Copper-Contamination Cracking
in the W e l d Heat-Affected Zone
Alloy systems susceptible to embrittlement by Cu-induced hot cracking
in the weld heat-affected zone are identified and classified
BY W. F. SAVAGE, E. P. NIPPES A N D M. C MUSHALA
ABSTRACT. Hot cracking in the weld
heat-affected zone has traditionally
been associated with microsegrega-
tion and liquation of low-melting,
second-phase particles w i t h i n the base
metal. Recently, hot cracking has been
reported at positions in the weld heat-
affected zone remote from the fusion
boundary in Haynes 188, a Co-base
superalloy. 1 The hot-cracking was in-
duced by surface contamination of the
base metal by Cu abraded from the Cu
welding fixtures prior to welding.
Therefore, this investigation was un-
dertaken to determine the mechanism
responsible for the Cu-induced hot-
cracking which cannot be explained
by contemporary theory.
A variety of Fe-, Ni-, and Co-base
alloys were tested with the Tigamajig
and the Varestraint weldability tests,
both with and without Cu surface-
contamination, to determine the struc-
ture sensitivity of the Cu-induced hot-
cracking. The Fe- and Co-base alloys
that have a FCC structure at the melt-
ing point of Cu, 1982.3 F (1083 C) were
found to be susceptible, whereas the
Ni-base superalloys were insensitive to
the Cu-contamination hot cracking. In
general, the use of unplated Cu weld
fixtures is likely to result in sporadic
Cu-contamination hot-cracking as a
consequence of Cu pickup on the
work surface while being loaded into
the fixture.
Introduction
The problem of hot-cracking has
long been recognized in a w i d e variety
of weldments. This problem has tradi-
tionally been associated w i t h micro-
segregation in the heat-affected
zone.
Recently a curious form of sporadic,
though troublesome, cracking has
been observed by several fabricators of
FCC Co-base superalloys 1 and BCC Fe-
base alloys which experience a trans-
formation to FCC austenite at elevated
temperatures. The cracking appears to
be similar to hot-cracking except
that:
1. The cracking is usually observed
at positions in the heat-affected zone
slightly removed from the fusion
boundary.
2. The completely intergranular cracking.
crack morphology is typical of hot-
cracking; but since the cracks are not
contiguous w i t h the fusion boundary,
their morphology can not be explained
by any of the existing models for hot-
cracking.
3. The cracking propensity does not
follow the usual pattern, whereby
certain heats are consistently more
susceptible than others; rather the
incidence of cracking seems to be
almost statistically random, being ex-
tremely severe at isolated locations
and virtually non-existent elsewhere in
the same weldment.
Preliminary work indicates that the
hot-cracking results from Cu abraded
onto the surface. Verification of this
analysis w o u l d be significant because
a large proportion of the fixtures used
by welding fabricators is constructed
of either Cu or Cu-base alloys to
provide high thermal and electrical
conductivity.
The mechanism responsible for this
form of hot-cracking is believed to be
liquid-metal embrittlement involving
W. F. SAVAGE is Professor of Metallurgical
Engineering and Director of Welding
Research, and E. F. NIPPES is Professor of
Metallurgical Engineering, Rensselaer Poly- finally
technic Institute, Troy, N. Y.; M. C.
MUSHALA, former Graduate Assistant at
RPI, is now a Captain in the U.S. Air Force, by Eborall and Gregory'—namely, liq-
Randolph Air Force Base, San Antonio,
Texas.
W E L D I N G RESEARCH S U P P L E M E N T I 145-s
molten Cu. It is postulated that the
surface of the weldment is contami-
nated by Cu which is accidentally
picked up from the weld tooling by
abrasion. The heat of welding then
melts this minute amount of Cu
which, under the action of thermal
stresses, penetrates the grain bounda-
ries by a liquid-metal-embrittlement
mechanism to cause the observed
Heretofore, the role of liquid-metal
embrittlement has only been consid-
ered in systems involving large quanti-
ties of liquid metal in contact w i t h a
solid base metal. This investigation
will demonstrate that minute quanti-
ties of certain metals w i t h melting
temperatures below that of the base
metal may contaminate the surface of
a base metal and induce significant
cracking by liquid-metal embrittle-
ment.
Throughout the remainder of this
paper this form of hot-cracking shall
be referred to as copper-contamina-
tion cracking. Accordingly, the symbol
"CCC" will be used to refer to copper-
contamination cracking, to minimize
the repetition of this lengthy phrase.
The first recognition that Cu could
be responsible for hot shortness was
associated w i t h the production of hot-
rolled sheet of low-C and mild steels.
The majority of such hot-shortness
investigations reached t w o similar
conclusions:
1. There is no penetration of the
grain boundaries in the base metal at
temperatures below the melting point
of Cu; the significance of the fact that
liquid Cu is required for cracking was
realized by Cox and W i n n 2 w h o
mentioned that the mechanism of
embrittlement might be that proposed
uid-metal embrittlement.
2. It is also widely accepted that the
surface of the material must be
stressed in tension above the yield
stress if there is to be measurable
grain-boundary penetration by the
liquid Cu.
Smith predicted that the penetration
by a liquid phase w o u l d be greater as
the dihedral angle between the solid
and liquid phase decreased. 4 This
concept further explains why the
attack by liquid Cu should be so
severe. According to Nicholson and
Murray, 8 the dihedral angle between
Cu and mild steel is a m i n i m u m at the
melting point of Cu as shown in Fig. 1.
Therefore in mild steel, at a tempera-
ture only slightly above the melting
point of Cu, the amount of undis-
solved Cu is a maximum and the dihe-
dral angle between the liquid Cu and
an austenite grain boundary is a mini-
mum. These observations can account
for the many experimental observa-
tions which have indicated the pene-
tration by liquid Cu into mild steel to
be a maximum at a temperature slight-
ly above the melting point of Cu.
