I o T: P rotocol S tack ,
C ross -L ayer , and P ower C onsumption I ssues
Cognitive-Radio-Based Internet of Things:
Applications, Architectures, Spectrum
Related Functionalities, and Future
Research Directions
Athar Ali Khan, Mubashir Husain Rehmani, and Abderrezak Rachedi
Abstract
Recent research and technology trends are
shifting toward IoT and CRNs. However, we think
that the things-oriented, Internet-oriented, and
semantic-oriented versions of IoT are meaningless
if IoT objects are not equipped with cognitive radio
capability. Equipping IoT objects with CR capability
has lead to a new research dimension of CR-based
IoT. In this article, we present an overview of
CR-based IoT systems. We highlight potential appli-
cations of CR-based IoT systems. We survey archi-
tectures and frameworks of CR-based IoT systems.
We furthermore discuss spectrum-related function-
alities for CR-based IoT systems. Finally, we present
open issues, research challenges, and future direc-
tion for these CR-based IoT networks.
Introduction
The recent developments in information and com-
munication technologies have presented a new
paradigm: the Internet of Things (IoT). With the
recent developments in machine-to-machine
(M2M) communications, IoT will transform peo-
ple’s life through mobile connectivity that gives
rise to the “Internet of Mobile Things (IoMT)” para-
digm. IoT is the interconnection of different objects
through the Internet using different communication
technologies. The objects are equipped with sen-
sors and communication modules. These objects
have some characteristics: mobile or static, with
or without energy constraint, able or not able to
interact with the physical world, and so on. In the
literature, IoT has been defined by many research-
ers in different manners [1, 2]. According to [3],
IoT is defined as follows:
“IoT is a worldwide network of interconnected
objects uniquely addressable, based on standard
communication protocols, and allows people and
things to be connected Any-time, Anyplace, with
Anything and Anyone, ideally using Any path/
network and Any service.”
There are a number of communication tech-
nologies suggested for IoT, from wired to wire-
IEEE Wireless Communications • June 2017
less solutions, but wireless techniques are gaining
popularity due to their flexibility. However, range,
data bandwidth support, and availability of spec-
trum are major concerns. In addition, IoT applica-
tions are expected to introduce massive data into
the network, and there is a strong desire to tackle
this challenge. Recent trends of research in cogni-
tive radio networks (CRNs) have drawn attention
as a potential solution [4–6].
There are reports of work carried out to pro-
pose CR-based IoT frameworks. In this section,
we discuss these efforts briefly. Table 1 presents
notable features of articles in the literature relat-
ed to CR-based IoT. The table shows that very
little work has been done, and most of it has been
carried out in recent years. Main contributions
are diversified with very few efforts made in one
direction. As the main functions of CRNs are
spectrum sensing, spectrum decision, spectrum
management, and spectrum mobility, there are
only a small amount of efforts in this regard.
In addition to this, our paper [3] presents the
need for CR and its potential contribution in IoT.
The article presents how CR functionalities, espe-
cially spectrum sensing, can be helpful for IoT.
There has been little work done in this regard,
and there is no detailed report describing the
need for CR in IoT. Our work in this article is
different from [3] as we discuss standardization
efforts in CR-based IoT, case studies and proto-
types in the literature, issues, and challenges. The
survey in [7] provides a detailed discussion on
CR’s use for machine-to-machine (M2M) com-
munication and IoT. However, compared to our
article, they have not presented a detailed discus-
sion on standardization efforts for IoT, CRNs, and
CR-based IoT. Our article also presents cognitive Athar Ali Khan and Mubashir
IoT frameworks found in the literature and high- Husain Rehmani are with the
COMSATS Institute of
lights real-world scenarios that are missing in [7]. Information Technology.
The spectrum related functionalities in CR-based
IoT are one important point in our article that has Abderrezak Rachedi is with
not been dealt with by the authors of [7]. The Université Paris-Est.
authors of [7] presented issues and challenges Digital Object Identifier:
that are related to general IoT frameworks. They 10.1109/MWC.2017.1600404
1536-1284/17/$25.00 © 2017 IEEE 17
 argued that CR can have good potential to solve
many of the challenges mentioned in their arti-
cle. Our effort in this article highlights issues and
challenges specifically in terms of CR-based IoT,
especially in terms of spectrum functionalities and
standardization areas.
This article is organized as follows. First, we dis-
cuss the need for CR in IoT with standardization
efforts. Next, we discuss potential applications of
CR-based IoT. Then we summarize architectures
and frameworks with prototypes and real-world
scenarios, and cognitive functionalities in combi-
nation with other communication technologies.
We present spectrum-related work in the litera-
ture. We highlight issues and challenges before
we conclude our article.
Main Reasons Why IoT Requires CR
Cognitive Radio Networks
Current fixed spectrum utilization policies result in inef-
ficient utilization of spectrum [3]. To overcome this
situation, CRNs are gaining popularity. CRNs oppor-
tunistically search for available spectrum bands by
dynamically changing transmitter parameters based on
interaction with the environment. Each node has the
characteristic of fast switching with simultaneous trans-
missions in addition to channel probing and channel
state learning. Dynamic spectrum access (DSA) capa-
bility enables a CR user to adapt to varying network
conditions. A CR user is allowed to use the spectrum
with guaranteed protection to a legitimate user, also
known as a primary user (PU).

