Module 4

Topic X Problem
Solving
4
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Define what a problem is;
2. Describe how a problem can present an opportunity for
improvement;
3. Explain the four stages involved in the process of problem solving;
4. Explain the importance of goal setting in the problem-solving
process;
5. Establish the general guidelines to effective problem solving;
6. Discuss the role of Root Cause Analysis (RCA) technique in the
problem-solving process;
7. Examine the common constraints in the problem-solving process;
and
8. Compare and contrast the different approaches to problem solving.
X INTRODUCTION
Regardless of what we do for a living or where we are, we spend most of our
waking hours constantly trying to solve problems. For many students, problem
solving is a procedure they carry out on a task assigned by a teacher. They view
the problem as something to be completed within a set time so as to avoid punitive
consequences. Unfortunately, in their daily lives, students, and people in general,
have a tendency to overanalyse every action or event deemed problematic. The
problems we face can be small or complex, but they need to be solved in a

64 X TOPIC 4 PROBLEM SOLVING
constructive manner. Hence, problem solving is an important skill. Whether we

arrive at an effective solution or not depends on how we confront the problem
(Figure 4.1).
Figure 4.1: How we view a problem is the key to determining its outcome
Source: http://beautybrainsnbeyond.blogspot.com/2010/05/thought-of- day_20.html
4.1 WHAT IS A PROBLEM?

Based on some dictionaries, a problem is defined as:
(a) A question raised for consideration or solution (WordNet® 2.0, Princeton

University, 2003).
(b) A question to be considered, solved or answered (The American Heritage®

Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition, Updated in 2009).
(c) Anything, matter, person, etc, that is difficult to deal with, solve or overcome
(Collins English Dictionary: Complete and Unabridged 6th Edition, 2003).
(d) Any question or matter involving doubt, uncertainty or difficulty

(Dictionary.com, Unabridged).

TOPIC 4 PROBLEM SOLVING W 65
Depending on the context, some problems may be minor, personal or caused by

external factors. Some problems may be too big or too complex and need to be
passed on to people who are more capable of dealing with them. Figure 4.2
illustrates how NOT to go about it!
Figure 4.2: A negative approach to a problem: „If the problem is too big, just blame it on
someone else!‰
Different authors define a problem differently. Generally, we can define a problem

using three approaches:
(a) A problem is an opportunity for improvement.
(b) A problem is the difference between your current state and your goal state.
(c) A problem results from the recognition of a present imperfection and the
belief in the possibility of a better future.
The definition that a problem is an opportunity for improvement will be the focus
of our discussion here. Thinking out of the box enables one to view a problem as
an opportunity ă a chance to open up new ways of looking at, and responding to,
the difficulties being faced. Seen from this perspective, problems are not
necessarily the result of external factors or to be perceived as negative or „bad‰
events. This shift in perspective creates a new viewpoint or awareness of the
problem. New opportunities for improvement will present themselves to you, and
as they do, they bring about new challenges that demand a solution from you.

Such a situation requires flexibility in approaching the problem at hand. This

requirement for flexibility offers a distinct advantage to creative people in the
course of problem solving, since changes in the problem necessitate innovative and
inventive adjustments in how it is solved. Perceiving problems as opportunities
for improvement nurtures a positive mindset, which can transform you into a
more confident person with more control of your life.
At times, a problem can manifest itself in different ways. An example is a situation

where we see ourselves in conflict with where we are at present and where we
want to be. When we can identify the difference between the situation we are in at
present and the situation we desire, we can define the problem, which we can
thereafter attempt to resolve in order to achieve our goal.
„Each problem has hidden in it an opportunity so powerful that it literally

dwarfs the problem. The greatest success stories were created by people who
recognised a problem and turned it into an opportunity.‰
Joseph Sugarman (Inglish, P. 2011)
ACTIVITY 4.1
„There is so far no limit to the rise in food and oil prices, a situation that
is leading many consumers and producers to a point where they are
carrying an unbearable burden.‰ (The Star, 23 June 2008)
Identify one consumer-related problem that can result from the situation
reported above. Can you approach this problem as an opportunity?
Explain your answer.
4.2 WHAT IS PROBLEM SOLVING?