Smith 4 theorized that the dihedral
angle could be predicted from the
balance of surface free energy. If the
surface free energy of the austenite-
austenite (y-y) grain boundary is
denoted by cr Ty and the surface free
energy of the austenite-liquid (y-L)
phase boundary is denoted by o"v,., as
shown in Fig. 2, then the dihedral
angle can be computed by the f o l l o w -
ing relationship:
CTyy = 2cr yl . cos (6/2)
This dihedral angle can have any
value from 0 to 180 deg, depending on
the value of cr Yy /o~ YI ,. If the dihedral
angle is 0 deg, annealing above the
melting point of the second phase will
result in continuous films of the liquid
second phase at the grain boundaries
and in disintegration of the alloy along
these grain boundaries. Penetration
along the grain boundaries is still
possible for dihedral angles greater
than 0 but less than 60 deg. In such
B IS THE DIHEDRAL ANGLE
°rr^
r
Fig. 2—Equilibrium between a grain boundary
and two equal interphase boundaries
Fig. 3 (right)—Ratio of interphase boundary tension and grain
boundary tension as a function of dihedral angle of second
phase
146-s | M A Y 1978
TEMPERATURE (°F)
600. I800 2000 2200
r r
40 SH0WING ESTIMATED
ACCURACY OF * 5 %
Ixl
^30
900 IOOO I IOO I200
TEMPERATURE (°C)
Fig. 1—Dihedral angle-temperature rela-
tionship for the copper-mild steel system
cases, the liquid w o u l d penetrate
along the grain edge until the
predicted equilibrium dihedral angle is
attained.
According to Smith, capillarity is the
mechanism of liquid-metal transport
along the grain boundary. This pene-
tration is accelerated by stress and it is
possible that a tensile stress could
cause continued penetration and sub-
sequent material failure for dihedral
angles between 0 and 60 deg.
W i t h a knowledge of the role of
surface tension in the penetration of
grain boundaries by liquid metals,
many investigators sought to predict
the embrittlement of alloy systems
from a knowledge of the surface
tensions involved. Van Vlack 6 reported
the interfacial energy for an austenite-
austenite grain boundary in Fe to be
850 ergs/cm 2 and that of a liquid Cu-
austenite boundary to be 430 ergs/cm 2
at 2021 F (1105 C). If it is assumed that
the surface tension is numerically
equal to the interfacial surface energy,
then these data predict a ratio of the
surface energies, cr s l - /cr s s , to be 0.506.
As shown in Fig. 3, this corresponds to
a dihedral angle of approximately 18
SCALE A
0 30 60
8 = Angle between faces of grain of second phase
deg. Therefore, one w o u l d expect
rapid penetration of the austenite
grain boundaries in Fe by liquid Cu at
2021 F (1105 C). This is consistent w i t h
the previously mentioned investiga-
tions of hot shortness in mild steel.
However, subsequent attempts to
predict the incidence of hot shortness
from the surface tensions involved
have met with varying degrees of
success. From a review of surface-
tension literature, it can be seen that
the surface tension is dependent upon
composition, temperature, grain
boundaries, surface condition, and
trace element additions. As a result,
different investigators have quoted
values for surface tensions in the same
system, under similar test conditions,
which may vary as much as 20%.
Obviously, such variations make the
prediction of the dihedral angle by
Smith's formulation at best uncertain.
As can be seen in Fig. 3, a 10% error in a
surface-tension measurement w o u l d
change the ratio of o" S I /o- s s from 0.50
to 0.55, w o u l d change the calculated
dihedral angle from 0 to 45 deg.
The real crux of the problem lies in
the critical assumption that the surface
tension is equal to the interfacial ener-
gy (surface free energy). Michaels 7 has
shown that, because of the anisotropy
of the crystal, the surface free energy
and the surface tension are rarely, if
ever, equal. Hence, the assumption
that the surface tension is numerically
equal to the surface energy can intro-
duce a significant error in the afore-
mentioned computations.
Bredzs and Schwartzbart 8 have
shown that a volume diffusion mecha-
nism for the penetration of Cu-brazing
filler metals into Fe-base alloys w o u l d
be entirely too slow to account for the
observed penetration. They calculated
that the penetration by volume diffu-
sion w o u l d only be 0.0008 in. (0.02
mm) after four months at 1990 F (1088
C). Since the rate of grain-boundary
penetration in an Fe-base by solid Cu
SCALE B
90 I20 I50 ISO
Table 1—Summary of the Alloys and Their Nominal Compositions Used in This Investigation

Material Fe Cr Ni Co Other
AISI Type 304 .067 BAL 18.3 8.65 - 1.68Mn, .51 Si
AISI Type 316 .15max BAL 16-18 12-14 - 2.0Mn max, 1.5-2.5Mo
AISI Type 321 .08max BAL 17-19 8-11 - Ti = 5C
AISI Type 347 .12max BAL 18-1914 10-14 - 2.0Mn max, Cb + Ta = 10C, 1.5max
AISI Type 410 .05-.15 BAL 11'/2-13'/2 .5max - 1.0Mn max, .5Mo max
AISI Type 430 .12max BAL 14-18 - - l.OMn max
AISI Type 446 .35max BAL 23-27 - - -
A-286 .05max BAL 15.0 26.0 - 1.35Mn, 1.25MO
Inconel 750 .05 6.69 15.18 73.10 - .58Mn, 2.36Ti, .68AI, .96Cb + Ta
Inconel 718 .08 18.30 18.93 BAL .11 3.02Mo, .62AI, .88Ti, 5.16Cb + Ta
Rene 41 .05-.12 5.0max 18-20 BAL 10-12 1.5AI, 3.15Ti, 9-10mo
Waspaloy .05-.1 2.0m ax 18-21 BAL 12-15 1.25AI, 3.0Ti, 3.5-5.0MO
Hastelloy-X .09 18.05 21.8 BAL 1.58 8.65MO
L-605 .10 - 20.0 10.0 BAL 15.0W
Haynes 188 .10 1.4 21.82 21.87 BAL 13.83W
HY-80 .18 BAL 1.68 2.99 - .3Mn, .41Mo
AISI 4130 .28-.33 BAL .8-1.1 - - 4-.6Mn, .2-.3MO
AISI 4340 .38-43 BAL V-.9 1.65-2 - .6-.8Mn, .15-.25MO
Autobody Steel .055 BAL .01 .05 - .33Mn, .01 M o
6061 T-6 — .33 .22 — — .2Cu, 52Si, .88Mg, .032Mn, AI-BAL

may be 10,000 times faster than
volume diffusion, Bredzs and
Schwartzbart have shown that any
diffusion process involving solid Cu
could not possibly account for the
observed penetration of Cu into mild
steel. They have concluded that the
grain-boundary penetration must have
resulted from liquid-metal grain-
boundary penetration. They reported
that the Cu-penetration depth was
dependent upon temperature, austen-
ite grain size, composition of the steel,
stress distribution in the steel, and
composition of the brazing alloy.
