Design Principles Disuniting of structures — Design of cross section based on efficiency of materiz used — Problems in design because of joint flexibility — Allowance for join deformation 34. DISUNITING OF STRUCTURES 3.1.1. GENERAL The prefabricated structures are fabricated in large shapes and size, hence tt problems connected with the transportation and placing of structures has to | considered. It can be overcome by disuniting the prefabricated structures in to small members,ees Generally there is trend for using larger members. This is because the beeting . acertain moment can be solved more economically by using one large girder j ot of two or more smaller beams together having the same bearing Capacity indicates tk moment bearing capacity of the girder. However with regard to the load bes: : capacity, the moment-bearing capacity is not one unique Decisive factor because tke shear force that can be bome by a cross-section does not increase in the series Tato a does one moment. 3.1.2. ROOFING MEMBERS Roofing members can be divided into two groups. © Short span roofing members + Long span roofing members % The short span members rest on purlins. The short Span roofing members the reinforced planks mode of porous hollow tiles, light weight Concrete, roofing material and small reinforced concrete roofing members will be dealt with here. % While long span one are directly supported by the main girders.Among th: long span roofing members the reinforced concer ete members are discussed, + Reinforced planks mode of porous hollow tiles These roofing members consist of porous tiles having longitudinal circular holes. The thickness placed into these graces which are subsequently fined with cement Tomar. In this way teinforced porous tile Planks having a length of 2.3m, a thickness f6l0cm and a width of 20cm can be produced of these tiles and two kinds a available, sins ME tee heat insulating and has a unit weight of 750kg/m’, the nee ing, j . i = Fenn rion 0 reinforced planus & its unit weight is 1100kg/m*, this is used for production The disady, vering that the material a. “ent ti Porous hollow tiles in question for roof Sal ie he i f ot resistant. Thus the Toot a S Bighly moisture absorbing, and therefore Tough rendered with lime ¢ mee N= Should protect from moisture and hence it st Ment moray.yalue of the limit moment is obtained from the following expression Mi= 0.9] Maco Ng N-=I hers Mj — limit moment Mow — arithmetic mean of the ultimate moment m- Value of the ultimate moments belonging to the individual planks, where (i=1,2....N) N-Number of loading tests Light weight concrete roofing members play a major role, in additional to space jwndering and load bearing. In heat insulating and so the application of a separate heat insulating layer is not necessary. Light weight concrete roofing members can only be applied if there is a psibility of their reinforcement. It requires a bond between the steel and the light weight concrete for ensuring the transmission of the tensile force acting in steel bars to the concrete with the steel bars sliding, hence it is necessary to protect the rinforcement against corrosion. From the view point of strength, light weight concrete of the quality L, 70 or L. 1000 are quite suitable on the production of roofing members with a rectangular cross section and a thickness of 25cm and a length of 1.75-6.00m Prefab roofing members can be produced of concrete mode in the usual way, using light weight materials on gravel and sand for aggregates. In the case of prefab Stuctures the steel wires must be embedded into a concrete the availability of which ‘atleast C300, + Small Reinforced - concrete roofing members The small reinforced-concrete roofing member is essentially a pre cast simply “ported, ribbed reinforced-concrete slab. The width of the member is 50 to 120 cm. Eesiru Hh es The large reinfor concrete roofing members resting direetly on the 1 main ginders of structures represents a more advanced kind of pre cast rooting strc, Ictute esponding to the spacing, of 4) frames (6 to 10m) their width is 1.3 tol.8m. They are dircetly These members are manufactured in a length e« pported by the main girders so that purlins are not required A large roofing member consist of two longitudinal edge ribs, ©1055, ribs ang Md a having thickness of 2.5 to 3.0 em, and the Wwo way reinforcement, ‘The members connected to cach other and to the frame girders form a unified Continuo roofing structure. 3.1.3, FLOORING MEMBERS In industrial buildings the use of prefab members for floor consist of precas joints and flooring member. The flooring member is designed for a span of 9m an for the bearing of a live load of 1000 kg/m. : After the members are placed in final positions a longitudinal load bearing | reinforcement and stirrups are placed in the trough formed between the longitudinal ribs of the adjacent member. A continuous main reinforcement is placed on the top of these members, there after a Scm thick insist concrete layer is cast on the top of the members and the troughs between the longitudinal ribs are also filled up with concrete. In this way the slab is transformed into a span of 6 m and live load of 500kg/m? with a weight of 1450kg are widely used. Flcoring members to be used for smaller loads similarly to roofing members can also be made of lightweight concrete. These members are used chiefly in houses and public buildings. The flooring members rest in general joists i.e. their cantilever like part. The weight of flooring members should not exceed 5 tons otherwise the storage and transportation as well as the placing of these members using the present available equipment would be difficult.Fig. 3.2. Disuniting of Floor members y la, DISUNITING OF SHEAR WALLS © General Shear yy, ; “ee Walls are the walls transmit load through the column of the frame work to dations their main load bearing direction is therefore horizontal as contrasted Pawith vertically load-bearing wall panels for their reason these infilling wall panels or nding from column to column, slabs are usually disposed horizontally that is exten They arise from the basic conception that the overall stability of the Supporting from work of a building can be ensured without additional bracing by means of components that are necessary any way thus the large roof panels serve as bracing fo, imilarly provide the rigidity of the external walls, the roof, & the wall panels s Industrial buildings not exceeding about 6m in height will not require ‘such bracing at all since the horizontal force is in the longitudinal direction the more so as these forces may be distributed over a member of columns wall panels also as wing bracing is that it is necessary to provide flexural rigid connections between the columns and these panels and such connections are difficult to establish without giving rise to cold bridges in the thermal insulation. & Shear walls in shed type industrial buildings In the construction of shed type buildings for industrial purpose the horizontally placed panels are arranged are above the other. They span from column to column, They may contain. The widows, alternatively, the latter are accommodated in special panels. The cross-sectional shapes adopted for the wall, panels are generally similar to those of vertical load bearing wall panels except that now the direction of structural action. The direction of load transmission is different. Various slabs used are, @ Ribbed slabs @ Hollow slabs & Solid light weight concrete slabs The bracing panels or slabs are designed according to the same principles as af applied to load bearing wall units of similarity type. Depending on the roof beam spacing the slabs may be up to 12m in length and may be as much as 4m wide transported in the upright position, however as a rule they seldom exceed 3M in’ width.