Problem solving and the techniques associated with it are domain-independent
reasoning components which specify patterns of behaviour that can be reused
across applications (Fensel and Motta, 1997). This simply means that problem
solving is a series of techniques, both cognitive and behavioural, that can be
applied in various fields or areas to generate solutions.

As Woods (1975) and colleagues suggested, „Problem solving is the process of

obtaining a satisfactory solution to a novel problem, or at least a problem which
the problem solver has not seen before.‰
As a whole, problem solving involves a series of steps, from the identification of a

problem leading to the development of a solution. Problem solving can be seen as
a structured, directional-oriented process. However, in determining the direction
for the solution, we need to define the problem first, followed by the desired goal
or the changes we want.
4.2.1 Stages in Problem Solving

As highlighted in the previous subtopic, to better understand problem solving and
to improve our personal problem-solving capabilities, we should view problem
solving as a process that leads to a positive result. The importance of this approach
is that it focuses on the process of attaining the solution rather than the solution
itself. This means more emphasis is placed on the steps in reaching the solution
than the end result. Thus, it is vital that we understand the various stages involved.
The four stages involved are presented in Figure 4.3.
Figure 4.3: Stages in problem solving
(a) Recognising and Defining a Problem

A problem can only be solved when its existence is recognised. However, in
certain situations, a problem is only recognised when it becomes a serious
matter. After recognising a problem, the next action will be to thoroughly
define it. A problem can be referred to as a closed-ended problem or an open-
ended problem. A closed-ended problem involves all circumstances
surrounding the deviation from the norm that need to be defined. On the

other hand, an open-ended problem involves both identifying and defining

your objectives and any hindrance that can stop you from attaining them.
The main differences between closed-ended and open-ended problems are
summarised in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1: Differences between Closed- and Open-ended Problems
Closed-ended Problems Open-ended Problems

Have one or a limited number of Can be solved using many different
possible solutions. methods.
Problem analysis involves identifying Problem analysis involves looking for
all the possible causes before looking information which will help to suggest
for a solution. a range of possible ways to solve the
problem.
Analysing a problem thoroughly is important in order for you to fully

understand it and subsequently come up with various solutions that can help
in achieving your goals. Analysing a problem involves identifying and
bringing together relevant information, and presenting it in a meaningful
way. It eventually helps you to decide what the best solution would be.
(b) Finding Possible Solutions

Generally, coming up with various actions to solve a problem involves
finding out what appropriate actions to take, what the hindrances are and
finally working towards achieving your goals. It may be necessary to modify
and combine ideas using any creative technique available in order to devise
a workable solution. In truth, the more ideas you have to choose from, the
higher the probability of finding an effective solution.
(c) Selecting the Best Solution

This is a decision-making process that is based on a comparison of the
potential outcomes of alternative solutions. This stage involves:
(i) Identifying the characteristics of the possible solutions, including any

limitations that might be encountered;
(ii) Eliminating the solutions that cannot overcome the limitations;
(iii) Evaluating the remaining solutions;
(iv) Evaluating the risks linked to arriving at the best solution; and
(v) Coming up with a decision to implement the chosen solution.

It is believed that a problem is considered solved when a solution has been

implemented. However, in certain circumstances, the selected solution has
to be accepted or authorised by other individuals in order for it to be
implemented, and this may involve several strategies of persuasion.
(d) Implementing the Solution

Three steps are involved in this stage, as presented in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2: Steps Involved in the Implementation of a Solution
Step Description
Planning and preparing to Involves the conclusion of all efforts and thorough
implement the solution. planning that describes the sequence of actions
needed to fulfil the objective, timescale and
resources required at each stage.
Taking the appropriate Problems or potential problems have to be dealt
action and monitoring its with immediately in order to ensure that things
effect. run smoothly.
Reviewing the success of the This is important to estimate the efficacy of the
action. action in solving future similar problems and to
make sure that the problem has been solved.
To sum up, the emphasis of a closed-ended problem is on defining and

analysing the problem to indicate possible causes, whereas the focus of an
open-ended problem is on the idea generation stage to come up with a
broader range of possible solutions. It may be necessary to recalibrate the
work done earlier, during any stage in problem solving.
In all the four stages discussed, we need to use our reasoning and thinking
skills. These will be discussed in later topics.
SELF-CHECK 4.1
1. Explain the four stages involved in problem solving.
2. Explain briefly the differences between open-ended and closed-

ended problems.