Publication Simulation
Reference Focused parameters IoT context CR use Other features
year and simulator

Centralized and distributed cognitive Protection of PUs; satisfac-

Study of enabling technologies
[1] 2015 MAC protocols; routing protocol for Protocol design guidelines Matlab tion of QoS requirements
for IoT
cognitive M2M networks for SUs

Adaptability of CRN on M2M commu- Study of M2M communications Opportunistic spectrum access Energy-efficient design of
[2] 2013 —
nications for IoT in ISM bands CR-based smart objects

CR functionalities, especially
[3] 2016 Need for CR in IoT Self-reconfigurable IoT spectrum sensing in conjunction — Applications
with cloud services

Perception action cycle; massive

Evaluation of performance
Interaction of IoT objects with data analytics; semantic deriva-
Empower IoT with cognition; opera- metric design and tutorial
[4] 2014 physical/social environments, with tion and knowledge discovery; —
tional framework of cognitive IoT on key enabling techniques
minimum human intervention iIntelligent decision making;
in cognitive tasks
on-demand service provisioning

Solutions to the real challenges in

Cognitive radio operational Solutions to challenges
[5] 2013 Applications of CR networking for IoT CR technology for affordable and —
framework faced by CRN
applicable IoT

Cognitive functionalities to
Modeling and design of cognitive
autonomously optimize network
[6] 2012 Integration of cognition in IoT process for cognitive-radio-based — Network topology model
performance according to cur-
IoT
rent conditions

Wireless platform support for basic IoT-based platform para-

Wireless IoT platform based on soft-
[7] 2013 communication infrastructure in Interference mitigation — (Demo) digm for basic communica-
ware defined radio
IoT applications tion infrastructure

Study of traffic volume generated

Spectrum access in licensed TV Better performance with
[8] 2014 Channel assignment in the transmission layer of IoT NS-3
channels historical network traffic
applications

Architectural support at the per- Self-management (configu-

Cognitive management framework
[9] 2012 ception, network, and application ration, healing, optimization, — Reliability
for IoT
layers protection) and learning

Application of cognitive func-

Cognitive traffic management system Application of smart traffic light Development of a global
[10] 2014 tions for machine-to-machine —
based on IoT approach integrated into the IoT e-government concept
data delivery

Cognition to dynamically select

IoT issues for sustainable development behavior through self-manage-
Network support in terms of Potential for self-reconfig-
[11] 2013 of smart cities; cognitive management ment; proximity to relate IoT —
virtual objects urable IoT
framework for IoT application and the relevant
objects

Framework for processing, enriching Application of IoT objects in the Application of cognitive func- Traffic monitoring in the
[12] 2013 —
raw data form of virtual objects tionalities context of smart city

Design and development of WSANs for Study of intra-cognitive and

Adaptivity of IoT objects to energy
[13] 2014 IoT from the perspective of cognitive Spectrum access in ISM bands — inter-cognitive communi-
sources and radio access
infocommunications cations

[14] 2012 Optimal strategy for spectrum leasing Cooperative transmission Spectrum functionalities — QoS provision to PUs

Table 1. Notable features of articles in the literature related to cognitive radio networks for IoT.

