Chapter 1 COGNITIVE INFLUENCES ON LANGUAGE LEARNING 1.1. INTRODUCTION Cognitive factors refer to the mental conditions, strategies or processes which the learner has access to while learning a foreign language. We will be examining the factors of intelligence, aptitude for leaning a language, cognitive style and learning strategies. 1.2. INTELLIGENCE OR THE “G” FACTOR Intelligence is also referred to in SLA studies as the “g” factor, the g standing here for ‘general’ since it is present in all learners. When reflecting upon the role and influence of intelligence in SLA, the first question that comes to mind is to what extent intelligence is an important factor in the learning of a second language; in other words, can we speak of the existence of a direct correlation between intelligence and successful second language learning? INDIVIDUAL FACTORS IN THE LEARNER'S DEVELOPMENT 5Conve INFLUENCES ow LANGUAGE LEARWING FUNIBER $3 5 Possibly, if we asked different people in the street this question, most of them would give an affirmative answer. In some sectors of our society there is a sort of admiration for those who are able to speak one or even several foreign languages, to the extent that knowledge of a foreign language is usually regarded as synonymous with being highly intelligent. Let's look at this question in more depth. If we turn to First Language Acquisition, we will see that intelligence in this case is not a determining factor, given the fact that almost everybody learns their first language; even those who suffer from mental disabilities are usually able to express themselves and communicate through language. Granted, individuals will learn (and use) their mother tongue to varying degrees of ‘expertise’, but an ‘expert’ level of proficiency is reached by all. But if we extrapolate this to the second language learning situation, we see that learning a foreign language does not work in exactly the same way as learning irst language: foreign language learners, apart from a few exceptions, consistently fail to reach native competence. However, they do reach greatly varying degrees of competence. So could intelligence have something to do with the more or less successful learning of a foreign language? Obviously, the importance of intelligence in second language learning depends on what we understand by it. In general, intelligence has been defined and measured in terms of linguistic and logico- mathematical abilities. 10 (Intelligence Quotient) tests, for example, have traditionally focused on one’s ability to interpret or manipulate language (linguistic ability), or on one's ability to solve logic problems (logico-mathematic ability). So academic achievers tend to do well on 10 tests. Gardner (1985) reformulated previous theories of intelligence and referred to seven different forms of knowing which, according to him, give a much more comprehensive picture of this construct. He claimed that there are multiple yences, which include the two mentioned above (linguistic and logico-mathematical abilities), but which include five other types of intelligence. The multiple intelligences are: Logico-mathematic. Linguist Spatial. Musical. Bodily-kinesthetic (fine motor movement, athletic prowess). Interpersonal (the ability to relate to others). NOR PeNS Intrapersonal (the ability to relate to oneself, self-knowledge). 6 INDIVIDUAL FACTORS IN THE LEARNER'S DEVELOPMENTFUNIBER §; COGNITIVE INFLUENCES OM LANGUAGE LEARNING ion of intelligence provided by Gardner clarifies matters a bit, but it does not explain in full the relationship between intelligence and second language learning. His work has been more influential in making theorists (and teachers) aware of the mul faceted nature of intelligence, the variety of learning styles which students display because of it, and the implications these issues might have for materials writers and educational planners. 1.2.1, | WHAT DOES RESEARCH SAY ABOUT THE EFFECT OF INTELLIGENCE ON LANGUAGE LEARNING? Some studies (Genesee 1976; Ekstrand 1977) seem to show that intelligence may influence the acquisition of some skills associated with SLA, particularly those used in the formal study of an L2 such as reading, writing, language analysis, and vocabulary study. In contrast, intelligence’ is much /ess likely to influence the acquisition of oral fluency skills. In other words, intelligence may be a predictor of success of language learning in formal instruction contexts, but this will not be the case in naturalistic settings, that is, in those environments where language instruction plays a minor role. However, the construct of ‘intelligence’ used in these studies reflects the dominant view of intelligence of the time i.e. that it consists only of logico-mathematical and linguistic ability. We are back to the IQ tests syndrome {see above), where only a certain type of intelligence is valued, thus throwing doubt on the relevance of these findings for overall foreign language acquisition, which might demand, for example, highly developed interpersonal skills, especially in a naturalistic setting. Where does that leave