~ peat walls are designed up to length of 6m light right concrete panels of the s wif fF cor i % also used for roof construction can Suitably be employed (Example: Aerated tar te ore a8 they Possess adequate strength) to perform the function of bracing in ool ean rule is to secure each panel individually, ip? Fig. 3.3. Disuniting of Shear walls » Lateral-Force Resisting System in Shear wall Lateral forces, also known as shear, are simply the forces caused by wind and/or sismic activity that try to push a structure over. Lateral-force resisting systems include site-built walls, diagonal bracing, prefabricated shearwalls and tension tie downs. Which system is best depends on the load required for the project. With ste-built and prefabricated shearwalls, the force pushes horizontally on the top of the wall. The sheathing transfers the shear from the top to the bottom of the wall while ‘uldng it together to resist racking. If the bottom track of the wall is anchored to the utdation to resist sliding, the far end of the wall presses down (compression force) ‘the near side of the wall lifts up (tension force) this is known as overturning. Historically in cold-formed steel framing, shear walls have been built using either “Netural sheathing material, such as OSB or plywood over the steel studs, or with Sl stap bracing (diagonal bracing). X bracing is popular for cold-formed steel “med Structures in termite-prone areas or where wood structural sheathing is not bh | |nH Prefabricated Structures commonly used. X bracing is typically designed by an engineer who specifies how many screws are needed at the end of each brace. Recent testing at laboratory has helped the industry better understang th. performance of X bracing and identify its strengths and weaknesses. In Seneral, th, wider the wall section to be braced, the better the performance. Based on test Tesults, narrow wall X bracing does not perform as well. Plywood or OSB panel sheathing can help keep a wall from racking, as long as the wall doesn’t contain large o, numerous openings. In order to resist lateral forces, elements need to be installed in 7 wall to keep the wall from racking over. SS ee. kt 3.2. EFFICIENCY OF MATERIAL USED EEE ES eee ee eee 3.2.1, GENERAL The effectiveness of the prefabricated construction depends on the efficiency of the materials used for construction. Prefabricated building materials made of cement concrete with reinforcement include door frames, windows, frames, frames, chaijahs, roof slabs, lintels, ventilators, wall partition panels, compound wall panels, cement concrete smallpillars for compound wall, slabs for canal lining, tiles, personal linings, sills, trusses etc. The use of prefabricated building materials / components is gaining acceptance in mass construction and construction of houses for economically weaker sections for low cost houses and speedy construction. This eliminated the use of wood to acertain extent. Raw material required are Portland cement, stone chips, high strength deformed rods, mild steel rods, treated plastics, metal frames and so on. In multi storey buildings the panels are either installed as spandrel panels between the columns or they may take the form of large panels which contain the windows the spandrel panels may also be supported by the floor slabs the bracing panel may be disposed horizontally or vertically in the later casting and should be so interconnected as not to go any relative movement. It is replaced by reinforced concrete wall panels. The external surface of these panels is usually finished like a last stone facing. Thus giving them an attractiv? appearance. Wall panels are adequate for resisting wind load which acts first t theltprinces pea or _ eo forces acting led ope rigidity of i ‘0 os the building j the longitu pracing structures, wh the longi Ieee gitudinal dine is of the building. This ‘ction withou of it using an} y3.2.2. PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS — A horizontal (lying) wall panel being a compound of light weight and Teinfoy, conerete. The length of this panel is 5.98 m. The width is 1.18 m to the thickness; 0.2m. The outer surfaces is formed by a 2.5 cm thick reinforced concrete slab covereg with a cast-stone like layer made of crushed limestone. The other parts of the na are made of concrete using formed blast furnace slag and aggregate, the Quality of this concrete is good and it also reinforced. The embedded paces for angles steel for foiling and for hoisting hooks however are made. The total weight is 33,000 kg the height up to the upper hinges is 41.55 m the gauge of the rail tracks is 12-14m for the same machine but with columns assembled of 4 sections the data are total weight of 20,000 kg height 20m, track gauge 9m. The maximum hosting capacity is in both cases 35 tons using two cranes to tons. The possible deviation of the hoisting by a mortar built into the structure of its permissible to move it in the unloaded state only. Hoisting is performed by a 27 HP mortar tilting by a 6HP are the permitted tilting movements with the load on the crane, performed with motor power, are 50cm in the longitudinal and 70cm in the traverse direction both to the right and to the left of the basic position. These movements enable the hoisted member to be accurately placed, The machine is operated by remote consist and must be reliability granted. The crane is assembled on the ground with extended columns. Then gripped by the upper bridging part it is lifted by a 20 tons must crane to a height of about 15m. The wide columns are pulled toward each other by a winch. So bring the crane to an operational produced. Wall panels used in the construction may be constructed by eq Y Purlins with covering of roofing slabs or corrugated asbestos cement sheets Vv Large roofing units These are the most popular forms of roof covering used. This is not surprising considering the simplicity of manufacture of purlins and the availability from stock of factory made lightweight roofing slab and panels. The structural system of the purlins may be > Freely supported beam > Cantilever girder > Continuous girderpee : phe ji! ed pending me ent. Normal purlins