Newton’s, Fourier’s and Fick’s laws

(Chapters 1, 9, 17)
 Implementations of momentum transfer,
heat transfer and mass transfer principles
Fluid mechanics Heat transfer
(momentum operation (heat
transport due to transport due to
velocity difference) temperature
(momentum balance,
Momentum difference)
flow in conduits, pumps (conduction,
andtransfer
compressors, convection,
boundary layer, particle
radiation)
separation by gravity and
by centrifugal forces,
fixed bed, fluidised bed,
entrainment) Masstransfer
operation (mass
transport due to
concentration
difference)
(distillation,
absorption, extraction,
humidification)
 MOMENTUM TRANSPORT due to
velocity (by diffusion) in fluid above a plate

Newton’s Momentum
transfer, occurs
law on
when faster
viscosity molecules diffuse
their momentum
across a fluid
area below

Momentum by diffusion moves from higher velocity to lower

velocity.
HEAT TRANSPORT due to  temperature (by
diffusion = conduction) and convection due to fluid
flow
By diffusion, heat moves from higher temperature
4
to lower temperature
MASS
TRANSPORT
of ink in water
by diffusion
due to
concentration
(by diffusion)

Ink moves from

larger concentration
to lower
concentration of
liquid
Chapter 1: Momentum transport:
Newton’s Law of Viscosity
 In Fig. 1.1-1 we show a pair of large parallel plates,
each one with area A, separated by a distance Y. In
the space between them is a fluid-either a gas or a
liquid.
 This system is initially at rest, but at time t = 0 the
lower plate is set in motion in the positive x direction
at a constant velocity V.
 As time proceeds, the fluid gains momentum, and
ultimately the linear steady-state velocity profile
shown in the figure is established.
Top plate is moving and bottom plate is in
stationary position.
There is momentum transfer from fluid near the
top plate to the fluid near the bottom plate
 When the final state of steady motion has been
attained, a constant force F is required to maintain
the motion of the lower plate. Common sense
suggests that this force may be expressed as
follows:
 F/A =  V/Y (1.1-1)
 The force should be proportional to the area A and
to the velocity, and inversely proportional to the
distance between the plates.
 The constant of proportionality  is a property of the
fluid, defined to be the viscosity.
 First we replace F/A by the symbol yx, which is the
force in the x direction on a unit area perpendicular
to the y direction. This is the force exerted by the
fluid of lesser y on the fluid of greater y to overcome
friction due to viscosity when fluid of lesser y moves.
 Furthermore, we replace V/Y by -dvx/dy. Then, in
terms of these symbols, Eq. 1.1-1 becomes
 yx = - dvx/dy (1.1-2)
 This equation, which states that the shearing force
per unit area is proportional to the negative of the
velocity gradient, is often called Newton's law of
viscosity.
 From Newton’s law, F/A is the rate at which
momentum in the x-direction is being supplied (per
unit area) to the fluid. Microscopically, molecules in
the immediate vicinity of the plate either adhere to it
or keep bouncing against it
 They pick up momentum to keep moving with the
plate and also constantly lose momentum by
bouncing off other molecules a little further away
from the plate and downwards from one layer to the
next, ending up at the top plate.

11
 Therefore, the momentum is imparted by lower layer
to upper layer and constitutes as a velocity. All this is
to keep momentum conserved.