us? The research seems to be a little contradictory: on the one hand we have a correlation between intelligence and formal L2 learning contexts, and on the other hand we have no correlation between intelligence and L2 communicative learning: intelligence seems to be a strong factor when it comes to learning second languages in classrooms, particularly if the instruction is formal. When the classroom instruction is less formal, however (i.e. more communicative), so- called ‘intelligence’ (as measured by /Q tests) may play a less important role. (Lightbown & Spada 1993:37) INOIvIDUAL FACTORS IN THE LEARNER'S DEVELOPMENT 7CCochITiVE INFLUENCES ON LANGUAGE LEARDON FUNIBER $9 1.3. LANGUAGE APTITUDE Firstly, what exactly is language aptitude? Could it not be said to be the same as intelligence? In fact, there is a subtle difference between intelligence and aptitude. Aptitude is considered to be the ‘natural ability’ which we have to learn languages, and people possess it to varying degrees. Thus we find students who may score low on an IQ test or do poorly at school, but go to a foreign country and ‘pick up’ the language in no time at all. These people would have what we call a natural aptitude for languages. It is believed to be in part related to general intelligence, but it is also considered to be in part distinct. However, as Ellis (1986) claims, language aptitude is difficult to define precisely because its measurement and definition depend to a large extent upon underlying language teaching theories and interpretations of the language learning process Researchers have been interested in aptitude as a predictor for successful language learning. In other words, they have focused on trying to define the different components of aptitude in order to*then ‘test’ learners on these to see whether a high aptitude score corresponds with a high L2 competence. The importance of language aptitude in SLA is underlined by researchers such as Skehan who believes that “aptitude is consistently the most successful predictor of language learning success” (1989:38). Aptitude has not been seen by researchers as a monolith, but rather as a composite which consists of different characteristics (e.g. those of Sapon and Carroll's MLAT referred to below). Early attempts to come up with reasonable and comprehensive definitions of the components of aptitude through the design of aptitude test batteries were made by Henmon et al. (1929) and Symonds (1930). However, these tests showed serious deficiencies as they reflected approaches to language teaching typical of the time (see Ellis’ comment above about the difficulty of adequately defining exactly what aptitude is). Great emphasis was placed on the individual's capacity to deal with grammatical concepts and the ability to translate. Predictably, the findings reported did not reveal definite correlations between language aptitude and the learner's language proficiency, because, as we now know, language proficiency does not consist of mere knowledge of grammar. More recent aptitude tests such as Carroll and Sapon's Modern Language Aptitude Test {MLAT, 1959) and Pimsleur's Language Aptitude Battery (LAB, 1966, 1968) represent not only a more progressive and scientific approach to aptitude test construction but they also reflect the audiolingual principles in fashion at the time. 8 INDIVIDUAL FACTORS IN THE LEARNER'S DEVELOPMENTCogNITIVE INFLUENCES ON LANGUAGE LEARNING FUNIBER ¢ yo Carroll and Sapon’s MLAT identified four main components in language aptitude: - Phonemic or phonetic codii recall new sounds. 1g ability, that is, the ability to discriminate and - Grammatical sensitivity. In other words, the ability to recognise the different grammatical functions that words perform in a sentence (e.g, the subject and object of a sentence). - Inductive language learning ability, which consists of the ability to identify patterns of relationships and differences between grammatical forms and meanings (e.g. to recognise that in English ‘to’ can denote direction). - Rote learning ability, which involves the ability to make associations between native language words and target language words. In other words, memory. Pimsleur's LAB, specially devised for persons aged thirteen to nineteen, is comparable to the MLAT although the former stresses inductive and auditory abilities much more than the latter. For Pimsleur (1966), language aptitude seems to consist of a /anguage analytic ability and an auditory ability. Three decades later, it was generally recognized that these batteries of aptitude tests were not completely valid for the factors intended to be measured. Stern, writing in 1983, pointed out that: -uresearchers have set out from the identification of a few basic characteristics of school learning, such 2s word knowledge, verbal intelligence, reasoning and school achievement. They have then focused on those cognitive qualities needed to function in a particular type of introductory second language class. (1983:374) Both Ellis (1985) and Krashen (1981) believed that the ability to communicate meanings should be included in one way