Other investigations of brazing and
soldering have also demonstrated the
following:
1. The liquid Cu or Cu-alloy pene-
trates the austenite grain boundaries in
Fe and, by pinning those grain b o u n d -
aries, prohibits grain growth as long as
the liquid metal is present.
2. The extent of penetration by
liquid Cu increases with increase in:
the C content of the base metal, the
hardness of the base metal, and the
grain size of the base metal.
3. For liquid metals to penetrate
grain boundaries, the liquid metal on
the surface of the base metal must
contact an area w h i c h has experienced
some localized plastic deformation.
4. Penetration is enhanced by wet-
ting of the base-metal substrate by the
liquid metal.
Borland 9 was the first to suggest that
liquid Cu could cause cracks in the
weld heat-affected zone. This was
predicted by his "Generalized Theory
of Super-Solidus Cracking" w h i c h is
based, in part, on the dihedral angle
dependence of liquid-metal penetra-
tion.
Asnis1" has shown that liquid Cu on
the work surface can produce signifi-
cant heat-affected zone cracking.
However, the most comprehensive
treatment to date has been that by
Matthews 11 . He investigated the infil-
tration of the weld heat-affected zone
by dissimilar weld metals. He has
shown that Cu-rich weld deposits can
produce significant heat-affected-
zone cracking when the base metal is
either FCC or experiences an allotropic
transformation to an austenitic phase
during welding. His experiments uti-
lized a Cu-Ni alloy which was intro-
duced as a filler metal during a G M A W
process.
Such a system can be envisioned as a
reservoir of a liquid Cu-rich alloy (the
weld pool) in contact w i t h a base
metal which is stressed in tension from
thermal stresses normally associated
with welding. Therefore, because his
system corresponded to the classic
model for liquid-metal embrittlement,
Matthews hypothesized that the
mechanism for the observed hot-
cracking was liquid-metal embrittle-
ment. The results of his investigation
showed that the hot-cracking ap-
peared to obey most of the rules
quoted as governing the incidence of
liquid-metal embrittlement. In partic-
ular, the penetration was more severe
when the liquid filler metal and the
base metal exhibited low mutual solu-
bility and did not form intermetallic
compounds w i t h one another.
Following Matthews' work, Stan-
ton 1 2 has shown that Cu deposited as a
weld overlay could induce significant
heat-affected-zone cracking in a vari-
ety of steels, including AISI 4340 steel.
His results and conclusions closely
paralleled those of Matthews 11 .
Matthews 1 was the first to report the
embrittlement of the weld-heat-
affected zone by Cu w h i c h had been
abraded onto the surface of a Co-base
superalloy prior to welding. Further-
more, he demonstrated that Cu con-
centrations in solid solution (up to
0.96% in L-605) do not increase the
susceptibility to hot-cracking—that is
to say, Cu abraded on the surface can
induce hot-cracking but Cu in solid
solution should not be a factor in this
type of hot cracking. Matthews sug-
gests that liquid-metal embrittlement
may be the mechanism responsible for
the Cu-contamination-induced hot-
cracking.
Liquid-metal embrittlement has
been described as the reduction of
fracture stress and loss of ductility
caused by liquid metal in contact w i t h
the surface of a solid metal. 13 For the
purposes of this investigation, two
forms of liquid-metal embrittlement
are applicable:
1. Near instantaneous failure when
a liquid metal is applied to a solid
metal subject to a tensile stress.
2. Grain-boundary penetration of
the solid by the liquid such that the
structure eventually disintegrates.
The incidence of liquid-metal em-
brittlement is restricted to specific
combinations of liquid and solid
metals. Because of the similarity to
stress-corrosion cracking, it was first
thought that liquid-metal embrittle-
ment arose from basically the same
mechanism. However, there are sev-
eral experimental observations which
indicate that different mechanisms are
involved. 13 Specifically:
1. Several pure metals (Cu, Sn, Zn,
and Al) are embrittled by Hg, but do
not appear to crack under convention-
al stress-corrosion tests.
2. Liquid-metal embrittlement can
occur nearly instantaneously following
contact with the liquid metal while
stress-corrosion cracking invariably ex-
hibits a finite incubation time.
Phenomenologically, three condi-
tions must be satisfied, for liquid-
metal embrittlement to occur between
a specific solid-liquid metal couple.