18 IEEE Wireless Communications • June 2017

 Motivations for Using CR in IoT
With the ongoing development in CRNs and IoT,
it is envisioned that CR-based IoT frameworks may
become necessary requirements in the future. The
IoT objects would be equipped with cognition in
order to learn, think, and make decisions through
understanding of both social and physical worlds
[3, 6, 8]. Additional requirements include intelligent
decision making, perception action cycle, mas-
sive data analytics, on-demand service provision-
ing, semantic derivation, and knowledge discovery.
Therefore, a CR-based IoT is a foreseeable need in
the future; this may be due to the following reasons.
•The main motivation comes from bandwidth
allocation for IoT objects. The number of IoT
objects is expected to grow in large numbers, and
it will be very difficult to allocate spectrum bands
to these objects. Additionally, the number of PUs
will also increase, thus creating problems for unli-
censed users. Fixed spectrum assignment policy
requires cost to purchase spectrum; therefore, spec-
trum assignment for such a large number of objects
can create unnecessary expenditures. CRNs can
facilitate in all of these situations. Traditional com-
munication techniques do not support spectrum
sharing among multiple users. CRN, with its spec-
trum sharing advantage, will be a boost in the future
as objects will increase, each looking for spectrum
access [8, 9]. Hence, CRNs may perceive the spec-
trum environment and provide on-demand services
among users through intelligent decision making.
•Cellular communication incurs costs, while
Bluetooth and Zigbee have limited range. IEEE
802.22 for a wireless regional access network
(WRAN), a CRN standard, has long range and
may be suitable for short- to long-range applica-
tions [8, 9].
•CR-based IoT frameworks can alleviate inter-
ference situations by looking for interference-free
channels through dynamic spectrum access capa-
bility [2, 4].
•Mobility will be an important feature of future
IoT-based structures, and it will be very difficult to
provide a single continuous communication facility
everywhere. Equipped with cognitive capability, IoT
objects can achieve seamless connectivity [2, 4].
•To support big data generated by a huge num-
ber of IoT objects in the future and semantic der-
ivation issues, a new paradigm of cloud servers is
gaining popularity. It is expected that CR-based IoT
objects will autonomously search for available stor-
age places in cloud servers and, through spectrum
sensing, will send the data through them [2, 4].
Standardization Efforts in IoT
Standardization efforts are required to bring IoT
into the personal/commercial perspective. Exces-
sive fragmentation prevention, interoperability,
scalability, and efficiency are the chief recommen-
dations. A number of standardization bodies,
working groups, and technical committees are
working to bring IoT into realization. Some of
these are IEEE, the National Institute of Standards
Technology (NIST), Internet Engineering Task
Force (IETF), Third Generation Partnership Project
(3GPP), and European Telecommunications Stan-
dards Institute (ETSI). Some of these are working
on IoT as a whole. Some of these efforts are in
communication technologies such as RF identi-
fication (RFID) and near field communications
IEEE Wireless Communications • June 2017
(NFC). Development of communication protocols With the ongoing
is also under process, while some standardization
bodies are trying to bring sensors into useful pur- development in CRNs
pose for IoT. Table 2 shows major research areas and IoT, it is envisioned
identified by standardization bodies to work for in
IoT while the Table 2 gives the detail about area that cognitive radio-
of interest of these standardization bodies.
based IoT frameworks
Standardization Efforts in CRN may become necessary
Cognitive radio is believed to support increased
spectrum utilization in the current spectrum-un- requirements in future.
derutilized era. A number of commercial, person- The IoT objects would
al, and industrial applications can benefit from
CRNs. In the United States, the FCC is consider- be equipped with
ing it in unlicensed VHF and UHF TV bands. There
are other standardization bodies that are work-
cognition in order to
ing on CRN standards for DSA and coexistence learn, think and make
around the globe. Research efforts have brought
IEEE 802.22 as the first international standard with decisions through under-
operation in TV white space (TVWS). Table 3 gives standing of both social
details of standardization efforts in CRNs.
and physical worlds.
Standardization Efforts in CRN-Based IoT
We have summarized standardization efforts in
IoT and CRNs independently. To bring CR-based
IoT to realization, a great deal of effort is required.
As CR-based IoT frameworks are in their infancy,
categorizing research directions is difficult. There
are certain bodies working independently on both
CRNs and IoT such as IEEE, the International Tele-
communication Union (ITU), and 3GPP, so it is
suggested that they should consider moving one
step ahead and globalize their tasks.
As work is going on to open new bands for
CRNs, it will be a better choice to place IoT in
this framework. Another solution may be the
coexistence of CR-based IoT in current regulatory
assignments. Research in IoT standards in terms
of communication techniques is related to RFID
and NFC, but these are short-range techniques.
CRN standards have considered the coexistence
in short range to medium range, and individual
long-range standards such as TVWS have been
developed. We suggest that IoT standards should
look for long-range capability of CRNs. Similarly,
protocols are at a progressive level for CRNs, but
negligible work has been done on IoT protocols.
We are of the view that CR-based IoT can benefit
from this feature of CRN standardization as well.
Applications of CR-Based IoT
In this section, we present some of the potential
applications of IoT that can benefit from CRNs.
Healthcare: We have healthcare applications
of IoT already in the practical domain. Smart sen-
sors are deployed on and around a patient to
monitor critical data such as temperature, blood
pressure, glucose level, and others. With remote
monitoring, medical staff continuously observes
the parameters. Wireless solutions are already
there; however, it is urgent that smooth monitor-
ing is ensured. For this, healthcare information is
to be relayed to medical staff without any need
for spectrum assignment. CR-based IoT frame-
works can achieve this to long ranges without any
worries about spectrum availability [10].
Social Activities: CR-based IoT has drawn
attention in social activities. One example is intel-
ligent transportation systems (ITS), which incorpo-
rate road and vehicle-based sensors for multiple
19
Technical Committee/Working Group Area of focus

EPC Global Data representation/storage; interface; communication protocols; discovery services

STF 396 (CEN/CENELEC/ETSI) Data protection; information security; privacy

CEN TC 225 WP5 Privacy issues

ETSI ERM TG 34, TG 28, TG 37 Spectrum usage; tag interoperability

ISO/IEC JTC1/SC31 WG4, WG6 Data protocol; mobile RFID

ITU SG13, SG16 Communication protocols; architecture; multimedia information access

GRIFS European coordinated action to define RFID standards supporting the transition from localized RFID applications to the IoT

ISO 18092, 21481, 22536, 23917; ECMA 340, 352, 356, 365 Sensing/RFID domain; test methods for interfaces and protocols

ETSI TS 102 190 Sensing/RFID domain

ISO/IEC JT1 SC 06, 17; ECMA TC47 Signaling interface; data protocol; NFC communication mode; security aspects

NCF forum Architecture; data exchange protocol; logical link protocol

GSMA NFC WG Mobile NFC integrated with SIM; handset and SIM requirements; interface

IETF 6LoWPAN Adaptation layer for the IPv6-IEEE 802.15.4 interoperability

ISO/IEC JTC1 WG7, WG4 Architecture; application protocols; interoperability in hybrid RFID-sensor environment

ITU-T SG13, SG16 USN; architecture for USN; service description for USN middleware; USN automatic location identification capabilities

3GPP Architecture; signaling congestion; network overload; narrowband IoT (NB-IoT)

ROLL Definition of routing protocols for heterogeneous low-power and lossy networks

Wireless Hart Definition of protocols for self-organizing, self-healing, and mesh architectures over IEEE 802.15.4 devices