or another in any aptitude test as it is an important component of SLA. Krashen (1981) even thought that the aptitude factor related only to acquisition and it was not connected with formal instruction. Skehan (1989), on the contrary, believed that aptitude was relevant to both naturalistic learning and to formal teaching situations. Other research on aptitude has not been completely conclusive. It has been confirmed that the learner's memory and ability to analyse incoming language are basic conditions for successful language learning. However, it has also been proved that the size of the working memory is not related to learning success (Skehan 1982). INDIVIDUAL FACTORS IN THE LEARNER'S DEVELOPMENT °Coentive FLUENCES OW LANGUAGE LEARHING FUNIBER $ More recent research on the aptitude factor was specifically concerned with the origin of language aptitude. These studies were all based on follow-up research to the Bristol Language Projéct (Wells 1981, 1985), which was particularly concemed with the study of children's language development in the first language. The follow-up research to the Bristol Language Project was conducted when children started the study of a foreign language at secondary school. The results obtained indicated that aptitude was related to first language learning ability rather than to foreign language achievement, and aptitude scores seemed to be predictable from four main sources: social class, vocabulary development, parental education and an innate language learning ability. However, the innate and fixed nature of aptitude was not completely demonstrated by this research although the existence of an aptitude stability over time was clearly proved. The implications of all these findings for language teaching seem to be quite important. Two contrasting views in relation to the question of aptitude are found. - Some scholars, such as Bialystok and Frohlich (1978), or Krashen (1981), maintained that aptitude is probably an unmodifiable variable (i.e. it is fixed) in second language achievement and, as such, it is not trainable. - A few others led by Skehan (1989) believe, on the contrary, that language teaching should account for the aptitude factor involving the “tailoring of courses” according to the “learner's aptitude characteristics” (1988). It would also involve a certain degree of training in some of the elements which seem to make up the construct of aptitude. This is in fact at the core of a learner- centred curriculum. In spite of all the attempts to clarify this question, very little research has been carried out in the last few years to identify the elements which compose the aptitude variable and to study the relationship between aptitude and learner's proficiency. 1.3.1. APTITUDE: CONCLUSION As a general conclusion to this section on aptitude, several points can be raised. - First, aptitude is an important factor SLA but a clearer and more concrete definition of this construct seems to be necessary. What is really meant by language aptitude? Exactly how is intelligence different to language aptitude? This definition should obviously make specific references to the constituent elements of aptitude. - Secondly, new versions of the already existing aptitude tests should be devised with the purpose of measuring not only grammatical, memory and analytical language abilities but also the learner's capacity to communicate meanings. 10 INDIVIDUAL FACTORS IN THE LEARNER'S DEVELOPMENTCoonrnve INFLUENCES ON LANGUAGE LEARNING FUNIBER $9 - Thirdly, some of the results obtained from aptitude research seem to indicate that it may be a relatively fixed, innate capacity. However, it may be possible to, develop aptitude by means of adequate instruction. As a result, individualised learning, which considers the characteristics of the learner, as well as developing the skills related to aptitude, should be promoted. Teachers should be aware of the existence of learners with different capacities and abilities in their classroom, that is, there should be provision for both “strong” and “weak” learners. - Fourthly, aptitude relates to the rate of a learner's acquisition rather than to the route of acquisition, especially when we are dealing with formal classroom instruction. This means that if learners are specially gifted for the learning of English, their learning will progress more rapidly but, in contrast, all learners, independent of their aptitude, will follow a similar learning route. - Finally, it would be interesting to know to what extent aptitude is connected with other second language learning variables such as age, intelligence, motivation, learner's use of strategies, sex, personality, cognitive style, and so on. 1.4. COGNITIVE STYLE é We turn next to consider a third learner factor, cognitive style. What exactly is it? Cognitive style refers to the manner in which the learner perceives, monitors, conceptualises and recalls linguistic information. Wilkins et a/. (1971:373] define it rather more grandly as: ...8 characteristic self-consistent mode of functioning which individuals show in their perceptual and intellectual