RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

SOURCE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY: METHODS AND TECHNIQUES

BY C R KOTHARI

Steps in Research Process:

I. Formulating the research problem: Consists of two steps: viz.

understanding the problem thoroughly and rephrasing the same into
meaningful terms from an analytical point of view. One should review
two types of literature- conceptual literature concerning concepts
and theories, and the empirical literature consisting of studies made
earlier which are similar to one proposed. This would tell us what
data and other materials are available for operational purposes which
will enable the researcher to specify his own research problem in a
meaningful context. After this the researcher puts the problem in as
specific terms as possible.
II. Extensive literature survey: The researcher should undertake
extensive literature survey connected with the problem. Academic
journals , conference proceedings, government reports, books etc.
must be tapped depending on the nature of the problem. Usually in
this one source will lead to another.
III. Development of working hypothesis: Working hypothesis is a
tentative assumptions made in order to draw out and list its logical or
empirical consequences. It should be very specific and limited to
peace of research in hand since it has to be tested. Working
hypothesis arise as a result of a-priori thinking about the subject,
examination of the available data and material including related
studies and the council of experts and interested parties.
IV. Preparing the research design: Research design is the conceptual
structure within which research would be conducted. The function of
the research design is to provide for the collection of relevant
 evidence with minimal expenditure of effort , time and money. The
preparation of research design , appropriate for a particular research
problem, involves the following: a) the means of obtaining the
information b) availability and skills of the researcher and his staff
c) explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining
information will be organised and the reasoning leading to the
selection d) the time available for research e) the cost factor
relating to research
V. Determining a sample design: The researcher must decide whether
to adopt a census enumeration or a sampling technique. Samples can
be obtained either by adopting probability sampling or non-
probability sampling. Under the former each element has a known
probability of being included but the latter do not allow the
researcher to determine this probability. Probability sampling
techniques are simple random sampling, stratified random sampling,
systematic sampling, cluster sampling. Whereas non-probability
sampling are Judgement, convenience , quota sampling.
VI. Collecting the data: Data can be collected either by observation,
through personal interview by mailing questionnaires, through
schedules etc. One of the method is selected depending on the
objective of the survey, scope of the inquiry, financial resources, time
available, and the desired degree of accuracy.
VII. Execution of the project: Setting up of office, selection, training and
supervision of investigators , control on the quality of field work &
field edit, tackling non-response etc.
VIII. Analysis of data: The researcher should classify the raw data into
some purposeful and usable categories. The data should be coded
and edited before tabulating the information. After tabulation ,
analysis is done by finding out the various percentages , coefficients
etc., by applying statistical formulae. In the process of analysis,
relationships or differences supporting or conflicting with original or
new hypotheses should be subjected to tests of significance to
determine with what validity data can be said to indicate any
conclusion.
 IX. Hypothesis testing: Using 2 test , F test, t test etc. researcher is in
a position to test the hypothesis, if any, he had formulated earlier.
Using one of the above tests, one can conclude whether it will result
in either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it.
X. Generalisation and interpretation: If a hypothesis is tested and
upheld several times, it may be possible for the researcher to arrive
at generalisation, i.e. to build a theory. If the researcher did not have
any hypothesis to start with , he might seek to explain his findings on
the basis of some theory. It is known as interpretation.
XI. Preparation of the report or the thesis: Preliminary pages: title, date
followed by acknowledgement and foreword. There should be a table
of contents followed by list of tables and list of graphs and charts.
The main text of the report should have the following parts: a)
Introduction: this should contain a clear statement of the objective of
research, explanation of the methodology adopted. Scope of the
study along with various limitations should be stated here b)
summary of findings: c) Main report: Main body of the report should
be presented in a logical sequence and broken down into readily
identifiable sections d) Conclusion: Should again put the results of
his research clearly and precisely. At the end of the report,
appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data.
Bibliography, i.e. list of books, journals, reports etc. consulted ,
should also be given in the end.

Research Problem:
A research problem, refers to some difficulty which a researcher experiences in
the context of either a theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a
solution for the same. A research problem is one which requires a researcher
to find out the best solution for the given problem, i.e., to find out by which
course of action the objective can be attained optimally in the context of a
given environment.

