtle and profound level, however, there
appear to be important similarities and points of contact, as I have suggested.
This means that ancient Eastern wisdom and modern Western psychological
and spiritual development can walk side by side, reaching out to each other
and learning from one other. People nowadays, both in the West and in the
East, combine Jungian and Buddhist (and other Eastern) practices with
rewarding results. The points of reference in these two domains may be
different, but their respective experiences of transcendence and the
transformation of consciousness and attitude are similar, if not identical. Both
know of unio mentalis, unus mundus, synchronicity, and corresponding
ethical action.
What Jung has contributed to the Western understanding of psychological
development is the introverted aspect, the ‘self-liberating power of the
Individuation and enlightenment 19

introverted mind’, as he says in his ‘Commentary on The Tibetan Book of the

Great Liberation’ (Jung 1969a, par. 773). Thus he brings individuation into
close relation to Eastern practices of meditation and the achievement of
‘one mind’ and enlightenment. In both, duality is resolved in favour of a
unified world image with subjective and objective divisions, and splits
healed and overcome. Erich Neumann, Jung’s most brilliant student, writes
of this as ‘the dissolution of the self’s form and … the actualization of the
anonymous self-field’ (Neumann 1989, p. 61). Neumann references Zen and
speaks of the masters who ‘in their acts and in their being, and in the unity
of inner and outer, ego and self’ (ibid.) demonstrate this degree of
individuation.
One of Jung’s students, an American psychiatrist named Kristine Mann,
engaged in an impressive individuation process in the second half of her life.
At first in analysis with Jung in Zurich and then continuing her inner work at
home in New York, while travelling intermittently back to Zurich, she
painted a series of pictures that shows her individuation journey in images.
Jung discusses this case anonymously in his essay, ‘A Study in the Process of
Individuation’ (1968) which he wrote over a period of years and revised after
Dr. Mann’s death in 1945. Significantly, he begins his essay with a quotation
from the Tao Te Ching by Lao-tzu, thus at the outset bringing this
individuation process into relation with a Chinese classic of wisdom and
enlightenment. The final picture in the series shows a beautiful expression of
balance and wholeness. The flower, which resembles a lotus, is actually a
‘Night-blooming cereus, the blossom of a cactus, which appears after dark
and lasts for only one single night’ (ibid., para. 615, n. 172). This painting
represents the culmination of her individuation process to that date, and is a
type of mandala. Of special note is the single star in the dark sky above the
blossom, which represents the soul’s transcendent and eternal ‘home’, as
described by Philemon in the 7th Sermon to the Dead in Jung’s Red Book.
Jung comments that ‘nobody has ever been able to tell the story of the whole
way,’ (ibid, para. 617) meaning that the individuation journey is never fully
complete in one’s lifetime, but these images represent a course of development
that holds potential for lived wholeness in the future.

References
Blake, W. (1982). ‘The Marriage of Heaven and Hell.’ The Complete Poetry and Prose of
William Blake. Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press.
Cambray, J. (2009). Synchronicity: Nature and Psyche in an Interconnected Universe.
College Station, TX: Texas A & M University Press.
Fordham, M. (1969). Children as Individuals. New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons.
——— (1985). Exploration into the Self. London: Academic Press.
Jung, C. G. (1961). Memories Dreams, Reflections. New York: Vintage Books.
——— (1966). ‘The Psychology of the Transference.’ CW 16. Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press.
20 Murray Stein

——— (1968). ‘A Study in the Process of Individuation’. CW 9i. Princeton, NJ:

Princeton University Press.
——— (1969a). ‘Psychological Commentary on The Tibetan Book of the Great
Liberation’. CW 11. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
——— (1969b) ‘The Transcendent Function’. CW 8. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University
Press.
——— (1970). Mysterium Coniunctionis, CW 14. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University
Press.
——— (1997). Visions: Notes of the Seminar Given in 1930-1934, Vol. 1. Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press.
Kapleau, P. (1980). The Three Pillars of Zen. New York: Anchor
Luk, C. (1970). Chan and Zen Teaching: First Series. Berkeley, CA: Shambhala
Miyuki, M. (1994). ‘Self-Realization in the Ten Ox-Herding Pictures’. Buddhism and
Jungian Psychology. Tempe, AZ: New Falcon Publication.
Neumann, E. (1968). ‘Mystical Man.’ The Mystic Vision: Papers from the Eranos
Yearbooks, (ed.) J. Campbell (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
——— (1989).‘The Psyche and the Reality Planes’. The Place of Creation. Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press.
Shen, H. & Shen, G. L. (2012). ‘The Garden of the Heart and Soul: Psychological Relief
Work in the Earthquake Zones and Orphanages in China.’ Environmental Disasters
and Collective Trauma. New Orleans: Spring Journal.
Shen, H. (2016). ‘I Ching and Jungian Analysis, the Way and the Meaning.’ Anima
Mundi in Transition, Kyoto 2016. Einsiedeln, CH: Daimon Verlag.
Suzuki, D. T. (1964). ‘Awakening of a New Consciousness in Zen,’ in Man and
Transformation. Ed. Joseph Campbell. New York: Pantheon.