4.3 IMPORTANCE OF GOALS IN PROBLEM

SOLVING
Problem solving centres on thinking about goals and ideal states that one would
like to achieve. Usually, when a goal is reached, the problem is considered settled.
However, this will only happen if the goal originally set is appropriate. Defining a
goal is essential to determine how much of a problem exists or whether or not there
is a problem in the first place. There are, of course, innumerable problems that
need solutions. Do not get carried away by trying to solve every problem you
identify and do not let others set goals for you that you will not be able to achieve
(as illustrated in Figure 4.4).
Figure 4.4: Set yourself realistic goals; do not try to solve all problems and do not let
others set goals for you that you know you cannot meet

Robert Harris (1998), in the following excerpt, gives a very good example to
illustrate the need for a goal to identify whether a problem exists:
LetÊs say you have just brought a pizza home from the pizza parlour and it
is beginning to cool. If your ideal state is to eat very hot pizza, then you
have a problem ă you may define it as how to keep the pizza from cooling,
how to heat it back up or how to eat it quickly. On the other hand, if you
like moderately warm pizza, then you do not have a problem. Similarly, if
your friend comes over an hour later and you offer him a piece of leftover
pizza only to discover that your oven is on the blink, you have a problem:
how to heat up the pizza. But if your friend says, „I really like cold pizza
better than hot‰, you do not have a problem.
Source: http://www.virtualsalt.com/crebook3.htm
As the above example illustrates, in order to determine whether or not a problem

exists, and to what extent it does, you must first consider:
(a) Your goal(s); and
(b) Your current state.
Your goals must be achievable within the boundaries of your capabilities and the
tools you possess. Take time to think about your goals and plan your strategy.
Remember, failing to plan is planning to fail.
Goals are never static. Your priorities will change over time, and so will your goals.
The changes may involve a major rethinking of your lifeÊs purpose, or they may
be small refinements to your holiday budget. Whatever the changes may be, it is
essential that you keep your problems and solutions in tandem with your goals.

4.4 GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR PROBLEM

SOLVING
These guidelines are meant to help you analyse, define and solve problems in an
orderly way, and to give some structure to the various problem-solving activities
you encounter. When using these guidelines, it is important to keep in mind that
problem solving does not proceed through a predetermined sequence of steps at
all times, nor is it necessarily linear. Rather, problem solving is a recursive process
whereby you must continually go back and forth between steps, and repeat some
steps. This can best be viewed as a problem-solving cycle (illustrated in Figure 4.5)
whereby each process can feed into another process through feedback and
correction.
Figure 4.5: The problem-solving cycle

Whenever we are faced with a problem, an effective solution to the problem can
be developed using the six steps, as shown in Figure 4.6.
Figure 4.6: The six steps in problem solving and decision making
These steps can each be broken down into smaller steps to better enable you to
carry out the problem-solving process. We will look further into each step in the
following subsections.
4.4.1 Explore the Problem

This is the first step in the process of effective problem solving. The problem is
investigated and broken down into sub-problems; the terms are defined and the
nature of the problem is determined. Some research should be done on whether
the problem has been encountered in the past, and if so, how it was resolved, if at
all.

Obviously, the nature of the problem will determine how much time is spent on
problem exploration. Simple problems may not need extensive exploration while
complex problems may require extensive exploration. Compare, for example, the
amount of exploration needed to determine why a little bulb is not working in
your house and why a car is not working properly. Problem exploration may
involve some steps which include:
(a) Problem Statement
(i) What is the problem?
x Is the problem multi-faceted? If so, what are its various facets or

aspects?
x If the problem was passed on to you from someone else (another

individual or another department, for example), it might be useful
to have a statement stating the problem as was given to you and
another statement stating the problem in your own words.
x In any problem definition or statement, it is useful to state what the

problem is not. By doing this, you will have a clearer idea of what
it is.
(ii) Restate it differently.
x Restate the problem in a completely different way.
x Do this several different times.
x This helps to separate the real problem from our verbal

representations of it.
(iii) Make a broad statement about the problem.
x State the problem in abstract terms, perhaps even with a

philosophical slant. Often, how a problem is worded reflects a
specific instance of a broader issue. By restating the problem in
more general terms, one is able to determine if this is so.
x Using general statements allows the issues surrounding the

problem to be argued from different perspectives; thereby
suggesting solutions that would not otherwise be considered.