W E L D I N G RESEARCH SUPPLEME NT I 147-s

The three criteria, w h i c h have been
derived from experimental observa-
tion, are the following: 1 3
1. There exists a low mutual solubil-
ity between the liquid and solid
metals.
2. There exists no intermetallic
compound formations between the
solid-liquid metal couple.
3. There exists a barrier to plastic
flow in the base metal, w h i c h is also in
contact with the liquid.
Object
A peculiar form of heat-affected-
zone hot-cracking has been attributed
to the presence of minute amounts of
metallic Cu on the surface of the w e l d -
ment. In this case, rubbing contact
between Cu weld tooling and the
material being welded transfers suffi-
cient Cu to the surface of the work
Fig. 4—Photograph of the Tigamajig testing device showing: A—GTA torch, B—specimen,
C— constant-radius die block, D-clamping fixtures, E—stop blocks, and F—loading ram
148-s | M A Y 1978
pieces to cause cracking to occur
when welding materials sensitive to
this form of cracking.
To date, no quantitative investiga-
tion of this CCC phenomenon has
been reported in the literature. Thus, it
is not certain what type of alloy
systems are sensitive to this form of
cracking, nor is the amount of Cu
required k n o w n . Therefore, it seemed
appropriate first to report what alloy
systems are susceptible to this phe-
nomenon and then in a later paper
report the responsible mechanism.
Materials and Apparatus
Materials
Table 1 lists the nominal composi-
tion of the alloys studied and the
specific tests used to evaluate the
sensitivity of each alloy to CCC. First,
the alloys can be classified as either
transformable or nontransformable
within the temperature range of room
temperature to slightly above the
melting point of Cu (1982.3 F, 1083 C).
Attention is drawn first to the n o n -
transformable alloys w h i c h can be
subdivided as follows:
1. Fe-base stainless steels w h i c h
have a BCC structure throughout the
temperature range of interest—Types
430 and 446 stainless steels were
chosen as representative of this sub-
division. These alloys have consider-
able differences in the Cr and Ni
concentrations used to maintain their
BCC structure.
2. Ni-Base superalloys which are
precipitation hardened by a Ni:1 (Al,
Ti), y', precipitate and have a FCC
structure throughout the temperature
range of interest—Inconel 750, Inconel
718, Rene 41, Waspaloy, and Hastelloy-
X were chosen as representative of this
subdivision.
3. Co-base superalloys which are
precipitation hardened w i t h various
carbide phases and have a FCC struc-
ture throughout the temperature range
of interest—Haynes 188 and L-605 were
chosen as representative of this sub-
division.
4. An Al alloy, 6061 T-6, was
selected as a representative example of
an Al structural material w h i c h has a
FCC structure.
Secondly, note the transformable
alloys w h i c h can be subdivided as
follows:
1. Fe-base stainless steels having a
FCC austenitic structure from room
temperature to well above the melting
point of Cu—the alloys selected repre-
sent normal austenitic stainless steels
(Types 304 and 316), and the Ti- and
Cb-stabilized austenitic steels (Types
321 and 347, respectively). However,
these alloys do experience at least
partial transformation to BCC ferrite at
temperatures near the solidus.
2. Fe-base martensitic stainless
steels which have a FCC structure at
the melting point of Cu and transform
to BCC ferrite and/or martensite on
cooling—Type 410 stainless steel was
chosen as representative of this sub-
division.
3. Fe-base precipitation-hardened
stainless steels which have a FCC
structure at the melting point of Cu
and are precipitation hardened by
intermetallic compounds containing
Ti which dissociate and dissolve in the
matrix at the melting point of Cu;
Table 2—Composition of Electrolytic
Copper Plating Bath
CuSO.-SH.O 1355 gm
H,SO, cone. 268 cc
H,0 5680 cc
A - 2 8 6 w a s c h o s e n as r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f
Table 3—Summary of the Standard Welding Conditions for the Tigamajig tests
this subdivision.
4. P l a i n - C a n d l o w - a l l o y c o n s t r u c t u -
ral steels w h i c h h a v e a FCC s t r u c t u r e at Electrode extension VA in. (6.4 mm)
the melting p o i n t of Cu and transform Arc length Vs in. (3.2 mm)
t o a BCC o r a BCT s t r u c t u r e o n c o o l - Electrode Vs in. (3.2 mm) W-2% T h 0 2 ,
i n g — t h e s e a l l o y s are r e p r e s e n t e d b y a 90 deg incl. angle
l o w - C , p l a i n - C steel ( a u t o b o d y s t o c k ) , Shielding gas Ar, 60 cfh
a quench-and-tempered low-alloy Pre-purge time 30 s
Arc voltage 12 V
steel ( H Y - 8 0 ) , a n d t w o medium-C,
Arc current 40 A
h i g h - a l l o y steels (AISI 4130 a n d AISI
Post arc delay time None
4340). Power supply 3-phase rectifier
The a b o v e alloys represent a w i d e
v a r i e t y o f Fe-, N i - , a n d C o - b a s e a l l o y s Material Arc time, s
and represent a cross-section of t h e
Inconel 750 2.0
s t r u c t u r a l a l l o y s in c o m m o n usage
Type 446 6.0
today. Thus by studying this g r o u p of
Rene 41 6.0
m a t e r i a l s it w a s p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e Type 410 6.0
t h e alloys m o s t s u s c e p t i b l e t o t h i s Inconel 718 6.0
f o r m of w e l d h e a t - a f f e c t e d - z o n e e m - A-286 6.0
brittlement. L-605 8.0
Hastelloy-X 12.0
Description of the Varestraint Testing Waspaloy 24.0
Device Type 430 24.0
Type 304 24.0
T h e V a r e s t r a i n t test w a s d e v e l o p e d Type 316 24.0
at RPI t o e v a l u a t e t h e w e l d a b i l i t y o f Type 347 24.0
structural alloys. A c o m p l e t e descrip- 6061 T-6<" 5.0
t i o n of t h e test has b e e n p u b l i s h e d
"Note: 12 V, 70 A.
p r e v i o u s l y 1 4 . T h e V a r e s t r a i n t test w a s
used in t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n t o e v a l u a t e
materials representing a w i d e variety mens by electrodeposition. A n acid
t h e s u s c e p t i b i l i t y o f H Y - 8 0 , AISI 4130,
of a l l o y a n d s t r u c t u r e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s Cu-plating solution,1" w i t h the c o m p o -
a n d AISI 4340 steel t o liquid-Cu
w e r e subjected to either Tigamajig or s i t i o n l i s t e d i n T a b l e 2, w a s u s e d as t h e
embrittlement.