W3C EXI WG Efficient XML-based solutions

ITU-T JCA IoT Networking aspects; identification; USN

ISO/IEC JT1 SWG WG5 Identification of IoT-related market requirements; standardization gaps

CEN TC 225 WG6 Identification technologies; data gathering protocols; communication protocols

ETSI TC M2M M2M e2e network reference architecture; identification; addressing; security; privacy

TIA R-50 Ubiquitous protocols for industrial smart devices communications

ATIS M2M Committee Service layer and interfaces toward application and transport layers

IEEE 802.16 M2M TG IEEE 802.16 improvements to support M2M applications

OMA M2M Device management extension; location services

CCSA TC10 Green community; vehicle communication systems; e-health monitoring

ARIB M2M Study Ad Hoc Group Smart grid; smart cities; smart home

TTA M2M PG Service requirements; data structure; identification

oneM2M M2M service layer platform; service architecture; resource/data access protocols and management; security; privacy

IPSO Alliance Addressing, sensing and communication issues

Data distribution service (DDS); dependability assurance framework for safety-sensitive consumer devices; threat modeling; structured assurance case meta-
Object Management Group for Industrial IoT (OMG-IIoT) model; unified component model for distributed, real-time, and embedded systems; automated quality characteristic measures; interaction flow modeling
language

ISO/IEC JTC 1 MQTT (Message Queuing Telemetry Transport) messaging protocol for use on top of the TCP/IP protocol

core Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP) is an application-layer protocol for Internet communication

Hypercat Secure and interoperable IoT for industry and cities

Open Connectivity Foundation (OCF) Open source project for IoT

Open protocols for presence, instant messaging, and real-time communication and collaboration on top of the IETF’s Extensible Messaging and Pres-
XMPP Standards Foundation (XSF)
ence Protocol (XMPP).

Ericsson/Orange/Intel Enabling the capabilities of existing cellular networks for low power wide area (LPWA) IoT applications

LoRa Alliance Wide area networks for IoT

Weightless SIG Developing the definitive open standard LPWAN technology for IoT connectivity

EnOcean Alliance Self-powered IoT solutions

IEEE P2413 Architectural framework for IoT

Lemonbeat Intelligent direct connection of devices

Table 2. Areas of focus related to standardization efforts in IoT.