spans between 5 and 10m. The purlins are ed at intervals of 2 to 3m, Purlins are usually solid web members. For ns spans ection of ins ‘ connection of the purlins over the support are designed only to absorb a. they h-bell: A Fi or fish-belly members. Purlins designed as cantilever grilles (articulated on™ ets) are usually flanged members. i! ee a way lattice girders or trussed beam. Freely supported purlins are designed as let 3. ROLE OF CONCRETE IN PREFABRICATION recast concrete offers a wide range of benefits and advantages to the designer to meet all of the owner’s goals. Precast concrete’s most dramatic benefit may be eee with which it can be designed, cast, delivered, and erected. This can ensure it projects stay on eed and meet tight deadlines. Precast concrete can speed the cess in a variety of ways. construction pro Precast concrete components can be fabricated while foundation work progresses, igle- ractors a significant head start before the site is available. As the sin ier for a large portion of the structural system, precasters help maintain ling required to meet deadlines. Precasters can also offer a 32 vio cont! «outoe Suppl the critical-path schedul high degree of technical assistance to speed the process. ast concrete components can begin to be erected shortly after foundations are kly, often cutting weeks or months from the schedule. into the dry more quickly and enables interior trades for weather or Precé ready and can be installed quicl This allows construction to get The fast enclosure also decreases concerns reducing the contractor’s risks and costs. onents are fabricated under factory-controlled conditions at ypact the production schedule or product le by eliminating the need to add to begin work earlier. material damage during erection, Because precast comp the plant, harsh winter weather does not im quality. This enhances the construction timetabl cushions to the timetable to accommodate unforeseen schedule creep due to delays caused by weather or site requirements. Precast components also can be erected through the winter months to meet a tight stadule, cutting overhead costs and readying the building for faster occupancy. | Precast concrete insulated sandwich panels pro | | tetime and cost of furring and dry walling w! vide a finished interior wall that avoids hile still providing energy efficiency. —————Prefabricated Struct, tires Using hollow-core slabs to combine ceiling and flooring units ean speed o nst . further. ig 3.2.4. PRECAST BOUNDARY WALLS Precast boundary walls are similar to precast wall panels but are typicay, smaller sizes. This makes them quite ideal for precasting as the smaller panels " st that the contractor would have fewer problems with handling, transportation 7 installation on site. At the same time, additional use of such precast components 7 result in improved site productivity and construction quality. The considerations for proper joint details in the precast boundary panels are similar to those for precast wall panels. The design of the wall joints will include the following considerations: © Water tightness Installation method Structural movement Type of wall finishes Panel sizes Weathering @ Tolerance The use of precast boundary walls continues to allow a wide range of design flexibility and innovation. There is a wide range of surface finishes that the architect can use on the precast boundary wall design. q4aaaq4 The most common techniques used are modeling techniques like Y Sand blasting Y Acid washing Y Polishing and honing Y Hammering and chipping to create the required effects These finishes can then be treated with appropriate protective coatings '° prevet weathering and staining problems. A wide range of colours for precast boundary panel can be derived from aggregates, cement or pigments. Aggregate co? prow colour to the final finishes. Cement with different colours can also give the ae a| ee ¢ boundary wall panel. Another form of colour finishes are colour and s, METAL ROOFING SYSTEM ¥ over the years, metal roofing system such as corrugated metal and patented steel xgdeck materials have gain much popularity in Janded housing from the common 7 entional timber battens and interlocking roof tiles. vel comugated metal may be insulated and surfaced with build-up covering. Metal sates formed with interlocking ribs which increase strength and stiffness are Tufted in many different styles. These decks are usually covered with a vapor gala rigid insulating board, and a built-up roofing. They are installed either with psup oF with ribs down. With ribs up these results a smooth ceiling which maybe shop-painted with a jaked-0n enamel. If the appearance is objectionable with ribs down, an aout material may! ‘be applied to the lower surface. 32.6, INNOVATIONS IN PREFABRICATION Cost-efficient, prefabricated wall-and-roof elements can help meet the demand for nore energy efficient buildings. These prefabricated elements are produced indoor and then transported to the construction area. With the in-door technique it is possible 19 manufactures and delivers tailored solutions to the construction industry. This contributes to benefits such as controlled production such as waste control, simplified construction process, better working climate, and in the end energy efficient houses. Buildings stand for approximately 40% of primary energy consumption in advanced economies. Given the slow turnover of long-lived building stock, reducing eergy in existing buildings will be required to meet energy and ‘environmental tugets at the national and international level. The energy performance of the existing huilding stock can be significantly improved by renovating and insulating houses. However, there are some complex challenges related to energy efficiency in buildings. Waste generation, environmental impact, occupational health and high (osts are intricate issues which need to be solved in order to achieve a sustainable “onstruction sector alongside an energy-efficient building stock. aes”To address some of these challenges, various companies began to develop ay, 4 for the building ang Is and r00f componer, s produce project-tailored elements and envelope slut construction sector. The company offers prefabricated wa featuring high quality insulation mates deere: ‘als without organic constituents, thereby, d to customer neg ing the risk of mould. The components are adj achieve the most energy-efficient building process. Sustainable manufacturing of the elements, featuring slotted steel studs and granite foam in a controlled eco-manufacturing process, improves the product life cycle and the carbon footprint. The elements are can be used in both single fami houses as well as multi-storey buildings. As the elements are self-sustaining they can be used for insulation in new stories on current buildings and in that way adding more apartments to the building. The primary layer of the wall element is on the inside, ang consists of slotted steel studs to the Z-section in combination with contour-cut foam, «ls to 3.3. PROBLEMS IN PRECAST 3.3.1. GENERAL Precast concrete’s plasticity allows it to be cast into a wide variety of shapes and sizes. Although precasters routinely produce custom designs and shapes, designers typically take full advantage of speed and economics by using standard components that can be cast and replicated many times with existing forms. ‘A. Load bearing architectural spandret Exterior eoluma Double te or hollow core slab mone on HOLLOW-CORE SLAB SYSTEM DOUBLE TEE SYSTEM Fig. 3.5. Precast systems7 “ised precasters provide a number of typical components that meet the vast P of traditional design challenges. Figure shown below are the components pi? 5 1 often in building applications, 2 prefabrication system is designed to build faster and more economically. The yt of using the prefabrication system is that the more repetitive or sid the buildings are the more profit they generate for projects. 