Varestraint testing t o evaluate their plating electrolyte. This solution was
susceptibility to CCC. Both the Tiga- stable a n d o p e r a t e d w i t h a c a t h o d e
Description of the Tigamajig Testing
m a j i g a n d V a r e s t r a i n t test e v a l u a t e t h e efficiency experimentally d e t e r m i n e d
Device
hot-cracking susceptibility of structur- t o b e 100%. T o assure u n i f o r m p l a t i n g
T h e T i g a m a j i g test w a s d e v e l o p e d at al w e l d m e n t s , w h i c h are G T A w e l d e d , quality, the electrolyte was m o n i t o r e d
RPI 1S t o c o m p l e m e n t t h e V a r e s t r a i n t by c o m p a r i n g t h e a m o u n t o f h o t - by standard specific-gravity and titra-
testing device by p r o v i d i n g a capabili- c r a c k i n g p r o d u c e d b y d i f f e r e n t levels tion measurements.
ty for testing sheet metal specimens. o f an e x t e r n a l l y a p p l i e d a u g m e n t e d A constant-current source was built
A l t h o u g h t h e T i g a m a j i g test is s u b s t a n - strain. N o t o n l y d i d t h e s e tests i n d i c a t e t o s u p p l y t h e p l a t i n g c u r r e n t . Because
tially different in design f r o m the w h i c h m e t a l l u r g i c a l s y s t e m s are sus- t h e source maintains a constant cur-
V a r e s t r a i n t test, its p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n is c e p t i b l e t o C C C , b u t t h e y also p e r m i t - rent f l o w b e t w e e n t h e Cu anodes and
still t o e v a l u a t e t h e w e l d a b i l i t y o f a ted a systematic analysis of the t h e s p e c i m e n , t h e d e p o s i t i o n rate o f
structural material. m o r p h o l o g y and related characteris- m e t a l i o n s o n t h e s p e c i m e n s u r f a c e is
Figure 4 is a p h o t o g r a p h o f t h e a p p a - tics o f C C C in real w e l d s . c o n s t a n t . T h i s assures a p l a t i n g c o n s i s -
ratus. T h e G T A t o r c h (A) is u s e d t o t e n c y b e t w e e n s p e c i m e n s b e c a u s e it
p r o d u c e an arc s p o t w e l d in t h e c e n t e r Copper Plating Procedure eliminates the p r o b l e m s associated
of t h e s p e c i m e n (B). A f t e r e s t a b l i s h i n g w i t h the non-linear voltage-current
a d y n a m i c t h e r m a l e q u i l i b r i u m , t h e arc C o p p e r w a s i n t r o d u c e d as a c o n t a m - characteristics d u r i n g e l e c t r o d e p o s i -
is i n t e r r u p t e d a n d t h e l o a d i n g r a m is i n a n t o n t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e test s p e c i - tion.16
accelerated u p w a r d to force the speci-
m e n to c o n f o r m to the radius die
b l o c k (C). This causes a r e p r o d u c i b l e Table 4—Summary of the Externally Applied Strains Used for the Tigamajig Tests
t e n s i l e s t r a i n , w h i c h is i n v e r s e l y p r o -
p o r t i o n a l t o t h e radius of t h e die Thickness,
b l o c k , to b e a p p l i e d o n t h e t o p s u r f a c e applied strains
Material mils
of t h e w e l d e d s p e c i m e n . T h e c r a c k i n g
p r o p e n s i t y o f t h e test s p e c i m e n can Inconel 750 62 1.0 3.5
Type 446 56 0.9 3.2
t h e n be r e l a t e d t o t h e m a g n i t u d e o f
Rene 41 65 1.1 3.7
t h e strain necessary t o c a u s e c r a c k -
Type 410 74 0.90 4.2
ing. L-605 87 1.0 3.5
Inconel 718 75 0.9 4.3
Procedure
A-286 62 1.0 3.5
Type 430 105 0.8 4.2
The experimental investigations e m - Hastelloy-X 65 1.1 3.7
Waspaloy 86 1.0 3.5
ployed to determine the mechanism
Type 347 108 0.9 4.3
responsible for the CCC of the w e l d
Type 304 107 0.9 4.3
heat-affected zone were designed on Type 316 137 1.1 3.4
the assumption that liquid-metal e m - 6061 T-6 128
brittlement was responsible. T w e n t y

WELDING R E S E A R C H S U P P L E M E N T 1149-s
 graphic examination at higher magnifi-
Table 5—Summary of Characteristics of Alloys Not Sensitive to Copper-Contamination
Cracking cation.

Solubility Varestraint Testing Procedure

of Cu in Crystal The Varestraint test was used to
principal structure
determine the susceptibility to CCC of
Principal component, at MP
Material component of Cu materials too thick to be tested w i t h
% the Tigamajig testing device. The steels
Inconel 718 Ni 100 FCC were HY-80, AISI 4130, and AISI 4340.