20 IEEE Wireless Communications • June 2017

applications such as traffic monitoring and elec-
tronic tolling. Dedicated Short Range Communi-
cation (DSRC) with a channel width of l0 MHz
in the 30 MHz and 75 MHz bands, and 5.8–5.9
GHz band is allocated in the United States and
Europe, respectively. This short-range communica-
tion is used for alarms and emergencies, and can
deliver small data only. Long coverage requires
many roadside units (RSUs) and sensors, which
will ultimately result in huge costs. Moreover,
assigning communication techniques is not stud-
ied thoroughly for this purpose. We are of the
view that CRNs can alleviate these problems in a
more suitable manner [2]. A traffic management
system in the form of smart traffic lights can also
be viewed as an example in the social domain.
Another social activity example is to use CR-based
IoT objects for commercial purposes such as wire-
less broadband to consumers [5, 11].
Environment Related Applications: IoT-based
applications in the environmental domain are
already in progress with great interest. Waste
management, noise and temperature measure-
ments, humidity estimations, and monitoring of
CO2 emissions are some key areas in this regard.
Besides using sensors, dedicated vehicles can also
be used for these applications. However, reliable
and efficient monitoring requires installation and
use of a large number of heterogeneous devic-
es at important locations. Spectrum assignment
for this large number of devices with the current
fixed assignment policy is difficult. With cognitive
capabilities, IoT functionalities can be a potential
solution for network congested/scarce areas [2].
In-Home Applications: IoT-based solutions are
already in the working domain inside a home/
building, and it is envisioned that with the evolu-
tion in technology, the era of IoT will be a neces-
sity in the future. Homes will be incorporated with
sensors/devices to perform everyday functions for
improved quality of life. Home automation and
home energy management are already present in
the form of certain examples such as smart fridge
and smart lights, respectively. Usually, WiFi access
points are installed for these applications; however,
this can produce severe interference in the indus-
trial, scientific, and medical (ISM) band. A better
option is to equip the sensors with cognitive capa-
bility for non-interference in ISM bands [2].
Smart Grid: Smart grid is an emerging para-
digm nowadays. Consumers want to know any-
thing at any time and at any place related to their
energy consumption. This indicates the need for
IoT in smart grid in the future. One major draw-
back here is the transfer of large volumes of data
from a number of meters/devices in a limited
spectrum bandwidth without interference to long
distances. Current wireless techniques have issues
regarding this. Wired techniques such as DSL
and optical fiber, and wireless techniques such as
cellular can overcome these problems, but need
huge expenditures for cable/fiber installation or
spectrum purchase. Therefore, we are left with
CRNs as a viable solution [2].
Smart Cities: Smart city is an urban develop-
ment paradigm that encompasses integration of
information and communication technology (ICT)
systems and IoT. The motivation behind smart city
is the provision of e-services to users for improved
lifestyle in an eco-friendly manner. To facilitate this,
IEEE Wireless Communications • June 2017
Technical Committee/
Working Group
Area of focus
Modifications of PHY and MAC layer of IEEE 802.11 for channel access
IEEE 802.11af
legalization and coexistence in the TVWS
IEEE 802.19 Wireless standards coexistence within IEEE 802
IEEE 802.22 Use of CR technology for rural broadband wireless access in TVWS
Use of new licensed bands including higher frequencies in combina-
3GPP
tion with unlicensed bands
ANDSF Discovery of non-3GPP access networks such as Wi-Fi or WIMAX
ECMA 392 MAC and PHY for operation in TVWS
IEEE SCC41/IEEE 1900
Dynamic spectrum access networks
(DySPAN)
OFCOM
CR terminology and technologies with possible development times-
cales; user scenarios and regulation
ITU-R CRNs deployment and business directions
System aspects and cognitive functionalities; radio equipment archi-
ETSI Reconfigurable Radio
tecture (REA); RRS security, certification and declaration of conformity;
Systems (ETSI-RRS)
civil security and inter-domain synergies
Table 3. Areas of focus related to standardization efforts in CRNs.
continuous connectivity will be essential, so an
information and communication system will be the
backbone. Data gathering and user interaction will
also be an important aspect. The issue of continu-
ous connectivity can be supported by CRNs [13].
Internet of Vehicles (IoV): Recently, trends are
shifting toward less dependence on human
beings, which has led us toward the IoV para-
digm where vehicle control is achieved through
the integration of communications, controls, and
embedded systems. IoV is expected to be an
autonomous decision maker for traveling. Safe
navigation may be possible in the future through
information exchange from vehicles to vehicles,
from sensors attached on vehicles, and through
users’ intentions. The challenge in IoVs is the avail-
ability of spectrum for mobile vehicles, and CRNs
can be a good solution due to their long range
and interference-free spectrum sensing [4, 11].
Architectures and Frameworks of
CR-based IoT
Cognitive IoT Frameworks in the Literature
CR-based IoT frameworks have been presented in
the literature. It is desired that IoT objects should
have cognitive facility to make smart decisions
about the spectrum and perform intelligent opera-
tion by analyzing network conditions. For smooth
operation, these CR-based objects have to be tested
for cognitive functions. This is the focus of the work
in [6] where the authors developed a network topol-
ogy model and used game theory to analyze the
payoffs of cooperative cognition. In [2], the authors
worked on CR to enhance M2M communications.
Large-scale IoT applications generate huge vol-
umes of data; however, this data is meaningless
unless it is properly managed and translated into
meaningful information. A data-centric CR-based
21
With the addition of
Virtual objects level
sensors in IoT comes
Virtual objects
the issue of energy-effi-
VO registry
ciency. One solution is
to select energy-efficient
access points. This is Composite virtual objects level
achieved through game Composite virtual objects
theory and distributed
CVO registry
learning. However, the Request and situation matching
framework has to be Decision making
flexible and less com-
plex in computation.
Consumer level
Application translation
Situation acquisition
Figure 1. CR-based IoT framework with three lev-
els: the virtual objects level, composite virtual
objects (CVOs) level, and consumer level. The
main entities of the VOs level are VO and VO
registry; the main entities of the CVOs level
are CVOs, CVO registry, request and situation
matching, and decision making. The consumer
level is divided into two entities: application
translation and situation acquisition.
IoT framework can be implemented for data man-
agement and intelligent decision making. Raw data
is fused, cleaned, classified into clusters according
to its features, stored, and analyzed for its con-
version into useful form. The contextual data pro-
cessing can produce large overhead. An adaptive
and cognitive context-aware framework based on
social IoT (SIoT) reduces this overhead, where
SIoT is autonomous and proactive as it is based
on the social relationships among objects. Context
acquisition is followed by data discovery and data
mining to detect different events. This facilitates in
the estimation of services, and rules/standards are
formulated accordingly. After this, these events are
compared to previous similar events, and corre-
sponding actions are taken at that time to classify
proper actions for accurate decisions.
Virtual objects (VOs) are developed in [13]
to represent sensors. This model creates sen-
sor data and embeds context information. The
network architecture has sensors, controllers, a
central hub, a server, and a user layer. This frame-
work may be extended with two additional levels
for self-configurable CR-based IoT, a composite
virtual object, and consumer levels [10, 12] as
depicted in Fig. 1. A composite virtual object rep-
resents a collection of VOs that have cognition
with semantic interoperability. The consumer level
provides an interface for users to interact with the
system for application usage. A Distributed Inter-
net-like Architecture for Things (DIAT) based on
three-level architecture can support secure addi-
tion of a number of heterogeneous devices. The
layered architecture deals with privacy and scal-
ability as well. Cognitive capability realizes smart
22
decisions with autonomous service provision.
Cognitive functions are incorporated at all three
levels, resulting in a stack called IoT Daemon.
With the addition of sensors in IoT comes the
issue of energy efficiency. One solution is to select
energy-efficient access points. This is achieved
through game theory and distributed learning.
However, the framework has to be flexible and
less complex in computation.
Software defined radio (SDR) technology for
the wireless IoT platform was studied in [8]. The
purpose was to investigate the interference rejec-
tion property of CRNs. The platform has a base
station in the form of a wireless edge appliance
(WEA). A wireless access appliance (WAA) serves
as customer premises equipment (CPE).
Real-World Scenarios
In this section, we describe prototypes and real-
world scenarios where CRs are incorporated into
IoT. The features of these tasks are given in Table 4.