abilities. Although cognitive style and learning style are frequently used as synonyms, the latter is more comprehensive than the former. Learning style includes cognitive, affective and psychological behaviours that indicate learners’ characteristic and consistent way of perceiving, interacting with and responding to the learning environment (Willing, 1988). We will be referring to learning style again later in this section. Cognitive style is considered by Brown (1973) as a combination of affect and cognition and he groups the following specific variables as characteristic of it: reflective-impulsive thinking = broad-narrow categorizing skeletonizing-embroidering - _ belief congruence-contradiction INDIVIDUAL FACTORS IN THE LEARNER'S DEVELOPMENT aCocninive IFUENCES ON LANGUAGE LEARNING FUNIBER Other characteristics which have been associated with learners’ cognitive styles include to what extent learners are interference-prone, that is, to what extent their native language will ijterfere with the second language in terms of negative (i.e. inappropriate L1) transfer. In spite of the wealth of terminology available, most scholars when referring to cognitive style focus in particular on the duality field dependence / independence. This distinction derives from the psychological domain and more in particular from Witkin (1962, 1971), who designed a test known as the Group Embedded Test (GET). This test was constructed with the purpose of measuring the field dependence/independence ~ dimension, and in it a subject has to find a target shape embedded in a more complex pattern. The test is hypothesised to reflect the way individuals perceive and organise the world. People who ‘do well’ on the test are able to separate the figures from the ground and therefore theoretically able to separate the essential from the inessential (field-independent), whereas subjects who cannot distinguish figures from the ground, are considered to be “field-dependent”; they tend to have a more holistic view of things. Ellis (1985) summarises the main characteristics and implications of these two notions in the following way: FIELD DEPENDENCE FIELD INDEPENDENCE ‘1. Personal orientation = impersonal orientation Le, the leemer relies on an external frame of reference |j.e. the learner relies on an internal frame reference in In processing information. processing information. 2, Holistic 2. Analytic i.e. perceives a field as a whole, Le, perceives parts in relation to the whole. 3. Independent i.e. sense of separate identity; the learner is more autonomous. 4. Socially sensitive 4, Not so socially aware Le. greater skil in interpersonal-social relationships, | ie. less sklled in interpersonal-social relationships, person-oriented. | object-oriented. Table 1.1. Main characteristics of a field dependent and a field independent cognitive-style. Source: based on Ellis 1985. The field dependence / independence distinction does not imply that there are only two types of learners as far as cognitive style is concerned. It just means that some learners will be more or less field dependent oriented. As Ellis says, The terms do not really represent alternatives, but poles on a continuum, with individuals varying in the extent to which they lean towards dependence or independence. (Ellis 1985:114) _——_$$ 12 INDIVIDUAL FACTORS IN THE LEARNER'S DEVELOPMENTCCOCNITIVE INFLUENCES ON LANGUAGE LEARNING FUNIBER $9 i It is generally assumed that field dependent learners will learn more effectively in a naturalistic setting as the learner will come into contact with other speakers of the target language more easily. On the contrary, in the classroom setting the opposite will be true: the field-independent learner will try to analyse language more naturally than the field-dependent one, and thus theoretically be more successful in a formal instruction environment. Skehan for his part defines the social characteristics of the field dependent and field independent learner as follows: Field dependent individuals are thought to be person oriented, interested in other people and sensitive to them... They are also thought to be gregarious. In contrast field independent learners are more impersonal and detached, less sensitive and more aloof; they are cerebral and object oriented. (1989:111) However, despite the enthusiastic reception which theorists have given to the notion of field dependence/independence, it is not an unproblematic construct. Specifically the means by which this construct has been measured - the GET test - has been questioned. Williams and Burden (1997:91) warn that: : These constructs are being measured by an obscure test of visual perception which is currently little used by professional psychologists, and which appears to bear little relation to learning style. In fact, Williams and Burden go further, and query the whole rationale behind many research approaches to individual differences: What is sometimes forgotten in research into individual differences is that the characteristic selected is in fact no more than the researcher's best effort at conceptualising what the particular