Inconel 750 Ni 100 FCC As w i t h the Tigamajig test, the crack
Rene 41 Ni 100 FCC susceptibility of these steels was
Waspaloy Ni 100 FCC
assessed by comparing the cracking in
Hastelloy-X Ni 100 FCC
AISI Type 430 Fe 8.9 BCC
as-tested, Cu-plated specimens w i t h
AISI Type 446 Fe 8.9 BCC that of unplated control specimens.
6061 T-6 Al 4.1 FCC The Varestraint test utilized a longi-
tudinal GTA weld on specimens w h i c h
were subjected to augmented strains
as high as 4% during the test. The GTA
Table 6—Summary of Characteristics of Alloys Sensitive to Copper-Contamination weld was operated at 300A dcrp and
Cracking
12.5 V, a travel speed of 6.0 ipm (152.4
m m / m i n ) , an Ar shielding gas flow
Solubil ty
rate of 45 cfh (21.1 liters/min), an Ve in.
of Cu n Crystal
princip al structure
(3.2 mm) diam. W-2% T h 0 2 electrode
Principal c o m p o n ent, at MP with a 90 deg ground incl. angle at the
component of Cu tip, and a Vt in. (3.2 mm) tip-to-work
Material %
distance.
AISI Type 304 Fe 8.9 FCC The specimens were examined me-
AISI Type 316 Fe 8.9 FCC
tallographically to determine the
AISI Type 321 Fe 8.9 FCC
AISI Type 347 Fe 8.9 FCC
amount and location of any cracks
AISI Type 410 Fe 8.9 FCC induced by the augmented strain in
A-286 Fe 8.9 FCC the Cu-plated and unplated control
L-605 Co 9.0 FCC specimens.
Haynes 188 Co 9.0 FCC
HY-80 Fe 8.9 FCC Results and Discussion
AISI 4130 Fe 8.9 FCC
AISI 4340 Fe 8.9 FCC Twenty alloys were subjected to
Auto-body stock Fe 8.9 FCC screening tests to determine which
were sensitive to copper-contamina-
tion cracking (CCC). The Tigamajig
test and Varestraint test were em-
To eliminate the problem of prefer- with acetone to remove any electro-
ployed for this purpose. The eight
ential plating of the specimen edges, a lyte "dragged-out" on the surface and
alloys listed in Table 5 did not exhibit
plating tank was designed and con- then stored in a desiccator.
CCC, while the 12 listed in Table 6
structed for "shadowing"" 1 the speci-
were all subject to this phenomenon.
men edges. In this design, insulating
Tigamajig Testing Procedure The following generalizations can
panels prohibit the current travel other
be drawn from the results of these
than in straight lines in the space The Tigamajig test was used to
screening tests and from examination
between the panels. This causes a examine all the alloys listed in Table 1
of binary phase diagrams for the major
uniform current distribution across the with the exception of HY-80, AISI 4130
and AISI 4340. Three specimens of components of the individual alloys
specimen surface and robs the speci-
each alloy plated w i t h a uniform layer with Cu:
men edges of plating current. There-
fore, a uniform plate thickness is of copper 0.0714 mils (1.81 fim) thick 1. The major component of each of
produced across the surface of the were tested. Three unplated speci- the 12 alloys subject to CCC invariably
specimens w i t h minimal plating of the mens were then tested as control spec- exhibits a limited solid solubility for
specimen edges. imens. Cu (refer to Column 3, Tables 5 and
All specimens were cleaned before The welding current, voltage, and 6).
plating by wire brushing to remove arc time necessary to achieve a stable 2. At temperatures in the vicinity of
any oxide or other contaminate layer GTA spot weld were determined using the melting point of Cu, all alloys
on the surface, followed by degreasing a blank specimen of each material. subject to CCC exhibit a FCC structure
with acetone, and rinsing w i t h ethanol Table 3 summarizes these welding (refer to Column 4, Table 6).
in an ultrasonic cleaner. The areas not parameters for all Tigamajig tests. For 3. Neither of the alloys (Types 430
to be plated were covered w i t h mask- each value of augmented strain listed and 446) exhibiting a BCC structure at
ing tapes. in Table 4, both an unplated control temperatures in the vicinity of the
The thickness of the Cu electrode- specimen and a Cu-plated specimen melting point of Cu were subject to
posited on the surface of the speci- of each material were tested. CCC (refer to Column 4, Table 5).
mens was controlled by varying the The propensity for CCC was deter- 4. In no case does the major c o m p o -
plating time. As an example, the plate mined by comparing the amount of nent of an alloy subject to CCC form a
thickness for a specimen w i t h 4.5 in. 2 cracking observed in the plated and stable intermetallic c o m p o u n d w i t h
(2900 mm 2 ) area and 400 M A plating control specimens. Photomacrographs Cu.
current w o u l d be 0.0119 mils/min of the as-tested specimens were taken All of the above generalizations are
(0.302 / m i / m i n ) plating time. After at approximately X17, and selected consistent w i t h the requisites for
plating, the specimens were cleaned specimens were subjected to metallo- liquid-metal embrittlement reported

150-s | M A Y 1978
in the literature. Furthermore, none of
the alloys subject to CCC exhibits
characteristics contrary to these requi-
sites.