Cognitive Functionalities in
Collaboration with Other
Communication Technologies for IoT
It is envisioned that cognitive functionalities can
be adopted in combination with other commu-
nication technologies for IoT. In this section, we
highlight these communication technologies.
CR with Fog and Cloud Services: Cloud comput-
ing is another emerging scheme, and we believe
that the future world will incorporate the “every-
thing as a service” model based on sharing of
resources through cloud. People will have access
to any service, at any time and at any place with
the help of Internet connection. However, access
to these resources is a great challenge. Cloud
computing has three major service models: infra-
structure as a service, platform as a service, and
software as a service. In addition to these models,
sensing as a service is also proposed. Moreover,
fog computing brings the services close to the
end users; that is why it is important to consid-
er such cloud services (communication, storage,
configuration, and management) at the edge of a
network. Leveraging on cognitive function, CRN,
with its dynamic spectrum access capabilities, can
combine with cloud computing to bring IoT ser-
vice provisioning to reality.
CR with Wireless Sensor Networks: Wireless
sensor networks (WSNs) have already proved
their usefulness in recent days. Miniaturized size
and low cost have made sensors an important
source of information gathering. The need to
know anytime and anywhere has supported their
integration in IoT frameworks. However, informa-
tion retrieval from these sensors remains a chal-
lenge in large-scale geographical deployment or
in-home applications due to spectrum availability
and interference. Furthermore, resource-limited
sensors generate and transmit raw data instead of
large and useful data streams. WSN data can be
useful for small-scale applications, but it may have
problems in the IoT context. Therefore, WSNs in
combination with CRNs provide infrastructure-less
and self-organized networks that have good
potential for IoT applications [10, 13].
CR with Wireless Sensor and Actuator Net-
works (WSANs): WSANs perform actions accord-
IEEE Wireless Communications • June 2017
ing to environment sensing. Their ad hoc nature
gives minimum physical extension and usually
results in a single task. Integration of WSANs in
IoT needs a broader vision. Transmitting actions
to actuators in a timely and efficient manner is
a big hurdle. NFC and RFID have mostly been
suited for WSANs; however, a cognitive infocom-
munication perspective is also investigated for
development in the IoT framework [14].
CR with Machine-to-Machine and Device-to-
Device Communication: The growing increase in
the number of devices has turned the focus into
M2M communication instead of human-to-human
(H2H) communication. Several devices such as
mobiles, laptops, and sensors are able to exchange
information with each other without the need for
human intervention. Dependence on machine data
has made M2M communication an important part
of future IoT frameworks. The growing increase
in number of devices each year brings connectiv-
ity problems. Moreover, efficient transfer of large
amounts of data from these machines remains
a challenge as the current Internet lacks support
in this regard. A vision to introduce intelligence
into these devices is in focus where devices are
expected to make autonomous decisions and form
self-configurable networks. Traditional wireless
techniques suggested for M2M communication
suffer from interference, which may also be coun-
tered through the use of CRNs [2]. Additionally,
the network resources must be shared efficiently
between M2M communication and classical H2H
communications, and this can also be achieved
through integrating CRNs. Additionally, device-to-
device (D2D) communication can communicate
directly without using a relay node; thus, it can be
used with CRNs to support IoT.
Spectrum Related Functionalities in
Cognitive-Radio-Based IoT
Spectrum sensing is the initial and most important
step in a CR function. CR users not only check for
the available channels set left vacant by primary
users, but also monitor the presence of PU activi-
ty. CR-based IoT frameworks in the literature have
tried to formulate spectrum-related mechanisms,
and in this section, we highlight these frameworks.
Common CR modules employ a medium
access control (MAC) module for channel sensing
and data transmission. The authors in [2] present-
ed an enhancement of this by introducing addi-
tional modules. Besides the sensing module, there
are spectrum analysis, history and prediction,
spectrum decision, spectrum-aware routing, spec-
trum mobility, security and privacy, and reconfigu-
ration modules. The detail of these modules with
functions is given in Fig. 2.
CR users sense the spectrum and, after analysis,
decide the frequencies to be used. However, in cer-
tain situations, the transmission rate of a PU is lower
than the quality of service (QoS) requirement, but it
still occupies the channel. Therefore, neither can the
PU transmit nor can this channel be used by a CR
user. To cope with this scenario, spectrum leasing
can be a beneficial scenario in which a PU shares a
fraction of its bandwidth with one CR user subject
to the condition that a cooperative/relay transmis-
sion scheme may be employed [15].
With the rapid increase in IoT objects in the
IEEE Wireless Communications • June 2017
Project Motive
To support self-configurability and to improve quality of shared
CogInfoCom Approach
information among robots
Autonomous sensor platform with energy-harvesting-based
E-WEHP
sensing
Traffic Monitoring
Deployment of a real sensor network for traffic monitoring in
the city of Enschede, the Netherlands
Stinger Robot-based Prototype Addition of social to human–robot and robot–robot interactions
Ready-mixed Concrete Transpor-
tation and Dispatching System
Selection of optimal path and support for quality tracking
Fire Detection Real-life fire detection scenario in a smart home
iCore Use of cognitive technologies to empower the IoT
Table 4. Notable features of prototypes and real-world projects related to
CR-based IoT.
future, service provisioning will be a time-con-
suming process. With the development of cloud
computing, the everything as a service paradigm
has emerged. This will help in resource sharing,
security, privacy, and big data analysis. Based on
this, the sensing as a service model can be a good
solution. This model has four conceptual layers and
leverages on cloud computing. These layers are
the sensors and sensor owners (SSO) layer, sen-
sor publishers (SP) layer, extended service provid-
er (ESP) layer, and sensor data consumer (SDC)
layer. The SSO layer deals with sensors and sensor
owners of a specific sensor at a given time. The
owner decides if he/she wants to publish his/her
sensor in the cloud or not. The SP layer detects
available sensors and communicates with the own-
ers to seek permission to publish the sensors in the
cloud. The ESP layer inputs the intelligence to the
entire service model. Its main function is to present
value added services to consumers. The SDC layer
provides a registration mechanism to consumers
for legalized sensor data usage. Due to the sensing
as a service model, the sensing function is distrib-
uted among a number of sensors. Additional ben-
efits include sharing and reusing as users can have
access to already present sensors.
As discussed before, resource sharing among
CR users is a useful phenomenon. Spectrum
sensing is followed by channel allocation. Use of
traffic history in a distributed channel allocation
is one good suggestion [9] as it can give inter-
ference-free channels. It is better to first allocate
channels when nodes are initialized or in case
of change in topology/channels. The links are
prioritized according to higher traffic history and
sensitivity to interference. This initial allocation
enables each node to calculate its priority. This
information estimates further channel assignment
strategies and then relays data to neighbors.
Issues, Challenges, and
Future Research Directions
Hardware Designs for CR-based IoT
The effective utilization of CRs requires good
hardware design. CR antennas used in one fre-
quency spectrum (cellular) are not the same in
23
The effective utilization
of CRs requires good
hardware design. CR
antennas used in one
frequency spectrum (cel-
lular) are not the same
in size as compared to
the ones used in some
other spectrum (ISM
2.4GHz). Furthermore,
•Employs energy detection, matched filter detection, or feature detection to monitor spectrum and identify
Spectrum sensing
module
spectrum frequencies used by PU/SU.
•Uses cooperative sensing to avoid misdetections.
•Controls the sensing parameters.
•Analyzes the sensing results to identify capacity, condition, interference, occupancy, PU presence, and other
Spectrum analysis
module link-layer related parameters of spectrum frequencies.
•Provides output to the spectrum decision module and to the history and prediction module.
•Keeps a history of the channel occupancy in each band and identifies frequencies in use by utilizing prediction
History and prediction
module
models.
•Transfers this information to the sensing module in order to avoid sensing of those frequencies.
•Selects the spectrum to be used and its operating parameters, i.e., central frequency, bandwidth, modulation,
Spectrum decision power, etc.
module •Considers the remaining energy in the battery and application-specific traffic QoS requirements from the
upper layers.
Spectrum-aware routing •Combines the routing algorithms with a spectrum-aware metric.
module •Also considers the remaining battery to avoid overutilizing of machines with low battery.