Necessity of defining the problem: We hear that a problem clearly stated is a

problem half solved. This statement signifies the need for defining a research
problem. The problem to be investigated must be defined unambiguously for
that will help to discriminate relevant data from the irrelevant ones. A proper
definition of research problem will enable the researcher to be on the track
whereas an ill- defined problem may create hurdles. Thus, defining a research
problem properly is a prerequisite for any study and is a step of the highest
importance.

Technique involved in defining a problem: The research problem should be

defined in a systematic manner, giving due weightage to all relating points. The
technique for the purpose involves the undertaking of the following steps
generally one after the other: a) Statement of the problem in a general way
b) Understanding the nature of the problem c) surveying the available
literature d) developing the ideas through discussions e) rephrasing the
research problem into a working proposition.

a) Statement of the problem in a general way: Keeping in view either

some practical concern or some scientific or intellectual interest, the
problem should be stated in a broad general way. In case of social
research, it is considered advisable to do a pilot survey. Then the
researcher, with the help of the guide would be able to phrase the
problem in operational terms.
b) Understanding the nature of the problem: For a better understanding
of the nature of the problem involved, he can enter into discussion with
those who have a good knowledge of the problem concerned or similar
other problems.
c) Surveying the available literature: All available literature concerning the
problem at hand must necessarily be surveyed and examined before a
definition of the research problem is given. This means that the
researcher must be well conversant with relevant theories in the field,
reports and records as also all other relevant literature. He must devote
sufficient time in reviewing of research already undertaken on related
problems. This would also help a researcher to know if there are certain
gaps in the theories, or whether the existing theories applicable to the
problem under study are inconsistent with each other, or whether the
finding of the different studies do not follow a pattern consistent with
the theoretical expectations and so on.
 d) Developing the ideas through discussions: A researcher must discuss his
problem with his colleagues and others who have enough experience in
the same area or in working on similar problems. This is quite often
known as an experience survey. People with their rich experience are in
a position to enlighten the researcher on different aspects of his
proposed study and their suggestions are invaluable to the researcher.
e) Rephrasing the research problem: Finally the researcher must sit to
rephrase the research problem into a working proposition. Through
rephrasing , the researcher puts the research problem in as specific
terms as possible so that it may become operationally viable and may
help in the development of working hypotheses.

Research Design
Research design is the conceptual structure within which research is
conducted; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and
analysis of data. As such the design includes an outline of what the researcher
will do from writing the hypothesis and its operational implications to the final
analysis of data. Here the decisions happen to be in respect of what is the
study about? Why is the study being made? Where will the study be carried
out? What type of data is required? What will be the sample design? What
techniques of data collection will be used? How will the data be analysed? Etc.
We can state the important features of a research design are as under? i) It is
a plan that specifies the sources and type of information relevant to the
research problem. ii) It is a strategy specifying which approach will be used for
gathering and analysing the data. iii) It also includes the time and cost budgets
since most studies are done under these constraints.

In brief, research design must, at least, contain – a) a clear statement of the

research problem b) procedures and techniques to be used for gathering
information c) the population to be studied and d) methods to be used in
processing and analysing data.
Research design stands for advance planning of the methods to be adopted for
collecting the relevant data and the techniques to be used in their analysis,
keeping in view the objective of the research and the availability of staff, time
and money. Preparation of the research design should be done with great care
as any error in it may upset the entire project.

Features of a good design:

A research design appropriate for a particular research problem, usually

involves the consideration of the following factors: i) the means of
obtaining information ii) the availability and skills of the researcher and his
staff, iii) the objective of the problem to be studied iv) the nature of the
problem to be studied v) the availability of time and money for the research
work.

If the research study happens to be an exploratory or a formulative one,

wherein the major emphasis is on discovery of ideas and insights, the research
design most appropriate. must be flexible enough to permit the consideration
of many different aspects of a phenomenon. But when the purpose of a study
is accurate description of a situation or of an association between variables,
accuracy becomes a major consideration and a research design which
minimises bias and maximises the reliability of the evidence collected is
considered a good design. Studies involving the testing of a hypothesis of a
causal relationship between variables require a design which will permit
inferences about causality in addition to the minimisation of bias and
maximisation of reliability.

Different research designs: Different research designs can be conveniently

described if we3 categorize them as : 1) Research design in case of exploratory
research studies; 2) research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic
research studies, and 3) research design in case of hypothesis-testing research
studies.