 It has been found that the resistance to flow of all

gases and all liquids with molecular weight < about
5000 is described by Eq. 1.1-2, and such fluids are
referred to as Newtonian fluids.
 Polymeric liquids, suspensions, pastes, slurries, and
other complex fluids are not described by Eq. 1.1-2
and are referred to as non-Newtonian fluids.
Examples of Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids
 Newtonian : water, air, most common fluids
 Shear thinning : shampoo, ketchup, paint, lava,
blood, nail polish
 Shear thickening (or dilatant) : cornstarch in water,
silica nano-particles are dispersed in
polyethylene glycol
 Bingham plastic : mayonaise, toothpaste, slurries,
some yogurts
 Chapter 9: Heat transport:
Fourier’s Law of Conduction
 Consider a slab of solid material of area A located
between two large parallel plates a distance Y apart.
We imagine that initially (for time t < 0) the solid
material is at a temperature T0 throughout.
 At t = 0 the lower plate is suddenly brought to a slightly
higher temperature T1 and maintained at that
temperature.
 As time proceeds, the temperature profile in the slab
changes, and ultimately a linear steady-state
temperature distribution is attained (as shown in Fig.
9.1-1).
 When this steady-state condition has been reached,
a constant rate of heat flow Q through the slab is
required to maintain the temperature difference ∆T =
T1 – T0.
 It is found then that for sufficiently small values of
∆T the following relation holds:
 Q/A = k ∆T/Y (9.1-1)
 That is, the rate of heat flow per unit area is
proportional to the temperature decrease over the
distance Y.
 The constant of proportionality k is the thermal
conductivity of the slab.
 Equation 9.1-1 is also valid if a liquid or gas is placed
between the two plates, provided that suitable
precautions are taken to eliminate convection and
radiation.
 In subsequent chapters it is better to work with the
above equation in differential form. That is, we use
the limiting form of Eq. 9.1-1 as the slab thickness
approaches zero.
 The local rate of heat flow per unit area (heat flux) in
the positive y direction is designated by qy. In this
notation Eq. 9.1-1 becomes
qy = - k dT/dy (9.1-2)
 This equation, which serves to define k, is the one-
dimensional form of Fourier's law of heat
conduction. It states that the heat flux by conduction
is proportional to the temperature gradient.
 If the temperature varies in all three directions, then
we can write an equation like
 qx = - k dT/dx; qy = - k dT/dy; qz = - k dT/dz
(9.1-3, 4, 5)
 If each of these equations is multiplied by the
appropriate unit vector and the equations are then
added, we get
 . q = - k T (9.1-6)
 which is the three-dimensional form of Fourier's law.
Eq. 9.1-2 for each of the coordinate directions.
 This equation describes the molecular transport of
heat in isotropic media. By "isotropic" we mean that
the material has no preferred direction, so that heat
is conducted with the same thermal conductivity k in
all directions
 Chapter 17: Moleculer Mass
Transport: Fick‘s Law of Binary
Diffusion
 Consider a thin, horizontal, fused-silica plate of area
A and thickness Y. Suppose that initially (for time t <
0) both horizontal surfaces of the plate are in
contact with air, which we regard as completely
insoluble in silica.
 At time t = 0, the air below the plate is suddenly
replaced by pure helium, which is appreciably
soluble in silica.
 The helium slowly penetrates into the plate by virtue
of its molecular motion and ultimately appears in the
gas above.
Fig. 17.1-1. Build-up to the
steady-state concentration
profile for the diffusion of
helium (substance A) through
fused silica (substance B).
The symbol A stands for the
mass fraction of helium, and
A0 is the solubility of helium
in fused silica, expressed as
the mass fraction. See Figs.
1.1-1 and 9.1-1 for the
analogous momentum and
heat transport situations.
 In this system, we will call helium "species A" and
silica "species B"
 The concentrations will be given by the "mass
fractions" A and B.
 The mass fraction A is the mass of helium divided
by the mass of helium plus silica in a given
microscopic volume element.
 The mass fraction B is defined analogously.
 For time t < 0, the mass fraction of helium, A, is
everywhere equal to zero.
 For time t > 0, at the lower surface, y = 0, the mass
fraction of helium is equal to A0. This latter quantity
is the solubility of helium in silica, expressed as
mass fraction, just inside the solid.
 As time proceeds the mass fraction profile develops,
with A = A0 at the bottom surface of the plate and
A = 0 at the top surface of the plate.
 As indicated in Fig. 17.1-1, the profile tends toward
a straight line with increasing t.
 This molecular transport of one substance relative to
another is known as diffusion (also known as mass
diffusion, concentration diffusion, or ordinary
diffusion).
 We thus have the situation represented in Fig. 17.1-
1; this process is analogous to those described in
Fig. 1.1-1 and Fig. 9.1-1 where viscosity and thermal
conductivity were defined.
 At steady state, it is found that the mass flow Ay of
helium in the positive y direction can be described to
a very good approximation by
 .

 That is, the mass flow rate of helium per unit area (or
mass flux) is proportional to the mass fraction
difference divided by the plate thickness.
 Here  is the density of the silica-helium system, and
the proportionality factor DAB is the diffusivity of the
silica-helium system.
 We now rewrite Eq. 17.1-1 for a differential element
within the slab:
 .

 Here wAy/A has been replaced by jAy, the molecular

mass flux of helium in the positive y direction.
 Note that the first subscript, A, designates the
chemical species (in this case, helium), and the
second subscript indicates the direction in which
diffusive transport is taking place (in this case, the y
direction).
 Equation 17.1-2 is the one-dimensional form of
Fick's first law of diffusion. It is valid for any binary
solid, liquid, or gas solution, provided that jAy is
defined as the mass flux relative to the mixture
velocity vy.
 For the system examined in Fig. 17.1-1, the helium
is moving rather slowly and its concentration is very
small, so that vy  0 during the diffusion process.
 In general, for a binary mixture
 .
 Thus v is an average in which the species velocities,
vA and vB, are weighted according to the mass
fractions. This kind of velocity is referred to as the
mass average velocity.
 The species velocity vA is not the instantaneous
molecular velocity of a molecule of A, but rather the
arithmetic average of the velocities of all the
molecules of A within a small volume element.
 The mass flux jAy is then defined, in general, as
Mass flux of A relative to
total mass flux
Binary mixture system
 The mass flux of B is defined analogously.
 As the two chemical species interdiffuse there is,
locally, a shifting of the center of mass in the y
direction if the molecular weights of A and B differ.
 The mass fluxes jAy and jBy are so defined that jAy +
jBy = 0. In other words, the fluxes jAy and jBy are
measured with respect to the motion of the center of
mass (motion of total mass, vy).
 If we write equations similar to Eq. 17.1-2 for the x
and z directions and then combine all three
equations, we get the vector form of Fick's law:
.
 A similar relation can be written for species B:
 .