The Types 430 and 446 stainless steel
are not sensitive to CCC because the
liquid Cu can not be transported
through the crack of the instantaneous
crack tip by capillarity. According to
Asnis,10 the contact angle (0) for liquid
Cu on ferritic steels above the melting
point of Cu is 92-100 deg. Thus, the
capillary-transport velocity, V, ap-
proaches zero because of the cosine 0
term in the velocity expression:
*W- V X \. i
Tr cos 0 Pr) ?1
V =
6,i L
where T is the surface tension of the \
fVs V\
h ,4,'S
; \
liquid, r is the distance between the * . •'
• *v^B
-SiM
crack surfaces, /J, is the coefficient of
viscosity, and L is the crack length. V Si
s YvS Jl
Therefore, the ferritic steels w h i c h are A ' d§9
not notch sensitive at 2000 F (1093 C) vs'O ' \
could not be embrittled because the
liquid Cu-atoms can not be continual- Fig. 6—As-tested, copper-plated Type 304
ly supplied to the crack tip. stainless steel Tigamajig specimen tested at
4.3% augmented strain: A (top)-X'l5; B
It is also of interest to note that 19 of
(bottom)-x60 (reduced 53% on reproduc-
the 20 alloys tested had melting points tion)
above that of Cu. The 6061T-6 Al alloy, Fig. 5-As-tested, copper-plated Type 304
the only exception, was not sensitive stainless steel Tigamajig specimens: A
to CCC. In addition, it should be noted (top)—0.0% augmented strain; B (bot- graphs, taken at x 1 5 and X60 respec-
that Al forms a stable intermetallic tom)—0.9% augmented strain. X17 (re- tively, illustrating this change in CCC
duced 45% on reproduction) morphology.
compound w i t h Cu. Thus, it was not
certain at this point whether the fact Note that the cracks are parallel to
that 6061T-6 is not subject to CCC is a This is confirmed by visual observa- one another and normal to the
result of its lower melting point or its tion (Fig. 5) which indicates that the augmented strain produced by bend-
tendency to form stable intermetallic cracking in as-tested Tigamajig speci- ing the specimen over the die block.
compounds w i t h Cu. mens was located adjacent to the line This results from the fact that the 4.3%
where the surface luster of the speci- augmented strain is so large as to
men had a distinct change in appear- overpower the thermally induced
Tigamajig Cracking Morphologies
ance. The change in surface luster is shrinkage strains. Thus the principal
The as-tested specimens from the taken as an indication of where the strain is oriented parallel to the
Tigamajig screening tests described temperature on the surface of the augmented strain around the entire
earlier revealed a unique facet of CCC specimen exceeded the melting point circumference of the GTA spot weld.
morphology. Figure 5 shows the ap- of Cu. As a generalization, the Cu-contami-
pearance of Cu-plated Type 304 stain- However, the CCC morphology nation cracks will be oriented normal
less steel specimens tested at 0.0 and changed in the Cu-plated Type 304 to the principal strain. If the principal
0.9% augmented strain, respectively. stainless steel specimens w h e n the strain is parallel to the fusion boundary
Note that the CCC is circumferential level of augmented strain in the Tiga- the cracks will be normal to the fusion
and is located in the weld heat- majig testing was increased to 4.3%. line (the usual case in butt and fillet
affected zone but does not extend to Figure 6 consists of photomacro- welds). O n the other hand, if the
the weld fusion boundary.
The preferential location of the CCC
in the weld heat-affected zone remote Table 7-Summary of Alloys Predicted to be Insensitive to Copper-Contamination
from the fusion boundary indicates Cracking
that the ductility of the Cu-contami-
nated Type 304 stainless steel is a Form
minimum just above the melting point Have stable Have Lack of
of Cu. Furthermore, the principal extensive intermetallic melting wetting
shrinkage strains in the GTA spot weld solubility compounds points below or solubility
are strictly radial in the absence of w i t h Cu w i t h Cu that of Cu w i t h Cu
augmented strain and, thus, w o u l d be Mn Al Al Ferritic steel
expected to produce circumferential Ni Be Cd W
cracking. Thus, the circumferential Pd Cd Ga
cracks in Fig. 5 are located where the Pt Ga Au
peak temperature present renders the Mg Ph
material most susceptible to CCC (just Th Hg
above 1982 F, 1083 C) and are absent Sn Ag
Ti Sn
where the temperature is near or
U Zn
above the brittle-to-ductile transition
Zn
temperature.

W E L D I N G RESEARCH S U P P L E M E N T I 151-s
principal strain is normal to the fusion
boundary, the cracks w i l l be parallel to
the fusion line (the case for the
unstrained GTA spot weld). Where the
orientation of the principal strain
varies from one extreme to the other,
cracks of mixed orientation may
occur.
Note that the cracks in Fig. 6 extend
through the heat-affected zone to a
location much closer to the weld
fusion line than was the case for the
specimens tested at the lower strain
levels. The embrittlement of the weld
heat-affected zone nearer the weld
fusion line, w h i c h was not susceptible
to the CCC at the lower strain levels,
can be explained in terms of a strain-
rate effect.
W i t h the loading mechanism used
to induce the externally applied strain
in the Tigamajig specimen, the strain
rate is proportionate to the amount of
the augmented strain. Therefore, the
strain rate for tests w i t h 4.3% aug-
mented strain w o u l d be 5 times that
for tests made with 0.9% augmented
strain. W i t h specimens of 304 stainless
steel tested at 0.0 and 0.9% strain, the
strain rate in the outer fibers was slow
enough for a nearly complete brittle-
to-ductile transition to occur in the
heat-affected zone which extended
nearly 0.03 in. (0.76 mm) from the
fusion boundaries. O n the other hand
at the higher strain rates associated
with the 4.3% strain, the heat-affected
zone nearer the weld fusion line was
subject to the copper-contamination
cracking.
Note, however, that even w i t h the
higher strain rate associated w i t h a
4.3% strain, the cracks invariably stop
short of the fusion boundary. This is
believed to be caused by the presence
of a nearly complete network of delta
ferrite at the austenite grain bounda-
ries at peak temperatures above 2512
(1378 C). It should be recalled that
neither of the ferritic stainless steels
were subject to CCC in the screening
tests and, therefore, it seems reason-
able that ferrite in the austenite grain
boundaries w o u l d prevent CCC.