1. Research design in case of exploratory research studies: Exploratory

research studies are also termed as formulative research studies. The
main purpose of such studies is that of formulating a problem for more
precise investigation or of developing the working hypotheses from an
operational point of view. The major emphasis in such studies is on the
 discovery of ideas and insights. As such the research design appropriate
for such studies must be flexible enough to provide opportunity for
considering different aspects of a problem under study. Generally, the
following three methods in the context of research design for such
studies are talked about: a) the survey of concerning literature; b) the
experience survey and c) the analysis of ‘insight – stimulating’ examples.
The survey of concerning literature happens to be most simple and
fruitful method of formulating precisely the research problem or
developing hypothesis. The researcher should review and build upon the
work already done by others. If the hypotheses are not formulated, then
researcher should go through the literature for deriving a relevant
hypothesis from it.
Experience survey means the survey of people who have had practical
experience with the problem to be studied. The object of such a survey
is to obtain insight into the relationships between variables and new
ideas relating to the research problem. Researcher should carefully
select his sample who can contribute new ideas. The interview must
ensure flexibility such that the respondents should be allowed to raise
issues and questions which the investigator has not previously
considered.
Analysis of ‘insight-stimulating’ examples is also fruitful method for
suggesting hypothesis for research. This is suitable in areas where there
is little experience to serve as a guide. This method consists of the
intensive study of selected instances of the phenomenon in which one is
interested. For this purpose the existing records may be examined,
unstructured interviewing may be conducted. Attitude of the
investigator, the intensity of the study and the ability of the researcher
to draw together diverse information into a unified interpretation are
the main features which make this method an appropriate procedure for
evoking insights.

2. Research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research studies:

Descriptive research studies are those studies s which are concerned
with describing the characteristics of a particular individual, or of a
group, whereas diagnostic research studies determine the frequency
 with which something occurs or its association with something else. The
studies concerning whether certain variables are associated are
examples of diagnostic research studies. As against this, studies
concerned with specific prediction, with narration of facts and
characteristics concerning individual, group or situation are all examples
of descriptive research studies. Most of the social research comes under
this category. The design in such studies must be rigid and not flexible
and must focus attention on the following : a) Formulating the objective
of the study b) Designing the methods of data collection c) Selecting the
sample d) Collecting the data (where can the required data be
found and with what time period should the data be related?) e)
Processing and analysing the data f) Report the findings
3. Research design in case of Hypothesis – testing research studies:
Hypothesis testing research studies are those where the researcher tests
the hypothesis of causal relationships between variables. Such studies
require procedures that will not only reduce bias and increase reliability,
but will permit drawing inferences about causality.

MEASUREMENT AND SCALING TECHNIQUES

Measurement scales: Scales of measurement can be considered in terms of

their mathematical properties. The most widely used classification of
measurement scales are : a) Nominal scale b) Ordinal scale c) Interval scale
d) ratio scale.

a) Nominal scale: The nominal (unordered) scale allows the categorisation

of responses into a number of mutually exclusive categories. There are
no relationships between the categories, implying that there is no
ranking or ordering. The typical applications of the nominal scale is in
classification of responses by social class, “like” or “dislike”, “yes” or
“no”, gender, vegetarian (yes/no) and so on. Gender could be coded as
Male= 0 and Female = 1 etc. One cannot do much with the numbers
involved . For example, we cannot usefully average the number and
come up with a meaningful value. Neither can one usefully compare the
 numbers assigned to one group with the numbers assigned to another.
The counting of members in the group is the only possible arithmetic
operation when a nominal scale is employed. Accordingly, we are
restricted to use mode as the measure of central tendency. There is no
generally used measure of dispersion for nominal scales. Chi square test
is the most common test of statistical significance that can be utilised.
b) Ordinal Scale: The ordinal (ordered) scale allows the respondents to
rank some alternatives by some common variable. Rank orders
represent ordinal scales and are frequently used in research relating to
qualitative phenomena. An illustration of this would be the ranking of
three brands of pasteurised milk by a group of consumers on the basis of
the perceived quality. Here it is feasible for a user of the product to rank
the brands from the best to the worst. However the amount of
difference between the ranks cannot be found out. It is only possible to
compute positional statistical measures like median and mode for such
data. A percentile or quartile measure is used for measuring dispersion.
Correlations are restricted to various rank order methods. Measures of
statistical significance are restricted to the non-parametric methods.
c) Interval Scale: The deficiencies of nominal and ordinal scale are taken
care of in the interval scale. The scale has an arbitrary zero point with
numbers placed at equally appearing intervals. A number of statistical
operations can be done on intervally scaled data.
Interval scale provide more powerful measurement than ordinal scales
for interval scale also incorporates the concept of equality of interval .
As such more powerful statistical measures can be used with interval
scales. Mean is the appropriate measure of central tendency , while
standard deviation is the most widely used measure of dispersion.
Product moment correlation technique are appropriate and the
generally used tests for statistical significance are the ‘t’ test and ‘F’ test.