 It is shown in Example 17.1-2 that DAB = DBA.. Thus

for the pair A-B, there is just one diffusivity; in
general it will be a function of pressure, temperature,
and composition.
 The mass diffusivity DAB, the thermal diffusivity  =
k/(Cp), and the momentum diffusivity (kinematic
viscosity)  = / all have dimensions of (length2I
time). The ratios of these three quantities are
therefore dimensionless groups:

 These dimensionless groups of fluid properties play

a prominent role in dimensionless equations for
systems in which competing transport processes
occur
 In Tables 17.1-1, 2, 3, and 4 some values of DAB in
cm2/s are given for a few gas, liquid, solid, and
polymeric systems. These values can be converted
easily to m2/s by multiplication by 10-4
 Diffusivities of gases at low density are almost
independent of A, increase with temperature, and
vary inversely with pressure.
 Diffusivity in liquid and solid phases are strongly
concentration-dependent and generally increase
with temperature.
 Some important concepts in
Transport Phenomena
1. In transport phenomena, fluid motion is quantified
as momentum. Momentum is a vector (imagine as
a car), while mass and heat are scalars (imagine
as passangers).
2. There are 2 mechanismns in momentum transfer:
diffusion (due to velocity gradient) and convection.
Convection is driven by external forces such as
pressure difference, density gradient or gravity
force. Diffusion of fluid (driven by velocity gradient)
usually occurs at the interface between fluid and
solid surface or between immicible fluids.
3. There are 2 mechanisms in mass and heat
transfers: diffusion and convection. By diffusion,
mass and heat respectively are driven by
concentration gradient and temperature gradient.
In this case, mass and heat do not need moving
fluid (convection).
4. As scalars, mass and heat can move to different
locations (spatial movement) without concentration
and temperature gradients if there is convection
(fluid motion without being restricted by velocity
gradient at an interface).
5. In boundary layer (a layer where there is
concentration, temperature or velocity gradients) at
interface, mass, heat and momentum transfers
occur by diffusion, while outside the boundary
layer, mass, heat and momentum occur by
convection.
6. In point 5 for heat transfer, Nu = proportional
function of Rea and Prb. Coefficients of a and b >0.
Re = ratio of momentum rate by convection to
momentum rate by difussion, Pr = Prandtl number =
ratio of momentum rate by diffusion to heat rate by
diffusion= ratio of momentum diffusivity (kinematic
viscosity) to thermal diffusivity (k/(rho*Cp), while Nu
= Nusselt number = ratio of heat rate by convection
to heat rate by diffusion.
7. So, heat transfer by convection only occurs if there
is momentum rate by convection as implied by the
existence of Re. In another word, there must be the
role of moving fluid to allow heat transfer by
convection. Thermal diffusivity is the ratio of heat
conducted to heat stored.
8. In point 5, for mass transfer, Sh = proportional
function of Rea and Scb. Coefficients of a and b >
0. Re = ratio of momentum rate by convection to
momentum rate by difussion, Sc = Schmidt number
= ratio of momentum rate by diffusion to mass rate
by diffusion = ratio of momentum diffusivity
(kinematic viscosity) to mass diffusivity, while Sh =
Sherwood number = ratio of mass rate by
convection to mass rate by diffusion
9. So, mass transfer by convection only occurs if
there is momentum rate by convection as implied
by the existence of Re. In another word, there must
be the role of moving fluid to allow mass transfer
by convection.
10. The existence of turbulence affects heat and mass
transfer as a result of phase change, large shear,
vorticity in which Pr is replaced by Prt in heat
transfer or Sc by Sct in mass transfer.
11. Prt=6.374 Re-0.238 Pr-0.161 (B.O. Hasan, 2007).
Re = 10,000 -100,000. The higher the value of Re,
the higher is Prt. Prt is turbulent Prandtl number.
12. Sct depends on fluid and type of turbulences, but
its value mostly is less than unity (Gualtieri et al,
2017), whereas Sc can extend from less to more
than unity. Sct is turbulent Schmidt number
13. Definition of Re indicates that Re is accounted for if
there is interaction between fluid-solid surface or
immicible fluids. Otherwise, Re =  (infinity). The
higher the value Re, the lower is the restriction of
interface on heat or mass transfer by convection.