Another possible explanation in-
volves volatilization of the Cu by the
welding arc in the region immediately
adjacent to the weld fusion line. If the
change in surface luster present at this
location is indicative of removal of the
Cu by volatilization, the lack of
embrittlement w o u l d be expected.
The results of this experiment can be
summarized by the f o l l o w i n g :
1. Cu-contamination cracks are in-
tergranular.
2. Cu-contamination cracks are
aligned perpendicular to the direction
of the principal strain.
3. Cu-contamination cracks usually
are arrested short of the fusion b o u n d -
ary.
4. CCC occurs preferentially in re-
gions of the weld heat-affected zone
where the instantaneous temperature
renders the material involved most
susceptible to CCC.
Conclusion
In the final analysis, it is possible to
generalize the susceptibility of all
structural alloys to this form of weld
heat-affected embrittlement. The oc-
currence of CCC has been observed in
FCC Fe-base alloys and FCC Co-base
superalloys. However, the liquid-metal
embrittlement mechanism responsible
for CCC w o u l d not be possible in
alloys with the f o l l o w i n g characteris-
tics:
1. Extensive solubility w i t h Cu.
2. A tendency to form intermetallic
compounds w i t h Cu.
3. A melting point below that of
Cu.
4. Inability to be wet by molten
Cu.
Therefore, the alloy systems that
should be insensitive to CCC have
been listed in Table 7 under headings
indicating the reason for the hypothe-
sized insensitivity.
References
1. Matthews, S. )., Maddock, M. O., and
Savage, W. F., "How Copper Surface
Contamination Affects Weldability of Co-
balt Superalloys," We/d/ng lournal, 51 (5),
May 1972, Research Suppl., pp. 326-s to
328-s.
2. Cox, A. R., and Winn, J. M., "Scaling of
Plain and Complex Copper Steels," JISI, 203
(1965), pp. 175-179.
3. Eborall, R., and Gregory, P., "The
Mechanism of Embrittlement by a Copper
Phase," /. Inst. Metals, 84 (1955), pp.
88-90.
4. Smith, C. S., "Grains, Phases and Inter-
faces: An Interpretation of Microstructure,"
Trans. AIME, 175 (1948), pp. 15-51.
5. Nicholson, A., and Murray, J. D., "Sur-
face Hot Shortness in Low-Carbon Steel,"
IISI, 203, (1956), pp. 1007-1018.
6. Van Vlack, L. H., "Intergranular Energy
of Iron and Some Iron Alloys," Trans. AIME,
191 (1951), pp. 251-259.
7. Michaels, A. S., "Fundamentals of
Surface Chemistry and Surface Physics,"
Symposium on Properties of Surfaces,
ASTM Pub. #340, Philadelphia, Pa.,
(1962).
8. Bredzs, N., and Schwartzbart, H.,
"Metallurgy of Bonding in Brazed
Joints-Part II, Migration of Filler Metal Into
the Base Metal," Welding lournal, 38, (8),
Aug. 1959, Research Suppl., pp. 305-s to
314-s.
9. Borland, |. C, "Generalized Theory of
Super-Solidus Cracking in Welds (and Cast-
ings)," British Welding lournal, 7 (1960), pp.
508-512.
10. Asnis, E. A., and Prokhorenko, V. M.,
"Mechanism of Cracking During Welding
or Deposition of Copper onto Steel," Weld-
ing Production, 12 (1965), pp. 15-17.
11. Matthews, S. )., and Savage, W. F.,
"Heat-Affected Zone Infiltration by Dissim-
ilar Liquid Weld Metal," Welding lournal,
50 (4), April 1971, Research Suppl., pp. 174-s
to 182-s.
12. Savage, W. F., Nippes, E. F., and Stan-
ton, R. P., "Intergranular Attack of Alloy
Steels by Molten Copper," We/d/ng Journal,
57 (1) Jan. 1978, Research SuDpl., pp. 9-s to
16-s.
13. Stoloff, N. S„ "Liquid Metal Embrit-
tlement," Surfaces & Interlaces, Vol. II,
Syracuse University Press, Syracuse, N. Y.,
(1968).
14. Savage, W.F., and Lundin, C. D., "The
VARESTRAINT Test," Welding lournal, 44
(10), Oct. 1965, Research Suppl., pp. 433-s to
442-s.
15. Savage, W. F., Nippes, E. F., and
Goodwin, G. M., "Effect of Minor Elements
on the Hot-Cracking Tendencies of Inconel
600," We/d/ng lournal, Research Suppl., to
be published.
16. Mohler, J. B., Electroplating, Chemi-
cal Pub. Co., New York, N. Y., (1951).
17. Perrone, N., and Liebowitz, H., "Ef-
fect of Capillary Action on Fracture Due to
Liquid Metal Embrittlement," Proceedings
of the First International Conference on
Fracture, Sendai, lapan, (1965) p. 2065.

AWS A2.4-76—Symbols for Welding and Nondestructive Testing

Provides the means for placing complete welding information on drawings. Symbols in this publication
are intended to be used to facilitate communications among designers and shop and fabrication
personnel. Many changes were made from the previous edition in recognition of the increasingly
international use of welding symbols. Illustrations showing brazing and its symbols have been added to
more clearly define usage.
Part B. Nondestructive Testing Symbols, establishes the symbols for use on drawings to specify
nondestructive examination for determining the soundness of materials.
The price of A2.4-76 Symbols for Welding and Nondestructive Testing is $5.00. Discounts: 25% to A and
B members: 20% to bookstores, public libraries and schools; 15% to C and D members. Send your orders to
the American Welding Society, 2501 N.W. 7th St., Miami, FL 33125. Florida residents add 4 % sales tax.

152-s I M A Y 1978