transmission power Spectrum- mobility •This is a cross-layer module to perform spectrum handovers in case of a PU activity or if the current spectrum
levels also vary accord- module cannot meet application-specific requirements.

ing to environment.
Selection of single-radio
or multi-radio is also
required.
Security and privacy •Ensures the secure and privacy preserving operations such as secure object configuration and management,
module information security, privacy enhancing technologies, trust modeling, and avoiding PU emulation attacks.
Reconfiguration module
•Reconfigures parameters (frequency, bandwidth, modulation, channel coding, output power, and other
operational parameters, i.e., receiver sensitivity, noise threshold, BER, etc.) of the SDR-based RF front-end
according to the selected communication technology/protocol.

Figure 2. CR modules and their function. As opposed to common CR modules, the enhanced version
employs additional modules. These are the spectrum sensing module, spectrum analysis module, his-
tory and prediction module, spectrum decision module, spectrum-aware routing module, spectrum
mobility module, security and privacy module, and reconfiguration module.

size as compared to the ones used in some other Spectrum-Related Functions

spectrum (ISM 2.4 GHz). Furthermore, transmis-
sion power levels also vary according to environ-
ment. Selection of single-radio or multi-radio is
also required [5].
Gateways connect IoT objects to networks.
The gateway design requires flexibility, scalabili-
ty, security, and energy efficiency. In the case of
CR-based IoT objects, additional requirements
arise in the form of efficient spectrum resource
utilization, particularly in a multi-user scenario.
Usually, CR users search for spectrum access
individually, but if IoT objects are energy-con-
strained, gateways may perform spectrum sensing
for them. Geo-location-based spectrum search-
ing with history keeping may be a good option.
Flexibility and interoperability may be achieved
through SDRs.
Semantic Data Analysis
Managing huge volumes of data from CR-based
IoT objects in the future will pose a big prob-
lem. The collected data is meaningless unless
it is properly analyzed and interpreted. The
high-dimensional and nonlinearly separable
collected data is heterogeneous and difficult
to process. This requires effective algorithm
design with semantic capability that is capa-
ble enough to support linear/nonlinear and
high-dimensional data processing [4]. Once
categorized, decision making is also difficult,
keeping the diversified nature of applications
in mind. In some cases, cognitive applica-
tions utilize learning/reasoning algorithms and
select processes based on history, which may
consume time. Hence, it is necessary to dis-
cover advanced knowledge-based algorithms
for improved performance.
Spectrum sensing is a preliminary and fundamental
step. IoT objects behaving like CRs have to look for
spectrum in a dynamic environment in the presence
of a number of PUs, and the problem is boosted
when PUs are in the same band. At the same time,
differentiation between licensed and unlicensed sig-
nal is also important. Spectrum sensing takes time
and consumes energy. Therefore, fast and energy-ef-
ficient algorithms should be designed. It is observed
that CRs do not perform any task while sensing
spectrum. We believe that multiple radios should
be employed where one radio performs spectrum
sensing while another transfers the data. Howev-
er, it will be effective if it is coupled with advanced
geo-location-based and history-keeping algorithms.
Additionally, we cannot compromise on misdetec-
tion probability, but we can compromise on false
detection probability. Misdetection relates to a situa-
tion where a PU is not detected, and false detection
is detecting a PU when there is actually none [5].
If spectrum is sensed ideally, making a deci-
sion among searched bands about data transfer is
an issue. Of multiple bands, there is a possibility
that certain bands do not meet application-spe-
cific QoS requirements. Critical applications need
real-time answers, while non-critical applications
may compromise on response time. Moreover,
assigning spectrum among multiple CRs is also a
challenge, and requires resource-shared and appli-
cation-specific algorithms.
Standardization Activities and Challenges
Standardization efforts in IoT are still in their early stag-
es, and standardization of CR-based IoT is a meager
topic to discuss. The first and most important prob-
lem is related to developing semantic standards as it
can accelerate the process in the direction of interop-