42. ESIGN PROBLEMS IN JOINT FL nies i considerations for the precast concreie components of a projectconsist of pee 1085" 3 Conceptnal design Y The general ideas of what the owner wants to accomplishin function, image, budget, and other factors can be discussed with the precasters. This will often aid the project’s completion’even if the original intentwas not to use precast concrete, especially if stone or masonry was desired. $ Preliminary design ¥ This planning stage gains from precaster input on thegeneral layout, overall dimensions, typical details, and other specifics. Thisinput can be relatively simple, such as with the layout of a hollow-core flooringplan, or complex if the design will feature a total-precast concrete structuralsystem and intricate finishes on architectural precast concrete components. + Final design ¥ The specific details of the components, such as strand pattens,connections, embedded items, and other elements, are decided at this point,and shop drawings are produced. Because of the range of input that can be provided'at each stage, the precasters Welly participates in the design process with the project-management ‘Sepecally to provide input on costing. The capacity to participate varies “exch precaster and with each job.| of Prefabricated Structyp, es in general, the precaster can provide the following information: © Design properties unique to his or her product, such as seetg properties,normal concrete strengths, and strand patterns (if needed by 7 structuralengineer) ® Detailed specifications for the manufacture of the components using proprietaryequipment so The detailed design of the specific components as agreed in the preliminarydesign phase w Detailed layout drawings locating each component type in the structure s© Support and joint details = Product drawings showing details, including dimensions and the location oflifting and connection hardware w Erection procedure 3.4. PRECAST CONCRETE DESIGNS 3.4.1, GENERAL The design for precast concrete shear walls typically has followed principlesused for cast-in-place structures, with modifications made as appropriate for thejointed nature of a precast concrete structural system. Design methods used toachieve successful performance of precast shear-wall structures have been leftlargely to the judgment of the structural engineer. Observations of performance of structures in earthquakes show thet whereadequate strength and stiffness were provided to limit interstory drift (lateraldisplacement) to about 2% (relative to a point at the story below), the resultingdisplacements and damage were within acceptable levels. In regions of low and moderate seismic activity, bolted of welded connectionswith small grout joints are generally used. In regions of high seismic activity,connections to the foundation and connections between precast concrete wallsgenerally use details that emulate cast-in-place behaviour and may include Po tensioning. ad1 psiGN GUIDELINES gH _qepsin designing structures that have the primary lateralload- Fs elements include cight key steps that ed out by the a atengineet of record (EOR) or the precast conerete specialty engineer subject pons approval an the building function and applicable precast concrete frame. In ouse-tYPe structure, for instance, it is common to include the exterior wallsas sl ee ‘ of the lateral force-resisting system. In parking structures, shear walls canbe aed at tat and elevator towers, at the ends of ramped bays, at selectedlocations gike perimeter of the structure, or at any combination of the above. " paelop a preliminary design for the shear-wall system. This requires sixsteps: ¥ Provide at least three non-collinear walls to ensure torsional as well as directlateral resistance. ¥ Determine if shear walls can also function as bearing walls, as overturningoften will be the governing criterion. ¥ Amange shear walls so they minimize restraint due to volume changes. ¢ Consider whether the shear walls could be individual full-height walls (verticaljoints only). ¥ Consider the practicality of transportation and erection when selecting thesize of wall panels. ¥ Balance the design requirements of the shear walls with the design requirementsof the associated diaphragms. Fist determine the applicable verticalgravity loads, then use the appropriate *stivlesign criteria to determinethe magnitude of lateral load for each floor and “pat that with wind loading. - Create 4 preliminary load analysis. Determine the overturning moment, thelateral ‘ohne shear, and the axial load at the base of each of the shear walls.Select the ‘ate shear wall. Review the preliminary choice and modifythe number, te dimensions as necessary to satisfy the requirementsat the base of each. "nically preferable that the foundations not besubjected to uplift. RoDetermine the final load analysis. Perform the final lateraltog ; ‘i ‘ang rticalloadanalyses to determine the design load for cach shear wall, ba don it verucavesm " : : 's finallocation and dimensions.Create the final shear-wall design. Design shear yay reinforcement and connectionsfor the associated diaphragms. If there is insufficient length of shear wallavailable to accommodate the Necessar number of shear connectors, considerusing an clement in the plane of the diaphrag,, (drag strut) as an extension of theshear wall to pick up additional connectors, consider the added requirementsnecessary to satisfy the structural-integrity proy; of the code, Also, sions 3.4.3. