Physics for Civil Engineering

Unit -1. Thermal Performance of Buildings

1. Fenestration

 Fenestration is defined as any opening or arrangement of openings, in a building (normally filled with
glazing)
 Fenestrations are products such as windows, doors, skylights, curtain walls, etc., designed to permit the
passage of air, light, vehicles, or people
1.1. Fenestration Systems
 Glazing: Glass which serves the purpose of allowing natural light into a building and weather shielding.
 Windows: Windows predominantly use wood frame, with some custom metal windows (iron, bronze, steel)
in institutional construction. Later, steel windows were introduced and then aluminium windows.
 Curtain Walls: A curtain wall is any exterior wall that is attached to the building structure which does not
carry the floor or roof loads of the building.
 Sloped Glazing: Skylights have been used to provide interior day lighting.
 Exterior Doors: These include entrance and exit doors, as well as industrial loading dock doors.
1.2. Three Main components of Fenestration:
1. Glazing
It is the main part of fenestration that lets the light through and it is usually glass (Occasionally plastic). A
layer is called a glaze or a pane or a lite.
2. Framing
It is the material that holds the glazing in place and attaches it to the rest of the enclosure. It is usually
made of wood, metal, plastic or fiberglass.
3. Shading devices and/or screens
A unit may or may not have shading. Either from other building components or shading devices that may or
may not be an integral part of the overall assembly.
1.3. Heat gain through fenestration
Energy flows through fenestration via:
 Net long-wave radiation (2.5 m wavelength) radiative exchange between fenestration and its
surroundings and also between glazing layers.
 Short-wave (25 m) solar radiation incident on the fenestration product and part of the incident solar
energy is transmitted and absorbed by the room surfaces. Remaining part of the incident solar energy is
absorbed by the fenestration and reradiated as thermal energy toward the inside.
1.4. Total heat transfer
 The heat gain through fenestration consists of two main components:
 Q thermal = heat transfer between indoor and outdoor air (This is +ve or -ve depending on temperature)
Q solar = heat transfer from solar radiation (This is always a +ve number).
The total heat transfer through fenestration

Q total Q thermal Q solar

Unit 1.1
2. THERMAL INSULATION
Definition:
“Thermal insulation is to resist the flow of heat to and from a body. It is a material that reduces
the rate of heat flow”
 The term thermal insulation is used to indicate the construction or the provision for the transmission of heat
from the room is restricted.
 The aim of thermal insulation is to minimize the transfer of heat between inside and outside of building.
2.1. General principles of thermal insulation
 The thermal resistance of an insulating material is directly proportional to its thickness.
 The provision of an air gap is a very important insulating agent.
 The thermal resistance of a building depends on its orientation also.
 The heat is transferred by conduction, convection, or radiation, or any combination of them.
2.2. Methods of thermal insulation
Various methods of achieving thermal insulations are as given below:
 Use of materials with low conductivity:
Materials with low thermal conductivity such as hollow bricks and tiles should be used for the
construction of walls and roofs.
 Thickness of walls and roofs:
Thicker the wall or roof, lesser is the heat transfer. Hence, the external walls should be made thicker to
ensure thermal insulation. Thermal insulation is also improved by providing thick roofs.
 Provision of air spaces:
Air spaces in walls and roof increase thermal insulation. Hence, the use of hollow bricks, cavity walls, etc.,
improves thermal insulation.
 Heat insulation by orientation
The building should be oriented that there is minimum transfer of heat during summer and maximum
transfer of heat in winter. However, this may not be possible to achieve in all regions.
 Thermal insulation by shading
Providing sunshades to doors and windows and raising parapet wall heights also contribute towards
improving thermal insulation to some extent.
 Providing sufficient height of ceiling
The intensity of long wave radiations emitted by the ceiling decreases as it travels downwards. However, it
is not significant beyond 1-1.3 m. Hence, the ceiling should be provided at a height of about 1-1.3 m above
the height of the occupant.
 Using thermal insulating materials:
By using thermal insulating materials, it is possible to achieve the desired degree of thermal insulation.
2.3. Thermal insulation in walls
1. The walls should be constructed with light weight materials
Unit 1.2
 2. Some air gap has to be provided in between the framing member of the walls
3. The heat transmission can be reduced by placing bulk insulating materials in between the walls
4. The outer surface of the wall should be made of cement plaster, brick, air cavity
5. The material which has low thermal conductivity must be used as bridging materials.
2.4. Thermal insulation in doors and windows
1. Rather than placing single glazed window, we can place double glazed windows.
2. The windows should be situated at certain height from the ground level.
3. The ventilators should be designed in such a way that the air inlet opening.
4. The windows and doors should be place in such a way double doors.
5. Artificial system likes fan, AC can be placed at appropriate places.
2.5. Thermal insulation in floors and ceilings
1. Vermiculite mixed with concrete can be used in flooring materials
2. By placing proper insulating materials between the joints
3. Coconut fibers for under floor and floating floor insulations
4. The ceiling should be constructed at a greater height covered by wood.
2.6. Thermal insulating materials
The materials which are used to insulate thermally are known as thermal insulating materials.
1. Organic materials
Cattle hair, Silk, Wool, Wood-pulp, Corkboard, Sawdust, Sugar-cane fiber, Cardboard, Paper, Leather
2. (b) Inorganic insulating materials
Still air, Mineral wool, Slag-wool, Glass wool, Charcoal, Gypsum powder Slag, Coke powder, Asbestos