Sources of Error in Measurement: The following are possible source of error

in measurement.

a. Respondent: At times the respondent may be reluctant to express

strong negative feelings or it is just possible that he may have very little
knowledge but may not admit his ignorance. Transient factors like fatigue,
boredom, anxiety etc. may limit the ability of the respondent to respond
accurately and fully.

b. Situation: situational factors may also come in the way of correct

measurement. Any condition which places a strain on interview can have
serious effects on the interviewer respondent rapport. Eg. Presence of another
person during the interview may influence your opinion, or if the respondent
feels that anonymity is not assured, he may be reluctant to express certain
feelings.

c. The interviewer can distort responses by rewording or reordering

questions. His behaviour, style and looks may encourage or discourage certain
replies from respondents. Errors may also creep in because of incorrect coding,
faulty tabulation and /or statistical calculations, particularly in the data analysis
stage.

d. Instrument: Error may also because of defective measuring instrument.

The use of complex words, beyond, the comprehension of the respondent,
ambiguous meanings, poor printing, inadequate space for replies, response
choice omissions, etc. are a few things that make the measuring instrument
defective and may result in measurement errors. Similarly, poor sampling of
the universe will also result in errors.

Tests of Sound measurement: Sound measurement must meet the tests of

validity, reliability and practicality.

1. Test of validity: Validity indicates the degree to which an instrument

measures what it is supposed to measure. In other words, validity is the extent
to which differences found with a measuring instrument reflect true
differences among those being tested. We can consider three types of validity
viz: Content validity, Criterion related validity and Construct validity.

Content validity is the extent to which a measuring instrument provides

adequate coverage of the topic under study. If the instrument contains a
representative sample of the universe, the content validity is good. Its
determination is primarily judgemental or it can also be determined by using a
panel of persons who shall judge how well the measuring instrument meets
the standards, but there is no numerical way to express it.

Criterion related validity relates to our ability to predict some outcome or

estimate the existence of some current condition. The concerned criterion
must possess the following qualities: Relevance, freedom from bias, reliability
and availability.

Construct validity is the most complex and abstract. If measurements on our

devised scale correlate in a predicted way with these other propositions , we
can conclude that there is some construct validity.

2. Test of Reliability: A measuring instrument is reliable if it provides

consistent results. Two aspects of reliability viz., stability and equivalence
deserve special mention. The stability aspect is concerned with securing
consistent results with repeated measurements of the same person and with
same instrument. We usually determine the degree of stability by comparing
the results of repeated measurements. The equivalence aspect considers how
much error may get introduced by different investigators or different samples
of the items being studied. To test this, the two investigators could compare
their observations of the same events.

3. Test of Practicality: The practicality characteristic of a measuring

instrument can be judged in terms of economy, convenience and
interpretability. Economy considerations suggests that some trade-off is
needed between the ideal research project and that which the budget can
afford. Although more items give greater reliability as stated earlier, but in the
interest of limiting the interview or observation time, we have to take only few
items for our study purpose. Similarly, data collection methods to be used are
also dependent at times upon economic factors. Convenience test suggests
that the measuring instrument should be easy to administer. For instance, a
questionnaire, with clear instructions, is certainly more effective and easier to
complete than one which lacks these features. Interpretability consideration is
specially important when persons other than the designers of the test are to
interpret the results. The measuring instrument, in order to be interpretable,
must be supplemented by detailed instructions for administering the test,
scoring keys, evidence about the reliability and guides for using the test and for
interpreting results.