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS Most design considerations for non-loadbearing wall panels must also be consideredin the analysis of loadbearing wall panels, The design and structural behaviour of exterior architectural precast concrete bearing-wall panels js dependentupon the panel shape and configuration, and they should consider the following: tw Gravity loads and the transfer of these loads to the foundation, Vertical(gravity) loads are parallel to the plane of the wall at an eccentricity influencedby the geometry of the wall, location of the load, and manufacturing and erectiontolerances, s Magnitude and distribution of lateral loads, both wind and seismic, and themeans for resisting these loads using shear walls and floor diaphragms. Loadsin the horizontal direction may be both parallel to and perpendicular to theplane of the wall, For typical precast concrete structures, improved redundancyand ductility are achieved by connecting members into a load path to. thelateral force-resisting system, which must be continuous to th foundation, ¥ Location of joints to control : volume-change movements due to concretectee?: shrinkage, and Seasonal temperature changes, Connection concepts and variouxapplied loads. In w 7 ist the types of connections required to res! a ty Some cases, local practice may suggest one ©it principles ee ee ofeonne another, such as the use of bolts rather than welds. All jonsneed to be accessi ions be accessible and allow for tolerances and adjustment connect olerances required forthe structure with regard to production and erection/or recast con i poth precast concrete units and connections, including tolerances forinterfacing of different materials. specific design requirements during the construction that may controldesigns, such as site accessibility. on of exterior walls using loadbearing architectural panels follows | p The desi typicalengineering procedures. However, designers must recognize the role that isplayed by precast concrete panel production and erection in the overall | designprocess. similarly, usually accepted procedures and code requirements apply tothe design ofan individual precast concrete panel and its connections.In most cases, the gravity | ad conditions for most precast concreteexterior bearing-wall than load combinations, dai and live 10% nets wil control the panel’s structural dimensions rathe which include lateral loads. i Panels may be designed to span horizontally between columns oF i - i i reticallybetween floors. The choice depends primarily on handling and erection requirementsand the methods or details selected for making connections. When ganinghorizontally, panels are designed as beams ot, if they have frequent, regularly spaced window openings, they are designed as trusses. 444. CONNECTIONS © General Connections are fundamental to all buildings and construction no matter ckamaterial js used. The purpose of # connection is to transfer loads, restrain component or an entire structure. AS e most important aspects in the design oementand/or to provide stability '0 4 Sethe design of connections is one of th ‘denginecring of precast/prestressed concrete structures. Many diferent égnnection details wil result OD: th a ulitudeof sizes and shapes of prec ‘ete component e combination of the ast concrt ts. and the variety of3.20 Prefabricated Structures possiblesupport conditions, Individual precasters have developed connection deta overthe years that suit their particular production and erection preferences ana theyshould be considered for a specific project early in the design stage. All connectionsshould comply with applicable building codes and the fing, structural designshould be done by an engineer licensed in the location of the Project, It is commonfor the architect and engineer of record to show connection loads ang locationson the contract documents and allow the successful manufacturers engineeringdepartment to provide the final design and details of the connections, This section is intended to provide basic information that is important to understandwhen designing a total-precast concrete structure or architectural cladding panelssupported by building frames of other materials such as steel or cast-in-place concrete. ++ Design factors Precast concrete connections must meet a variety of design and performancecriteria and not all connections are required to meet the same criteria, The basiccriteria are, + Strength Aconnection must have the strength to avoid failure during its lifetime. + Ductility « This is the ability of a connection to undergo relatively large deformationswithout failure. Ductility is achieved by designing the connection so thatsteel devices used yield before a weld or the concrete around the connection. + Volume Change * Accommodation Restraint of movement due to creep, shrinkage,and temperature change can cause large stresses in precast concretecomponen's and their connections. It is better to design the connection to allowson® movement, which will relieve the build-up of these stresses. + Durability = When the connection is exposed to wéather or used in corrosive envir steel elements should be adequately covered by concrete, painted. — | nme pox”ples | pyinelf i | “. 1] ; pateds OF galvanized coated 1, Stainless steel may aloo he pews, | Mennver, Hewdded 4 id be considered cavetilly cost show Connections, which could jeopardize the i ie retires atablbitylL sistance Fie Rr igh temperatures fram a firey ah weakened by 1 Naud We perweted tv the edegree the components that they conneet same some of the items that should hat should hecopsidered ven’ rhe jollowing fleets only «connections: egning cOnNEE asi »p standardize connection types p Avoid reinforcement and hardware congestion | w Avoid penetration w Reduce post-stripp w Consider clearances «1 w Avoid non-standard p n of forms ing work nd tolerances of connection materials roduct and erection tolerances wp Plan forthe shortest-possible erane hook-up time w Provide for field adjustments w Provide accessibility w Determine if special inspe material and the welding process w Aesthetics-For connections that are expos thedesigner should incorporate a visually pleasing final product. | ction is required per the applicable code for the Lal onan ed to view in the final structure, w Seismic Requirements—Structures and/or components that must be designedfor n. Consultation with a may require special consi seismic loads ideration structuralengineer with experience in seismic design is recommended. w® Tolerances-The designer must realize that normal allowable fabrication, possibility of a perfect fit in erection,and interfacing tolerances preclude the the field. 