TRANSLATIONS OF ABSTRACT

Dans ses écrits sur l’individuation, Jung fait souvent référence aux religions et
philosophies orientales telles que le Bouddhisme, le Taoïsme et l’Hindouisme. Cet essai
aborde les différences et les similarités entre le concept d’individuation dans la
psychologie analytique, particulièrement dans ses phases avancées, et l’illumination
telle que représentée dans des textes comme celui du Bouddhisme Zen (Chan); les ‘dix
tableaux pour domestiquer le buffle’. J’avance l’argument que des traits communs
importants peuvent être trouvés alors que les différences culturelles doivent être
respectées. Il y a là une convergence entre l’Occident et l’Orient qui peut nourrir le
dialogue et la mutualité.

Mots clés: individuation, illumination, unus mundus, unio mentalis, Bouddhisme Zen

In seinen Schriften zur Individuation bezieht sich Jung oft auf östliche Religionen und
Philosophien wie Buddhismus, Taoismus und Hinduismus. Dieser Essay behandelt
Unterschiede und Gemeinsamkeiten zwischen dem Konzept der Individuation der
Analytischen Psychologie, insbesondere in ihren fortgeschrittenen Etappen, und dem
der Erleuchtung, wie sie in Texten des Zen-(Chan-)Buddhismus’ wie ’Ten Ox-Herding
Pictures’ charakterisiert wird. Ich argumentiere, daß wichtige Gemeinsamkeiten
Individuation and enlightenment 21

gefunden werden können, während kulturelle Unterschiede ebenfalls berücksichtigt

werden müssen. Es gibt hier eine Konvergenz zwischen West und Ost, die den Dialog
und die Gegenseitigkeit fördern kann.

Schlüsselwörter: Individuation, Erleuchtung, unus mundus, unio mentalis,

Zenbuddhismus

Nei suoi lavori sull’individuazione Jung spesso fa riferimento alle religioni dell’Est quali
il Buddismo, Il Taoismo e l’Induismo. Questo lavoro discute sulle differenze e le
similitudini tra il concetto di individuazione della psicologia analitica, specialmente
nelle età avanzate, e l’illuminazione come espressa nel testo del Buddismo Zen (Chan)
“Le dieci tavole alla ricerca del bue”. Io propongo l’idea che sia possibile trovare
importanti caratteristiche comuni, pur rispettando le differenze culturali. Vi è una
convergenza tra Ovest ed Est che può promuovere il dialogo e lo scambio reciproco.

Parole chiave: individuazione, illuminazione, unus mundus, unione mentale, Buddismo

Zen

В своих текстах об индивидуации Юнг часто ссылается на такие восточные религии и

философию как буддизм, даосизм и индуизм. В этом эссе обсуждаются сходства и
различия между индивидуацией (особенно в ее продвинутых стадиях) как понятием
аналитической психологии и просветлением как оно представлено в текстах Дзен
(Чань) буддизма «Десять быков». Я полагаю, что могут быть обнаружены важные
общие черты при наличии культурных различий. Таким образом существует
конвергенция между Востоком и Западом, которая может способствовать диалогу и
взаимопониманию.

Ключевые слова: индивидуация, просветление, unus mundus, unio mentalis, Дзен Буддизм

En sus escritos sobre individuación, Jung, a menudo, hizo referencia a religiones y

filosofías Orientales tales como Budismo, Taoísmo e Hinduismo. El presente ensayo da
cuenta de las diferencias y similitudes entre el concepto de individuación de la
psicología analítica, especialmente en sus etapas más avanzadas, y la noción de
iluminación tal como es expresada en textos como ’Ten Ox-Herding Pictures’ del
Budismo Zen (Chan). Propongo el argumento sobre la posibilidad de encontrar
importantes rasgos en común mientras que también es necesario que las diferencias
culturales sean respetadas. Existe aquí una convergencia entre Occidente y Oriente que
puede promover el diálogo y la mutualidad.

Palabras clave: individuación, iluminación, unus mundus, unió mentalis, Budismo Zen
22 Murray Stein

摘要:在荣格关于自性化的著作中,他经常引用东方的宗教和哲学,如佛教、道教和印
度教。
本文论述了分析心理学关于自性化的概念,特别是其发展阶段,与禅宗佛教中,特别
是在《十牛图》中所表达的觉悟之间的异同。我的观点是,我们可以找到重要的文化
共同特征,与此同时也必须尊重文化差异。此处东西方之间有一种融合,可以促进对话
和互惠。

关键词: 自性化, 觉悟, 统一世界, 分离, 禅宗佛教