(b) Problem Clarification
(i) What are the key terms of the problem?
x Use words with similar meanings.
x Define the terms recursively, making them more general or more

specific, until the problem is articulated as best as can be.
x With this technique, the problem is broken down into its attributes,
components and general features, so that possible solutions can be
more readily apparent.
x Anything that is ambiguous or uncertain about the problem must

be clarified. It is not uncommon that problem statements originally
written are vague and fuzzy, and need to be fine-tuned.
(ii) What are the assumptions made about the problem? Under what
circumstances would a solution work?
x This step involves the conscious listing of all assumptions that can
be identified. The listing must be impartial, without prejudice or
judgement.
x It is important to list the obvious assumptions because often it is

those that later turn out to be alterable.
x Many assumptions are necessary while some are not.
(iii) Obtain further information about the problem.
x Get ideas for solving the problem by researching how similar

problems were approached or solved in the past.
x Often, you may discover alternative solutions used previously to

solve very similar problems faced at present.
(c) Explanation of the Problem
(i) Brainstorm with others the issues surrounding the problem.
x Articulate the problem carefully and listen to your own

explanation; then, try to visualise how someone else may see the
problem.

x Discussion may help you find a solution from someone else who
has encountered a similar problem or has a different perspective.
x Generally, when discussing a problem or idea, listen to yourself as

well as to others you talk to.
(ii) View the problem from different perspectives.
x Would your problem look different to different people? How

would the issue you consider a problem look like when viewed
from a different perspective?
x To get the best perspective, the problem should be looked at from

the points of view of those who cause it, those who suffer from it,
those who have to fix it, those who have to pay for it, etc.
(iii) Ask a series of clarifying „Whys?‰
x Asking „Why?‰ can serve a purpose similar to that of broadening

the definition of the problem, which can lead to new ways of
looking at the problem and at possible solutions.
x You can also ask yourself if the problem is a symptom or result of

another problem. For example, at first glance, the production of
low-quality cars appears to be a problem of quality control. A
deeper analysis, however, may reveal it to be a symptom of a bigger
underlying problem, such as poor management, sloppy work
habits, unreliable parts and materials, old machinery, bad
maintenance and so on.
(d) Put the Problem in Context
(i) What is the history and historical context of the problem?
x It helps to know the history of a problem. By knowing what has

worked and not worked before, you can concentrate your efforts on
solutions that are more likely to succeed.
x Even if the problem appears to be the same, the context in which

the solution worked (or not worked) previously will put a different
spin to the solution now.

(ii) What is the problem environment?
x What are the contexts surrounding the problem?
x What factors contribute to the cause of the problem and cause it to

continue being a problem?
x By understanding the contributing or perpetuating factors, you will

be able to take steps to prevent a problem from recurring.
(iii) What are the circumstances affecting the problem?
x Is the problem affected by specific conditions?
x Would different conditions or circumstances worsen the problem

or reduce it?
x Would removing the conditions or circumstances eliminate the

problem?
(iv) What are the constraints?
x Constraints are the limitations imposed or the requirements that

must be observed in solving the problem. They are part of the
solution framework that must be kept in mind. It is therefore
important to identify the constraints.
x Examples of constraints are legal obligations, contractual

requirements, environmental concerns, physical circumstances,
financial and budgetary considerations, factors beyond your
control and so on.
ACTIVITY 4.2
Problems constrained by budgetary or legal realities are constantly
encountered by governments and large industries. Can you think of a
few examples from real life? Can you find one or two examples in the
newspapers?

4.4.2 Establish Your Goals

Now, let us look at the second step of problem solving ă goal setting.
(a) What Goals would you Consider Ideal?
(i) Very often, instead of considering what an ideal solution to a problem

would be, we simply settle for a quick solution.
(ii) We may reduce our expectation for practical reasons like the
constraints discussed above but we need not do this until we have
envisioned the ideal scenario.
(iii) Sometimes the ideal scenario, after discussion and analysis, may seem
more achievable than previously thought.
(b) Establish Realistic and Practical Goals
(i) In order for goals to be measured, they must be clear, definite and
precise. A list of such goals can be used to monitor the progress of
problem-solving attempts.
(ii) Setting up goals gives direction to problem-solving tasks and gives the
problem-solver an objective to aim for.
(iii) The goals must be realistic, otherwise achieving the goals will seem an
insurmountable task.
(iv) Try to be as specific as possible in describing your goal; do not hesitate

if your goals remain vague or unquantifiable.
4.4.3 Generate Ideas

For problems to be solved, we need to generate ideas to look for possible solutions.
The following will give you ideas on how to find possible solutions.
Generate Ideas for Possible Solutions
(a) Read, research, think, ask questions and discuss.
x Start by gathering information about your problem, and this includes

reading, discussing, brainstorming, asking questions and seeking
opinions. Be curious, look for ideas and learn as much as you can about
the problem.