35. JOINT DEFORMATION 351, GENERAL A joint i Joint is an assembly designed to safely absorb ibration, the heat-induced expansion and Contra ction of construction materials, to absorb vi to hold parts together, or t0allow moventent due ty ground settlement or earthqntakes, They are commonly ¢ . A nn penwennt sections of buildings, bridges, sidewalks, railway tracks, piping: syst J + AYMony, ships, and other stietires, A Building Mees, concrete slabs, and pipelines expand and contract due to warn) Aig aud cooling fron seasonal variation, or due to other heat sources, Before expansi XPANsion Joint gaps wel > built into these structures, they would crack under the stress induced. The wont joint is used in building parlance fo cover elements which have to Ve te © perform quite different finetions, for example beam-column joints and isolation joints. In the former the joint has to provide continuity of structural action between the members meeting at the joint. In the latter the joint has to cnsure separation © benveen the adjacent members to allow one member to move independently of the other, This deals primarily with isolation joints and tends to use joints in this sense, + However, a construction joints is included because they are frequently referred to in are a number of ways in which joints can be “in-sita conerete construction. Th classified apart from the broad divi specific joints defined by their situation are considered, ion stated above. In this a limited number of sed with expansion joints) are cut into the concrete or Control joints (often conti phalt and are different from expansion joints. Control joints are cut into the hion. Road q pavement at regular intervals to allow cracking to occur ina controlled fa control joints may be sealed with hot tar, cold sealant: (such silicone), or alant (such as rubber). compression of the entire The collapse of a structural element compromises the stability building and everything it contains creating high risk to the safety of persons and rding the possible techniques for connecting Below are some problems re; object: non-structural elements with prefabricated structures. The four basic reasons for requiring joints are because e The member or structure cannot be constructed as a monolithic unit in one placement of concrete © The member has to be of limited size so it can be handled by cranes, etc. } —r ign Princes pe i ~~ 4 The structure or member on one side of the joint needs to be able to move relative to that on the other wo The design assumptions for the structure or building need the joint at that point so the analysis is simplified 452. CONNECTION WITH WELDED ELEMENTS very often roofing elements for prefabricated structures are connected by cast-in geetangle braces, which are welded with a metal bar (or steel rod) with a diameter of oo mm. This type of connection is not suitable, because it is excessively rigid. so 4 yych so that it does not allow thermal deformation for connected elements, which for fing elements, for example, subject to considerable daily and seasonal thermal safiations may generate displacements of about a millimetre. Due to very high rigidity, it is probable that the welding becomes damaged, making the connection inexistent and so inefficient in contrasting horizontal forces generated in an earthquake. 453. CONNECTION WITH EMBEDDED PROFILES AND BOLTED JOINTS The connection of prefabricated elements with embedded profiles and bolted joints requires high precision during installation and it is possible that the restraint may cause weakness. Generally, resting horizontal elements (beams or roofing elements) on vertical elements (columns) is by simple contact placing a neoprene element in between to event direct contact. The elements at the ends of prefabricated buildings have load tearing elements with anchor bolts that anchor roofing elements to the main beam ‘ith a bolt and washer, a metal plate and a sheet of neoprene. In this way the horizontal forces are countered only by friction generated where sted, but this does not comply with new seismic laws. The neoprene sheet between %etwo concrete elements is to prevent direct contact between concrete structures, “tich could generate negative bending moments for which the beams are not sized Send it is needed to absorb related rotations between the beam and column induced ‘eismic movement.Specialised manpower is not required for connections made with resin, Te The maj in limit found in the application of epoxy resin is the fact that the connection js to. 0 rigig material. In addition, polyurethane products do not have mechanical properties rik to deal with stress that comes in to play in connections between prefabricated ele ‘Ments indeed the epoxy resin with small deformations provokes breaks in the Sup, (shear resistance values were found to be equal to 10 % compared to shear Tesistang, e found when epoxy resinis used). 3.5.4. CONNECTION WITH POLYURETHANE PRODUCTS The connection of non-structural elements using polyurethane adhesives or foams is incorrect as polyurethane based products are very sensitive to UVA rays, which considerably reduce mechanical properties and compromise. 3.5.5. CONNECTION WITH EPOXY RESIN The use of epoxy resin has some advantages, such as: Y Ease of use (no tools or equipment is needed, except for a dispensing gun to apply the product) Y Speed (the two components of the resin mix perfectly inside the spiral in the nozzle) Y Extreme precision in positioning of elements to be connected is not required, the connection is by simply overlaying the items 3.5.6. CONNECTION WITH MECHANICAL ELEMENTS It is possible to extend the solution used for connections of structural elements to connections of non-structural elements, i.e. the use of mechanical fixings. This solution would be excellent from the point ofview of mechanical properties but it cannot be used for the following reasons: © For non-structural elements the dimensions and thickness of the parts 10 connect are often very low (about4 to 6 cm thick) © Drilling and inserting the bolt may disrupt the integrity of the support question ed— ie « The application of mecha conditions, such ings should respect the installation istance al fi as theminimum dj m distance from the ¢ = mini distance between two scart ews adjacey 8. Which in tht Jacent bolts, which in this casccannot be satisfied due to the small dimensions e use of mechani e » Th a renieal elements makes the connection visible underneath the roof, Whichfor aesthetic reasons is not acceptable ee Fig. 3.6. Joint deformation 3.6. CONSTRUCTION JOINTS Tanatte 9 Ree Se Nesi2 Se 3.6.1. GENERAL ~ ATR A construction joint is defined by American Concrete Institute (ACI) as the surface where two successive placements of concrete meet, across which it may be desirable to achieve bond and through which reinforcement may be continuous. Generally, because continuity of structural action will be required across the joint, bond will be desirable and the reinforcement will be continuous. Construction joints may be either planned or unplanned. The location and detailing of planned construction joints can be considered and prepared. The location should be determined in conjunction with the contractor. The Contractor will be able to define the maximum size of concrete placement possible on the particular project taking into account the anticipated rate of placement and the constraints imposed by finishing requirements. Where possible, the day’s placement should terminate to coincide with other joints in the structure, Construction joints should be on a single plane and preferably located at right angles to the main reinforcement.3.26 Prefabricated Stryey ne ire, They should preferably be vertical or horizontal to the member, Keys sometimes included but these can lead to difficulties in stripping. If possible, they should be positioned away from regions of high shear or