PAAVAI VIDHYASHRAM SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL

CLASS : X SUBJECT : SCIENCE

Dobereiner’ Triads:
1. Elements with similar properties were arranged into groups of three elements called triads.
2. Atomic mass of the middle element was roughly the average of the atomic masses of the other 2 elements.
Limtations: 1.All the elements discovered at that time could not be classified into triads, only a
limited number of elements could be arranged in such triads.
Newlands law of octaves:
1. Arrange elements in the order of increasing atomic mass.
2. Started with hydrogen and ended with thorium.
3. Even 8th element had similar properties of that of first one is known as law of octaves.
Limitations: 1.It is applicable up to calcium (atomic number =20) , After calcium the first and 8th element
do not have similar properties.
2. Only 56 elements were found by him, but later new elements were discovered which do not fit in the law of octaves.
3. In order to fit elements, he placed 2 elements in the same slot, even unlike elements.
Mendeleev’s periodic table:
1. Started with 63 elements.
2. Relationship between atomic mass, chemical and physical properties, select Hydrogen and oxygen.
3. Vertical columns----- groups, Horizontal rows-------------- periods
Achievements: 1. Elements with similar properties grouped together.
2. Some gaps for undiscovered elements.
3. Noble gases could be placed without disturbing the existing order. (Noble gas were
discovered later as have low reactivity series, present in low concentration.
Limitations: 1. No fixed position of hydrogen. 2. No place for isotopes.
3.increasing order of atomic mass could not be maintained.
4. Some dissimilar elements were grouped together and similar elements separatively.
Modern Periodic table:
1. Properties of elements are periodic functions of their atomic number.
2. There are18 vertical columns(groups). 3. There are 7 horizontal rows (periods)
4. Position of elements in periodic table can predict its valence electrons, valency, size, reactivity.
Achievements: 1.Isotopes have same position. 2. Increasing order of atomic number is maintained.
3. Elements in same group have similar chemical properties.
4. Elements of different group differ in properties.
Limitations: 1.Position of Hydrogen is not justified. 2. Lanthanoides and Actinoides placed at the bottom.
Valency electron: the number of electrons present in the outer most shell.
Valency: the combining capacity of the atom.
Atomic size: The distance between the centre of the nucleus and the outermost shell of an isolated atom.
Period (moving from left to right) Groups (moving down from top to bottom)
1 Valence electron Increases Same
2 Valency Inceases upto 4 then decrease to 0 Same
3 Atomic size Decreases (because nuclear charge increases Increases ( due to the addition of new
but no extra shell is added) electronic shells)
4 Metallic character/ Decreases( atomic size decreases, attraction of Increases(atomic size increases, attraction of
eletropositive electron increases, difficult to lose electrons) electron decreases, easy to lose electron).
5 Non metallic Increases decreases
Character/electro negative
 4.CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS

Soaps; The molecules of soap are sodium and potassium salts of long chain carboxylic acid.
Detergents: Generally have ammonium or sulphonate salts of long chain carboxylic acid.
Soft water: Water that produce lather(foam) with soap readily .
Hard water: Water that does not produce lather(foam) with soap.
Causes of Hard water: Due to the presence of bicarbonates, chlorides and sulphates of Calcium and Magnesium.
Mechanism of Soap/ cleaning action of soap
Hydrophilic part: ionic end –water soluble- water loving- head part.
Hydrophobic part: Hydrocarbon chain-water insoluble(soluble in oil or dirt).
Micelle formation: It is a cluster of soap molecules in which the hydrophobic tail are in the interior of the cluster(oil
soluble) and the ionic end(soluble in water) on the surface of the cluster. This forms emulsion in water. The dust
suspended in the miscelle can easily be rinsed away.
Merits and demerits of soap:
Merits: 1. 100% biodegradable Demerits: 1. Soap cannot be used in hard water.
2. Less cost 2. Cleaning action is lesser than detergents.
Merits and demerits of detergents:
Merits: 1. Used in Hard water Demerits: 1. Non- biodegradable
2. Have a great cleaning action 2. Causes soil pollution by altering its pH value.
Why soaps are not effective for cleaning / washing in hard water?
Because while washing an insoluble substances called scum which does not get rinsed off easily.
Why detergents are effective, even in hard water?
Because, it does not produce scum with calcium and magnesium ions in hard water. They also react less with the minerals
in water and do not form many residue.
ETHANOICACID :Formula: CH3COOH, Name: Acetic acid Vinegar: 5-8% solution of acetic acid
Melting point: 290 K Glacial acetic acid: often freezes during winter in cold climates.
Physical property: 1. Solubility: soluble in water 2. Smell: pungent smell
3. Action on litmus: blue to red, red remains same
Chemical property: 1 Esterification(Action with ethanol) :
CH3 COOH (acetic acid) + HOCH2CH3 (ethanol) --------------- CH3COOCH2CH3 (ester)+ H2O
2.Soponification: NaOH
CH3COOCH2CH3 (ester) ------------------------------- C2H5OH (ethanol) + CH3CONa
3. Reaction with base:
CH3COOH (acetic acid) + NaOH (sodium hydroxide) --------- CH3COONa(sodium ethonate) + H2O
4. Reaction with carbonates and metal carbonates:
2CH3COOH + Na2CO3 ------ 2CH3COONa (sodium acetate) + H2O + CO2 (Turn lime water milky white)
CH3COOH + NaHCO3 ------ CH3COONa (sodium acetate) +H2O + CO2 (Turn lime water milky white)
ETHANOL: Formula: CH3CH2OH
Physical property : 1. Melting point: 156 K 2.Boiling point: 351K
3. Liquid at room temperature 4. Solubility: soluble in water
Chemical property: 1. Blue litmus does not change to red.(week acid, because it does not produce H + ions)
2. Reaction with Sodium:
2Na + 2 CH3CH2OH (ethanol)------- CH3CH2ONa (sodium ethoxide) + H2 (Produce pop sound)
3. Reaction with con. Sulphuric acid :
Conc. H2SO4, 443K
CH3CH2OH -------------------------------CH2=CH2 (ethene) + H2O