trait involves. This becomes what the psychologists term a hypothetical construct,... There is no such thing as ‘intelligence’ or ‘field dependence’ or ‘motivation’ but it can sometimes be convenient to treat such entities as if they do exist so that we can construct tests to measure them. Unfortunately, the outcome of that testing procedure can then come to represent in people's minds the meaning of that construct. For example, for many years the only definition of intelligence that was offered in many psychological textbooks was that ‘intelligence is what intelligence tests measure’. (ibid:89) However, it should also be pointed out that although most research studies on cognitive style concentrate on the potentially suspect distinction field-dependence / field- independence, several scholars such as Reid (1987) and Willing (1987) distinguish other types or modalities of learning styles. INDIVIDUAL FACTORS IN THE LEARNER'S DEVELOPMENT 13COcMIIVE INFLUENCES OW LANGUAGE LEARRING FUNIBER $ Thus, Reid distinguishes between four perceptual learning tendencies: - Visual-learning (learning mainly from seeing words in books, on the board, in workbooks, charts, drawings, photos, etc.); - Auditory learning (learning by hearing words spoken and from oral explanations as well as by listening to tapes or to lectures); - Kinaesthetic learning (lear classroom experiences); and 9 by experience, by being involved physically in - Tactile learning (hands-on learning, learning by doing, working on experiments in a laboratory, handling and building models, and touching and working with materials). Willing too identified four main learning styles used by ESL learners can be described as follows: Australia. These people-orientated, emotional and spontaneous; - Analytic learning style: object-orientated, high capacity for making connections and inferences, prefers logical and didactic presentation; - Communicative learning style: quite autonomous, prefers social learning, likes taking decisions. - Authority-orientated learning style: tends to depend on the teacher, does not enjoy discovery learning, prefers to be told what to do and how to do it, intolerant of facts that do not fit. REFLECTIVE TASK 1.1. Look at this learner's description of how she learnt a foreign language. When | first arrived in the country, I did a two-week intensive course. Just to learn the basics - you know - shopping, directions and so on. Then | just spoke to everyone | could find. I even spoke to myself out loud sometimes. | bought a grammar book with a key and did exercises on difficult things like the subjunctive. | found that it really helped me to memorise verb conjugations, and then slowly I learned how to use them more or less correctly. But | still make mistakes, and I've been living here for 11 years. 1, How would you characterise her learning style? 2. How would you describe your learning style as regards language learning? Provide as much detailed information as you can. To see the comments on this task you will find the “Assessment” section of the subject (virtual campus). —_—_—_—_—— 14 INDIVIDUAL FACTORS IN THE LEARNER'S DEVELOPMENTFUNIBER $9 The important question for us as language teachers is, of course, to what extent cognitive style or learning style affects the success (or otherwise) of learning a foreign language. However, once again, the results of research into the role of cognitive style in SLA are not conclusive (Before we look at some of the important findings in this field, you may want to see appendix 3.2 for a summary of the main research studies in this area. They make fascinating reading, but you are not expected to make yourself familiar with all the details ~ your reading should be for interest's sake alone). 1.4.1. COGNITIVE STYLE: CONCLUSION Whether or not you have read the research findings, one thing is clear: there are no simple answers. But we may be able to make a few tentative generalisations. In general, studies on cognitive style appear to demonstrate that a close relationship between cognitive style and academic achievement does not exist. In other words, there does not seem to be a clear connection between our approach to learning and learning success. ‘The results obtained vary considerably from one study to another and they are not at all conclusive. This implies that the task of learning a language can be tackled in many different ways: some learners will prefer learning by doing or will focus on the written word; others, in contrast, will be more prone to reflect upon their learning or will pay = special attention to visual features during their learning. Learning goals can be attained in various ways. Second language teachers should thus be aware of the existence of different cognitive / learning styles in their classes and should try to accommodate these, through varying modes of instruction. Also, it has been argued that learning styles should be seen from a developmental perspective, that is, that learners may be encouraged to explore and even perhaps expand their own preferred learning style, thus making it more effective for the task of learning