high moment. As it reine, that in columns and walls a construction joint be formed logically at the soffit Of the beams and slabs they support. During placement the concrete adjacent to the j, Joint should be well compacted and special attention should be paid to vibration, The joj int should be stripped when the concrete has set and hosed down to expose the Coarse aggregate. Top of floor J Beam soffit | Longitudinal column rainforcement Scabble and clean laitence off surface prior to placing py beam reinforcement Stop-board to form joint —— Sealant 2 Sealant and Sealant with backing rod 5 gap 12m™ backing rod Cover plate fixed to angle Edge plate fixed to angle 15-25 mm Interior Cover strip and Ad fire-rated sealant ee in beams Fig. 3.7, Arrangement of Joints! De ten ems in stripping of ve probe pping of the joint will be eased if it is located away from ny f high moment and reinforce: «as of hig reinforcement congestion. Immediately prior to placing sid! A Ids , the next sectioi ow em sai i : surface should be coated with cement slurry. Typical ve for a int el me ae 7 in a concrete pavement or industrial floor on grade are yo"? p Fig?! jab reinforcement is carried through the joint and extra tie oe inserted to hold the two sides together. i ed construction joii ‘ol Unplann joints are joints that are forced upon the concrete-placing f an int ion i because 0 rruption in supply of a duration long enough for the concrete ial set. TI i i fe tial set. There is no opportunity to plan their location. Principles to ut back ose e its ini yow can be only indicated. As with planned joints, the concrete should be ¢ proadly approximately a single plane and the face made vertical. Top ends should 0 After forming and ysed where possible and the concrete vibrated against these. ceasing, the excess concrete away, the joint should be treated as for planned construction joints. Any joint, as in a physical break or gap between members, weak link which may lead to serviceability problems, lure. In many situations they are necessary requirement. jn a concrete structure building is @ potential lack of » durability OF structural fai 36.2. JOINT REQUIREMENTS * Designers and specifiers of, ‘joints should have ents for any joint on a specific projec d will be discussed under each specific ich warrantdiscussion before looking a clear understanding of the specific requirem¢ t. These will range from weather lightness t joint type. However, ‘0 ease of maintenance and repair, an : atthe specific joint types: | \ there are a few aspects whi w Buildability and minimum size hosen detail canbe easily fabricated Y Designersshould be confident that the cl Proven details should bereused it easy andsafe construction. invention of thewheel should 0 accommodate the tolerances 0: ally means a minimum width of 20 mm. and will permit i be avoided. where appropriate; re ffabrication, Y Joints must be wideenough t construction and erection. This usu:3.28 Prefabricate y© Maintenance and repair ¥ Jointsare the focal point for wear and deterioration;aspects of maintenang, Nee ang lant 3 ws ay's sealantsare long-lasting, they eventually will needreplacement or Tepair; th, > Me repair should beconsidered at the design stage. The choice of asuitable se, a is important as is the appropriatesealant cross-section, Although tog, process and ease ofthis should be part-and-parcel of joint design. ¥ There should be provision for inspection andmaintenance of face Sealants, Locatingdownpipes in front of a face-sealed joint, whilstprotecting the sealany from UV light, impedesboth inspection and repair. 8 Sealants Y These are proprietary products and theadvice on particular products should be obtainedfrom the particular ~manufacturer/supplier,on CTOSS-section dimensions for the sealantand precautions to be taken during installation. Y However, the ACI Guide to Sealing Joints in Concrete Structures provides sound adviceregarding the various types of sealant, how theyfunction, join details, installation andperformance, repair and maintenance.It suggests that the required properties of a jointsealant are that it be impermeable material, Y Deform to accommodate the movement and rateof movement occurring at the joint. Y Sufficiently retain its original properties andshape if subjected to cyclical deformations and adhere to concrete. Y In general, field-moulded sealants suitable forface sealing joints between precast wall claddingpanels will be either polysulphides, polyurethanesor silicone. Y To minimise the strain on the sealant as thejoint opens or closes, a rectangular cross sectionwith a larger width than depth across the joint ispreferred. The use of backup materials to controlthe depth of sealant is therefore recommended. = d Structurest occurring Where a pavement,(ground-supported floor) arise a structure; ‘ent structure to move relative to each other. The joint jows the pavement and adj soul my ae jllusually open with time, yillusually | not impede anyrelative movement, This may be horizontal, verticalor both and include rotation. Concrete dryingshrinkage in the pavement will mean the joint However, temperaturechanges and prestressing forces may give rise tojoint sing movements. The joints should besealed to prevent ingress of detritus which gayinhibit this movement. Ability to resist positive waterpressure is not usually gquired; if it is required,reference should be made to joints for yaterretainingstructures, The filler material and sealant shouldbe capable of accepting the required expansion andoffer little resistance to any compression. The facesshould be well compacted during construction togive a smooth finish which offers little resistance to yertical movement. Usually it is determined by the location of the adjacent structure. Where possible, other jointsshould be aligned in the same plane. Avoid the creation of re-entrant angles in the floor panelsas these function as crack initiators. The joints are usually constructed bysawing a groove to at least a quarter-of tte depth ofthe slab. Reinforcement should be terminated atleast 50 mm, preferably 1mm, from the jointlocation. Dowels should be placed through the jointparallel to the direction of shrinkage that is perpendicular to the plane of the joint. The timing of the saw cuts is critical andgenerally will be between 6-24 hours afte placing.If the cut is made too early the edges of groove willravel; if too late, the skb will randomly crack,defeating the object of the joint. The advice ofspecialist Sw-cutting contractors should beobtained for each project as the timing for Sweutting is affected by concrete mix design, ambienttemperatures, and concrete Hécing temperature. : The plan shape of the particularpavement will have a marked influence on the aayout and location as will the anticipatedconstruction technique. Generally, for *rlotedfloor slabs strip placement is preferred; the width ofthe strip is limited by ‘Pan of the beamvibrators to be used. The proportion of rectangular bays will | eePrefabri dependon