2.7.Benefits of Thermal Insulation

The main advantages of using thermal insulation are,
 Due to thermal insulation, the room remains cooler in summer and warmer in winter than outside.
So comfortable for both in summer and winter.
 Energy Saving: Transfer of heat between inside and outside of the room is restricted. So less
quantity of energy is required for maintaining the desired temperature in the room.
 Prevention of thermal stress on roofs: Due to thermal stresses, roof decks tend to crack. These
would be reduced to a great extent.
 Non-Toxic, Environmental friendly solutions.
 No heat absorption and subsequent dissipation.
 Expansion joints can be avoided.
 Temperature drop of 5C to 10C depending on outside temperature.

Unit 1.3
 3. HEAT GAIN AND HEAT LOSS ESTIMATION
 Solar heat gain through transparent elements is written as ,
𝑄𝑠 = ∑𝑀
𝑖=1 𝐴𝑖 𝑆𝑔𝑖 𝜏𝑖

Where s mean absorptivity of the space,

Ai  area of ith transparent element m2
Sgi daily average value of solar radiation on the ith transparent element W/m2
i transmissivity of ith transparent element.
M  no. of the transparent elements
3.1. Heat loss estimation:
The heat loss is divided into two groups.
 The conductive heat losses through the building walls, floor, ceiling, glass, or other surfaces.
 The convective infiltration losses through cracks, ventilators.
Normally, the heating load is estimated for winter design temperature usually occurring at night.
Therefore, in determining the heating load, credit for heat generation from internal sources such as lights,
machinery, appliances, and people is usually ignored.
3.2.Heat loss from building envelope (wall, roof, glass)
Heat loss occurs from a building structure primarily due to conduction. The heat moves in all
directions. When calculating the heat loss of a building, all surfaces (external walls, roof, ceiling, floor, and
glass) that divide the inside, heated space from the outside are considered.
The dividing line is refered as the building Envelope.
Q A U Ti To
where Q — Total hourly rate of heat loss through walls roof, glass, etc.
U — Overall heat-transfer coefficient of walls, roof, ceiling floor, or glass
A — Net area of walls, roof, ceiling, floor, or glass in m2
Ti— Inside design temperature in C
To — Outside design temperature in C
3.3. Heat loss from floors or slab:
Heat loss from floors or slab can be estimated by equation.
Q F P Ti To
where F — heat loss coefficient for the particular construction
P — perimeter of slab in metre
Ti— inside temperature in C
To— outside temperature in C
Heat loss from slab-on-grade foundations is a function of the slab perimeter rather than the floor area.
 Perimeter is the part of the foundation or slab nearest to the surface of the ground outside.

Unit 1.4
  The losses are from the edges of the slab and insulation on these edges will significantly reduce the heat
losses.
 For basement walls, the paths of the heat flow below the grade line are approximately concentric circular
patterns centered at the intersection of the grade line and the basement wall.
 The thermal resistance of the soil and the wall depends in the path length through the soil and the
construction of the basement wall.
 A simplified calculation of the heat loss through the basement walls and floor is given by equation.
Q A U base T base To
Where A — area of basement wall or floor below grade
U base — overall heat transfer coefficient of wall or floor and soil para, in Btu/hr ft2F

4. Factors Affecting Thermal Performance of Buildings

“The thermal performance of a building refers to the process of modeling the energy transfer between

building and its surroundings”

 There are a number of factors that determine the thermal performance of building.
 The insulation value of the used materials in the building is known as U - value of the material. The low
value of the U - value is better.
 If the U - value of a material reached 0 (hypothetical) it would prevent any energy (heat) from being lost.
 U - value are a true reflection of the thermal performance, only when the insulation is fitted correctly.
 If it is not fitted correctly and an air gap is formed then the performance of the structure is drastically
affected.
 Heat flows from a high temperature to a low temperature will find the path of least resistance.
 The thermal performance of a building depends on a large number of factors. They can be summarized as.
(i) Design variables
(ii) Material properties
(iii) Weather data
(iv) A building’s usage data.
5. THERMAL MEASUREMENTS
Every material used in an envelope assembly has fundamental physical properties that determine
their energy performance like conductivity, resistance, and thermal mass. Understanding these intrinsic
properties will help us to choose the right materials to manage heat flows.
5.1. Thermal Conductivity k
Thermal Conductivity is defined as a material’s ability to conduct heat. Each material has a
characteristic rate at which heat will flow through it. The faster heat flows through a material is more
conductive. Conductivity Kis the material property given for homogeneous solids under steady state