a foreign language. Another interesting and important point as regards the role of cognitive style in foreign language learning is the influence of cultural background on the learning styles learners may develop (Reid 1987). Not only is cultural background of relevance, but factors such as age, sex and level of education also seem to influence what style learners develop As a final comment, one wonders why the research carried out up to date in this domain has only been concerned with the correlations between cognitive style and language learning success and why attention has not been paid to its relationship with —_—_———— INDIVIOUAL FACTORS IN THE LEARNER'S DEVELOPMENT 15Cocnrnive :NP.UENCES ON LANGUAGE GEARING FUNIBER other learning factors such as intelligence, age, aptitude, strategies and personality. In our view, further study and research should be carried out in this direction. 1.5. LEARNING STRATEGIES In the last few years, research has revealed the great importance of learning strategies for second language learning. Learning strategies are defined by Oxford and Crookall as: steps taken by the learner to aid the acquisition, storage and retrieval of information. (1989: 404) Willing (1988) emphasises the idea of a struggle or difficulty, which in her opinion is connected with the word strategy. Ellis probably provides the clearest and simplest definition: Learning strategies are the particular approaches or techniques that learners employ to try to learn an L2. They can be behavioural (for example, repeating new words aloud to help you remember them) or they can be mental (for example, using the linguistic or situational context to infer the meaning of a new word). They are typically problem-oriented. That is, learners employ learning strategies when they are faced with some problem, such as how to remember a new word. Learners are generally aware of the strategies they use and, when asked, can explain what they did to try and learn something. (1997:77) Wenden and Rubin (1987) in their definition of strategies point out that they usually refer to specific actions or techniques which may or may not be observable. In their view, some strategies are consciously used and can be modified and learned. It is also generally agreed that strategies are present in both informal and academic settings. However, so far most of the research in this area has been particularly focused on the classroom. The list that follows summarises the main features of language learning strategies. Characteristics or features of language learning strategies - Language learning strategies... 1. ...contribute to the main goal: communicative competence. 2. ...allow learners to become more self-directed and autonomous. 16 INDIVIDUAL FACTORS IN THE LEARNER'S DEVELOPMENTFUNIBER £3 COGNITIVE INFLUENCES OW LANGUAGE LEARNING expand the role of teachers: students take more responsibility for their learning. 4." ...are problem-oriented: they are tools, they are used because there is a problem to solve, a task to accomplish. ...are specific actions taken by the learner. . .. involve many aspects of the learner, not just the cognitive. support learning both directly and indirectly. are not always observable: they are not always readily observable to the human eye; which is why foreign language teachers, in general, are not aware of them. 9. ...can be taught: strategy training. 10. ils ‘are often conscious: students may or may not be aware of their use. are flexible: there are certain strategies which are common to everybody, although some may be completely personal 12....are influenced by a variety of factors: degree of awareness, stage of learning, task requirements, teacher expectations, age, sex, nationality/ ethnicity, general learning style, personality traits, motivation level, and purpose for learning the language. 13....are present in all learners. Different typologies (O'Malley 1985a, Ellis 1985, Wenden and Rubin 1987, Willing 1988, Oxford and Crookall 1989) were established for the classification of language learning strategies; these include direct, indirect, cognitive, metacognitive, social, linguistic, non-linguistic, communicative, analytic, Gestalt, compensation and retrieval. For practical purposes, we are only going to refer to cognitive, memory, compensation, metacognitive, social, affective and communication strategies (see tables 1.2 and 1.3). These groups should not be considered as completely independent, as they are closely connected. On many occasions learners may make use of different types of strategies simultaneously. - Cognitive strategies are essentially operations used by the learner to obtain knowledge and understanding of the linguistic system. They involve the manipulation of the language in some direct way. Generalising, making comparisons between languages, note-taking, practising, analysing and reasoning can be included under this category - Memory strategies correspond to the specific techniques which help the learner to store and, when necessary, retrieve the stored information. INDIVIDUAL FACTORS IN THE LEARNER'S DEVELOPMENT 7- Compensation