Scaling:

Meaning of scaling: scaling describes the procedures of assigning numbers to

various degrees of opinion, attitude and other concepts. This can be done in
two ways viz., i) making a judgement about some characteristics of an
individual and then placing him directly on a scale that has been defined in
terms of characteristic and ii) constructing questionnaires in such a way that
the score of individual’s response assigns him a place on a scale. It may be
stated here that a scale is a continuum, consisting of the highest point (in
terms of some characteristic e.g., preference, favourableness, etc.) and the
lowest point along with several intermediate points between these two
extreme points. These scale point positions are so related to each other that
when the first point happens to be the highest point, the second point
indicates a higher degree in terms of a given characteristic as compared to the
third point and the third point indicates a higher degree as compared to the
fourth and so on. Numbers for measuring the distinctions of degree in the
attitudes/ opinions are, thus, assigned to individuals corresponding to their
scale positions. Hence, the term ‘scaling’ is applied to the procedures for
attempting to determine quantitative measures of subjective abstract
concepts. Scaling has been defined as a ‘procedure for the assignment of
numbers to a property of objects in order to impart some of the characteristics
of numbers to the properties in question.’)

The Likert Scale

The summative models assume that the individual items in the scale are
monotonically related to the underlying attributes and a summation of the
item scores is related linearly to the attitude. In a summative model, one
obtains the total score by adding scores on individual items. For the
statements that imply negative attitudes, the scoring is reversed. The scales
allow an expression of the intensity of feeling. These scales are also called
Likert scales. Here, instead of having just “agree” and “disagree” in the scale,
we can have intensities varying from “strongly agree” to “strongly disagree”.

The scale construction consists of the following steps:

1. Write a large number of statements that concern the particular

attitudinal object being investigated. For instance one may be looking at the
role of voluntary agencies in providing health services in rural areas. Most of
these statements should either be moderately positive or moderately negative.
Neutral items are generally avoided in these scales. The items should be evenly
divided between positive and negative statements.

2. Administer the pool of statements on a group of respondents who are

similar to the population on whom the scale will be used. For example, if we
want to study the attitude of housewives the pool should be administered on a
group of housewives with similar background to our final population.

3. Assign values to the degrees of agreement or disagreement with each

item. The particular values may differ from one researcher to another.
Sometimes one may adopt the values 1,2,3,4,5 and sometimes +2,+1,0,-1,-2 .
For negative items the directions should be reversed. The response to various
statements are scored in such a way that a response indicative of the most
favourable attitude is given the highest score of 5 and that with the most
unfavourable attitude is given the lowest score, say, of 1.

4. Calculate a total attitude score for each respondent using the same
scaling procedure. The distribution of total scores is then used to refine the list
of items. This step is called item analysis.

5. Item analysis: Analyse the responses and select for the scale those items
which most clearly differentiate between the highest and lowest scores. This
can be done by dividing the respondents into the high and the low scoring
categories. The high scorers can be assumed to be with favourable attitudes
and the low scorers can be taken as having the least favourable attitudes. If the
statement is a good one, then it is safe to expect that the mean score for the
favourable group would be greater than the mean score for the unfavourable
group. If the mean scores across the two groups, for an item, are found nearly
equal or equal, then that statement can be dropped from the scale. One can
take the high group as the top twenty five per cent of all total scores and the
low group as the lowest twenty five per cent. Alternatively we can divide the
respondents into quartiles and compute the median score for each item for
the highest twenty five per cent and the lowest twenty five per cent of scale
scores.

6. The statements remaining in the pruned list are randomly ordered on

the scale form. The positive and negative ones are mixed.

7. The scale is now administered on the respondents who are asked to

indicate their degree of agreement with the items. A respondent’s total score
is generated as the sum of his scores on each statement.

Advantages: The Likert type scale has several advantages. A) Relatively

easy to construct. B) More reliable because under it respondents answer
statement included in the instrument. C) Likert-type scale can easily be
used in respondent centred and stimulus centred studies i.e., through it we can
study how responses differ between people and how responses differ between
stimuli. D) this scale takes much less time to construct, it is frequently
used by the students of opinion research.

Limitations: a) In this scale, we can simply examine whether respondents are

more or less favourable to a topic, but we cannot tell how much more or less
they are. There is no basis for belief that the five positions indicated on the
scale are equally spaced. The interval between “Strongly agree” and “agree”
may not be same as the interval between “agree” and “undecided”.