Unit 1.5
 conditions.
It is used in the follow equation:
Q K A T/ L
Where, Q the resultant heat flow (Watts)
K thermal conductivity of the material W/m/k
A surface area through which the heat flows m2
  T temperature difference between the warm and cold sides of the material K
L thickness of the material (m)
5.2. Thermal Conductance C
Thermal Conductance is defined Conductance is a material’s conductivity per unit area for the
object’s thickness. It units is W/m2K. In basic building materials, heat flow is usually measured by
conductance C, not conductivity.
5.3. U - Factor U
 It is the overall conductance of a building element. It is used for layered building assemblies.
 In layered assemblies, conductance are combined into a single number called the “U-factor” (or) “U-value”
q~UT
 U is the overall coefficient of thermal transmittance, expressed in terms of W/m2 K. Lower U-factors mean
less conduction, which means better insulation.
 The overall U-factor of a window includes the conductances of the glass panes, the air inside, the framing
material, etc.
5.4. Thermal Resistance (R - value 1/U)
 Thermal Resistance is defined as a material’s ability to resist heat flow.
 Insulation, which prevents heat flow through the building envelope, is often measured by its R - value. A
higher R – value indicates a better insulating performance
 Designated as R R - value), thermal resistance indicates how effective any material is as an insulator.
 Thermal resistance values are sometimes tabulated for both unit thickness and for a sample of material with
a known thickness.
 For a homogeneous material such as wood, doubling the thickness will double the R - value.
 R - values are not typically specified for assemblies of materials.
 Calculating the overall U-factor starts with adding resistances. U-factors are calculated for a particular
element by finding the resistance of each constituent and then adding these resistances to obtain a total
resistance.
5.5. Thermal Mass
Thermal mass is a material’s resistance to change in temperature as heat is added or removed. It is

Unit 1.6
 a key factor in dynamic heat transfer interactions within a building. The four factors to understand are:
density, specific heat, thermal capacity, and thermal lag.
5.6. Insulation and Window Performance
 Some of the highest thermal energy losses from a building are through windows and poorly insulated walls.
 There is currently no accurate way of monitoring how well a building’s thermal insulative materials are
performing.
 Highly expensive infrared cameras are typically used to compare the efficiencies of different windows and
insulation but reflectivity of the surfaces dramatically affects their accuracy.
 IR cameras are also limited because they only show relative maps of temperature and not quantitative heat
loss. These IR instruments often give wrong information about the thermal envelope of buildings
 Unlike typical thermal sensors that only give values of temperature at certain locations, heat flux sensors
directly measure thermal energy through surfaces.
6. THERMAL COMFORT
Thermal comfort describes the human satisfactory view of thermal environment. It refers to a number
of conditions in which the majority of people feel comfortable.
6.1. Significance
 Satisfaction with the thermal environment is more important and directly influences the productivity and
health.
 Office workers who are satisfied with their thermal environment are more productive.
 Thermal discomfort has also been known to lead to sick building syndrome symptoms.
 The combination of high temperature and high relative humidity serves to reduce thermal comfort and
indoor air quality
6.2. Influencing factors
There are six primary factors that directly affect thermal comfort
 Air temperature
The air temperature is the average temperature of the air surrounding the people, with respect to location
and time. According to ASHRAE 55 standard, the spatial average takes into account the ankle, waist and
head levels, which vary for seated or standing peoples.
 Mean radiant temperature
The radiant temperature is related to the amount of radiant heat transferred from a surface. It depends on the
materials ability to absorb or emit heat, or its emissivity.
 Air velocity
The air velocity is defined as the rate of air movement at a point, without regard to direction. it is average
speed of the air to which the body is exposed with respect to location and time.

Unit 1.7
 Relative humidity
Relative humidity (RH) is the ratio of the amount of water vapour in the air to the amount of water vapor.
Too high or too low humidity levels may induce discomfort.

 Clothing insulation
The cloth worn by a person has a substantial impact on thermal comfort. It influences the heat loss and
consequently the thermal balance. Layers of insulating clothing prevent heat loss and consequently the
thermal balance. It either help keep a person warm or lead to overheating.
 Physics activity level or Metabolic rate
Metabolic rate is the level of transformation of chemical energy into heat and mechanical work by
metabolic activities within an organism. People have different metabolic rates that can fluctuate due to
activity level and environmental conditions. Metabolic rate is expressed in met units, which is defined as 1
met 58.2 W/m2.

Unit 1.8