24 IEEE Wireless Communications • June 2017


erable solutions. CR-based IoT frameworks may have
to support a large number of diversified devices for
successful semantically operable scenarios. The physi-
cal presence of a huge number of devices is connect-
ed to a variety of application demands. This requires
continuous semantic information sharing [4].
Other key areas of standardization involve
communication protocols at each layer, objects
selection, and transmission power. The overall
benefits can be achieved if standardization activ-
ities are carried out jointly around the globe.
Moreover, these efforts have to be streamlined
and quick to save cost, which may become anoth-
er problem in the future [4].
Networking and Addressing
The existence of several PUs and CRs, and energy
levels required for transmission create problems
for CRs to sense and decide spectrum efficient-
ly. This creates negative impact on the network.
Meanwhile, the multi-user scenario has issues as
well. The thing-oriented, semantic-oriented, and
Internet-oriented nature of IoT already poses
problems. When joined with cognitive-capable
objects, the problem will be magnified [5].
Security and Privacy
The heterogeneity in CR-based IoT frameworks
has security problems as we cannot apply the
same security levels to all situations. The adap-
tive capability of CR can become a security prob-
lem as an intruder may pretend to be a CR [5].
The security standards have to be applied at all
levels, from technology to consumer/business to
legal frameworks. Access to information should
be easy for validation and monitoring conditions.
The introduction of a smart object also introduc-
es privacy issues. A major source of privacy issues
is the misuse of application. Privacy is required at
the data collection point as CR-based IoT will be
a global framework with a variety of technologies
and with diverse data. Data is collected using RFID,
WSNs, cellular phones, and others, which may lead
to severe privacy-related threats. As data is shared
along the way, privacy also has to be maintained at
data sharing levels. Thus, data anonymization with
strict control, management among objects, and
identification is required [5].
Conclusion
In this article, we have presented the need for cog-
nitive radio networks for IoT. Both technologies are
in early stages, but very little work has been done
in IoT. Consequently, realizing CR-based IoT is still
a new paradigm and needs to be studied in detail.
It is envisioned that IoT without cognition will just
be a burden on existing network infrastructure.
Leveraging from CRN capabilities, IoT objects can
effectively utilize spectrum resources in this spec-
trum-constrained/underutilized world. There are
reports of possible frameworks in the literature, but
these lack motivations and necessity of standardiza-
tion. We believe that global efforts are required if
the IoT era is to come into full existence.
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Biographies
Athar Ali Khan is currently pursuing his Ph.D. degree in elec-
trical engineering at COMSATS Institute of Information Tech-
nology, Wah Cantt, Pakistan. He received his M.S. degree in
computer engineering from COMSATS Institute of Information
Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan, in 2011. He has done his B.Sc.
in electrical (computer and communication) engineering with
honors from CECOS University of IT and Emerging Sciences,
Peshawar, Pakistan, in 2001. He is a reviewer of Elsevier’s Com-
puters and Electrical Engineering, the Journal of Network and
Computer Applications, and IEEE Access.
Mubashir Husain Rehmani [M’14, SM’15] received his B.Eng.
degree in computer systems engineering from Mehran Uni-
versity of Engineering and Technology, Jamshoro, Pakistan, in
2004, his M.S. degree from the University of Paris XI, France,
in 2008, and his Ph.D. degree from the University Pierre and
Marie Curie, Paris, in 2011. He is currently an assistant professor
at COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Wah Cantt.
He received the certificate of appreciation, “Exemplary Editor of
the IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials for the year 2015”
from the IEEE Communications Society.
Abderrezak Rachedi [S’05, M’09, SM’15] is currently working
as an associate professor at the University Paris-Est Marne-la-
Vallée and a member of the Gaspard Monge Computer Science
Laboratory (LIGM CNRS UMR 8049) since September 2008.
He received his Habilitation to Direct Research degree from
Paris-Est University in December 2015, and his Ph.D. degree
in computer science from the University of Avignon, France, in
2008. His research interests lie in the field of wireless network-
ing, vehicular networks, wireless sensor networks, machine-to-
machine communication, IoT, QoS, and security.
25