the reinforcement ratio in both directions. Forunreinfoj proportions should notexceed 1.5:1. Where the slabis heavily reinforced, for example 0.8% then the j bespaced further apart:Rectangular bays are preferred. Acute anglesbetween j should be avoided as it is difficult tocompact concrete in narrow spaces, Re. entrantcomers should also be avoided as these function ascrack initiators. Usually itis determined by architecturalconsiderations and to maximise panel repetition hile using as large a panel as possible. Face-sealed joints can also be used on multi-storey buildings. In this ease, the edg, detailfrequently incorporates a recess for a baffle stripbut a flashing at the horizonta, joint between thepanels is not needed. Face sealed joints offer two main advantagesover open-drained joints on mult. storey projects: > There is greater freedom in locating the joints(see comments later on restrictions for opendrained joints). > The sealant tends to mask irregularities in thejoint width and further tends to reduce the joint’simpact on overall appearance of the building, A joint required to separate thestructure into two discrete structures. For example: separatethe legs of an L-shaped building so that it becomestwo rectangular structures. across the joint, thenthe joint needs to If vehicular and/orpedestrian traffic will travel be capped. In other cases, the gapean be treated as between two separate buildings. The joint should separate thebuilding into two structures. A level surface forwheeled and pedestrian traffic should bemaintained. Provision should be made for independently andmove with respect to each other. thestructures on either side to act i arthquake Where required,the gap should be sufficient to accommodate thedesign ¢ deflections of both buildings.Fire resistance will probably be required. A joint between a masonry is to infill paneland the supporting structure to isolate the panelfrom the structure and prevent it from becomingpart of the lateral load: resisting structure. This canlead to failure of the non-structural element onm0® : : d “oned f disastrously, failure of the main supportingstructure because it was not designed ™ themodified structural behaviour.- Pe elo leflection of the mai watt _— that the panel is supportedagainst free loads, ae : ight and possibly fire-resistant. The infill panel may be able self-supporting against fire loading by the inclusion of buttresses. The jnconce™ Is : ensure that the joint is kept clear ofmortar droppings, and other eonsttiOP debris. Alternative Sele can be provided by proprietaryfixings designed to offer this | ge of support whilenot impeding in plane movements-The joint should be sealed with @ suitableproprietary sealant on the external and internalfaces as shown. A packing rod should be used toensure the sealant . cross-section has jqvourabledimensions, If required a fire-resistant sealant canbe provided at the inner face- The width of the joint should be sufficient toabsorb the anticipated deflections under earthquakeloading.The detailing of joints is an important aspect ofbuilding design and this article provides generalprinciples and suggested details. Well designed andconstructed joints will enhance both a building’ sappearance and give the desired performance inservice. 37, EXPANSION JOINTS 37.4. GENERAL An expansion joint is an assembly designed to safely absorb the heat-induced expansion ‘and contraction of various construction materials. To absorb vibration, or to allow movement due to ground settlement or earthquakes. They are commonly found between sections of sidewalks, bridges, railway tracks, piping systems, and other structures. 37.2, EXPANSION JOINT DESIGN A design specification shall be prepared for 0 writing the expansion joint design specification it is imperative that the system fesigner completely review the structural system layout, and other items which may et the performance of the expansion joint. Particular attention shall be given to the r each expansion joint application. PriorPrefabri lowing items. The system should be reviewed to determine the loci fol expansion joint WI most reliable expansion joint manufacturer's catalogs provide numerous exam, aa ‘ iples user in this effort. The availability of supporting structures for anch, Oring hich is most suitable for the application. Both the assist the and guiding of the system, and the direction and magnitude of thermal movemen, be absorbed must be considered when selecting the type and location of the pil q sion joint. Expansion joints are designed to provide stress relief in piping systems that loaded by thermal movements and mechanical vibration. To deal with the cal 1s forces on the joint they require fiber reinforcement which guarantees both flexibility and strength. Conventional expansion joints are rein! use of these fabric plies makes it impossible to control the orientation of the fibers on es such as the bellow of an expansion joint. In both cases the inability to ads to the following disadvantages: forced using prefabricated fiber plies. The complex shap‘ use the fibers in an optimal way le © High Material Cost © More fibers needed than necessary © More rubber needed than necessary © Additional parts such as metal reinforcement rings necessary with multiple bellows 4 Lower Performance High rubber wall thickness © Undesired radial and axial expansion under pressure and fiber pack make product less flexible 4 3.7.3. FACTORS CONSIDERED FOR DESIGNING EXPANSION JOINT account for designing expars The following are some of factors taken into joint: %© Basic Dimensions «This is the dimension between the axes defined by dimensional grid is the two dimensional co-ordinate system © defining the layout of the buildings i Te the dimensional grid. 7 f reference adsinal or theoretical dimensions It is the planned dimension of prefabricate arrived from its basic dimension and its joints. P Actual dimensions It is the dimension of prefabricate when produced. If the interdependent arrangement of the basic dimensions of the building based onthe primary unit accepted components so that they apply to any building that is laid out on the 10cm modular basis without cutting or altering at the site. p Planning module (M,) s tis a multiple of the basic module for specified applications. The planning module Mp = 3 cm is the common horizontal dimension or M,= 1M is used for the vertical dimension, when My = 60 cm for the length dimensions. p Modular grid 1 This is a particular case of the dimensional grid consisting of two dimensional co-ordinate system of reference lines (modular lines) at a distance equal to the basic module or the multi module (Mp). This multi module may be the same or different for each of the two dimensions of the reference system. The area between the modular lines is called the modular zone of the component. 1 The dimensions of prefabricates are fixed from the modular grid by fitting in the elements after taking into account their tolerances and dimensions of the Joints. kk