strategies are behaviours adopted by students to compensate for missing knowledge, such as using circumlocution, avoidance, guessing while listening or reading, etc. - Metacognitive strategies are concerned with how to learn or with learning to learn. These language learning strategies involve being aware and reflecting upon the learning process together with planning, arranging and evaluating one's language. Advance organisers, directed attention and self-management are generally considered strategies belonging to this group. + Social strategies have particularly been explored by Wong-Fillmore (1979): these strategies are associated with the social behaviours involving other people in the language learning process. Examples are counting on friends for help, participating in group conversations, pretending real understanding, questioning and cooperating with peers. - Affective strategies are techniques which help learners achieve better control over their emotions and attitudes towards the language learning process. Self- reinforcement and positive self-talk can be grouped here - Communication strategies (see table 1.3) are almost exclusively restricted to the oral production level. They can be considered as those compensation strategies used while speaking. They are usually used by the learner as a solution to a communication problem. Ellis defines them as follows: Psycholinguistic plans which exist as part of the language user's communicative competence. They are potentially conscious and serve as substitutes for production plans which the learner is unable to implement. (1985:182) Paraphrase, avoidance, restructuring, code-switching, foreignising, literal translation and repetition can be classified under this label. Manchén Ruiz (1985) makes a division between those communication strategies based on L1 such as literal translations, loans and foreignisms, and those based on L2 or interlanguage, such as the formation of new words, the use of semantically related terms, paraphrase, etc. Ellis (1985) establishes the following typology of communication strategies. First, he draws a distinction between reduction and achievement communication strategies. Reduction strategies, which can be formal and functional, are described as attempts to avoid a communication problem and they involve the learner giving up part of the original message. Achievement strategies are put into operation when the learner decides to keep to the original message but is forced to compensate for his/her lack of means and linguistic resources. They can be of two different types, compensatory and retrieval {sea table 1.3). Refer to 2 and 1.3 (overleaf) for a summary of all these learning strategies. 18 INDIVIDUAL FACTORS IN THE LEARNER'S DEVELOPMENT(COGNITIVE INFLUENCES ON LANGUAGE LEARNING Practising, E:g, Reading a text aloud several times; practising the pronunciation of a particular sound in front of the mirror. ‘Analysing and reasoning. E.g. Breaking down a new sentence or word into its /component parts. Receiving and sending. E.g. Using the dictionary, a grammar book. Creating structure for input and output. E.¢. Emphasising the most important points to remember through highlighting; summarising the most important questions. Cer otc Generalising. E.g. Generalising grammar rules as regards the formation of the simple past of regular verbs, or the formation of plural nouns. ‘Making comparisons across languages. E.g. Comparing English with German. ‘Applying images and sounds. E.g. Associating words with pictures. (Creating mental linkages. E.g. Grouping words into semantic field: lexical items Prete tear ru rsa ttega connected with shopping, food and drink, parts of a car, etc Reviewing well. .g. Revising notes. Employing action. Eg. Using mechanical techniques. ‘Guessing intelligently. E.g, Guessing the meaning of words in a reading text. Sea SEE. 9, hvoding the use ofa particular word or epresson because the Peale eammI learner isnot very sure about its use. \Circumlocution. E.9. Expressing an idea indirectly and with a higher number of words. Being aware and reflecting upon the learning process. ‘Arranging and planning learning. E.9. Preparing a language learning notebook; keeping a learning diary. Paes FSA Evaluating learning, E.g. Learning from previous errors in writing; self-evaluation STRATEGIES tasks, [Advance organizers. E.g. Planning in advance what one has got to do. Directed and selected attention. £.g. Concentrating on Key words in a listening exercise. [Counting on friends for help. Eg. Asking a friend questions. Participating in group conversations wihile pretending real understanding. Fete GUL AUS CN Questioning and cooperating with others. E.g. Cooperating with proficent users of the new language. Empathising with others. E.g, Developing cultural understanding. Towering one’s anxiety. E.g. Using music and laughter to calm down. ‘Self-reinforcement. E.g. Saying to oneself "You can do it, come on sar STS Positive self-talk. E.g. Encouraging oneself to do something. Taking ones emotional temperture. Eg. Discussing your feelings with someone se Table 1.2. A typology of language learning strategies(after Oxford 1990 and Elis 1986). INDIVIDUAL FACTORS IN THE LEARNER'S DEVELOPMENT. 19COGNITIVE INFLUENCES OW LANGUAGE LEARNING FUNIBER $3 9 [A.- Reduction strategies: the learner atlempts to avoid the problem by giving up part of the original communicative goal. idance of rules the learner is not sure of. b. Functional reduction: avoidance of certain topics, modality markers and certain functions. B.- Achievement: the leamer sticks to the original communicative goal but ‘compensates for the Insufficient means and tries hard to retrieve the required items. a. Compensatory (@ Non-cooperative strategies. = code-switching: the learner uses the form in the non-L2 language. E.a. A learner speaking English makes use of a Spanish word in the middle of a ‘conversation because s/he is not able to come up with that word in the target language (TL). ~ fereignising: the learner makes use of a non-L2 form but adapts it to make it ‘appear like a L-2 form. E.g. The use of the non-existent word "saltatior?” een instead of “jung. a = fiteral translation. €.g. “actually’ translated as “actualmente’. ~ substitution. ~ paraphrase: the learner describes or makes 2 paraphrase of an (2 form. = word coinage: the leaner makes up a new L2 form composed by two L2 forms. £.g. *ultrafrazert’. = restructuring. (il) Co-operative strategies: ~ Direct appea': the learner requests assistance. : = Indirect appeet: the learner does not overtiy request assistance, but pauses, signals to indicate the need for help. b. Retrieval Waiting. Using semantic flelds: the learner recognises the semantic field to which the Items belong and starts running through items belonging to that field until that particular item is finally found. Gil) Using other languages. Table 1.3. Communication strategies (after Oxford 1990 and Elis 1985). A fair amount of the research has been carried out to explore the world of language learning strategies. This begs the question of exactly how we find out what learning strategies learners favour, and whether or not this affects their language learning. Researchers have used techniques, or ‘research instruments’ in the jargon, such as: interviews and thinking aloud of learners; making lists of strategies to observe learners with: observation (without lists); diary studies (in which students report their use of strategies); questionnaires studies on strategy training 20 INDIVIDUAL FACTORS IN THE LEARNER'S DEVELOPMENTNIBER $9 5.1. STRATEGY TRAINING The last area above, that of strategy training, is arguably the area of most interest to us as classroom teachers. The implication is that learning strategies are not fixed, immutable characteristics, but something which we, as teachers, can help our students to develop through specific pedagogical practices. That is, we can ‘teach’ students to become more efficient learners of a foreign language. In the 1980s and 1990s a good number of teaching materials (Ellis and Sinclair, 1989; Brown, 1989; Oxford, 1989; Wenden, 1991) were developed with the aim of introducing strategy training in general language courses. These books generally provided teachers with tasks, data and explanations to acquire the skills and knowledge necessary to help their students to become more autonomous learners. Although most of the activities proposed were interesting and helpful, they may present the teacher with difficulties in terms of how to combine the language and the strategy training components. Appendices 1.1, 1.2, 1.3 and 1.4 include some exercises directly related to this topic. Appendix 1.1 shows an activity to develop students’ reading strategies. Appendix 1.2 for its part gives us an example of how to encourage the learner's use of metacognitive strategies. Furthermore, strategy training (also known as ‘learner training’) should have as its ultimate aim the fostering of students’ autonomy in their own learning: learners should be trained to learn on their own without the physical presence of the teacher. One of the tasks of the language teacher is to help the student to learn more happily and effectively. Teachers should devote part of their teaching time to making students aware of why certain things will help them in their learning, and why others will not. Students will feel responsible for their own learning if they understand how the learning process works. Appendices 1.3 and 1.4 give us some simple ideas for how to do this in ‘our classrooms. 1.5.2. OUT-OF-CLASS LEARNING STRATEGIES In an ideal world, students would be learning English not just inside the classroom, but outside as well. In an EFL situation, we are all aware of the limited opportunities our students actually have for coming into contact with the target language outside the classroom walls. Nevertheless, good, self-motivated language learners will make the effort to improve their English outside of formal instruction, by using strategies such as going to the cinema to see original version films, reading newspapers in English, and so on. These are known as out-of-class strategies. INDIVIDUAL FACTORS IN THE LEARNER’S DEVELOPMENT 21