(b) Use idea generation techniques such as brainstorming, forced relationships,

random stimulation and so on (these will be discussed in detail in the next
topic).
x Generate as many ideas of all kinds as possible. This will give you a vast
pool of ideas from which you can choose, adapt or stimulate other ideas.
(c) Allow time for ideas to develop during various stages of idea generation.
x The major cycle of creativity has several stages, namely:
Preparation: Initial thought, research, study, work;
Incubation: Time to let the unconscious work;
Insight: The flash of recognition of a solution path, also called the

eureka experience or the eureka moment;
Implementation: Working out the solution; and
Evaluation.
4.4.4 Select Your Ideas

Now, based on the ideas you have found, evaluate and choose the best solution.
(a) Evaluate the Possible Solutions for Likelihood of Success
(i) Evaluate the ideas and possible solutions that you have collected so far.
(ii) Set up another possible solution that can be implemented („Plan B‰) in
case your main plan does not work.
(iii) Your evaluation will involve finding the solution that will be the most
effective (works best), efficient (costs the least, in terms of money, time,
etc), and has the fewest side effects.
(iv) Establish a ranking order for the possible solutions.
(b) Choose the Solution(s)
(i) Select one or more solutions to try.
x From the solutions ranked near the top of your evaluation list,
choose one or more to try. (The solution chosen for implementation
is not always, or even necessarily, the very top-ranked one).

(ii) Allow others to see and criticise your selected solution and to suggest
improvements or alternatives.
x It is important to let others criticise and evaluate your solution

because you will then have a chance to improve it.
x Do not let criticisms affect your confidence in ideas you believe are
good, but also do not be blind to criticisms that legitimately point
out your weaknesses. Always be willing to incorporate new ideas.
4.4.5 Implement Your Action Plan

Once you have selected a solution, you can implement the action plan. However,
it is best for you to try out the solution and make necessary changes before the
actual implementation.
(a) Try Out the Solution(s)

Experiment with the idea; test it on something closely resembling the real-
life scenario you are facing. This is especially vital in solutions that may affect
peopleÊs health or life.
(b) Make Adjustments or Changes as Needed During Implementation
(i) Always remain flexible in this application phase. Practically every

solution needs some modification when put into effect.
(ii) Remember that the goal is to solve the problem, not to implement the
solution; donÊt expect that your solution will be exactly as you
originally proposed.
4.4.6 Evaluate and Follow Up

Now, after you have completed all the earlier steps in problem solving, it is time
for you to evaluate whether or not the steps that you have taken are effective.
(a) Investigate Whether the Solution(s) Worked and to What Extent
(i) Do you require modifications? Do other solutions need to be tested? Is

a different approach needed?
(ii) One of the most frequent failures of problem solving is the lack of
evaluation of the implemented solution. The solution may not have
worked or not worked completely or it may have caused other
problems in the process.

(b) Do Not Deal in Absolutes (Success or Failure Only)
(i) Remember that many solutions are better described as partially

successful or unsuccessful, rather than a total success or failure.
(ii) In many cases, an incomplete remedy is better than none at all.
Next, let us learn about a popular mechanism in exploring a problem.
4.5 ROOT CAUSE ANALYSIS

Root Cause Analysis (RCA) is a popular and frequently employed technique that
assists individuals in finding out why the particular problem happened in the first
place. Basically, its main aim is to investigate the origin of a problem which is
carried out using a specific set of steps together with associated tools. By
identifying the main cause of the problem, you can determine what happened,
why it happened and also find out the steps that should be taken to avoid its
recurrence in the future.
In general, RCA works on the principle that systems and events are interrelated.
According to this technique, a symptom can be traced back right to the initial
action that had actually triggered the cascade of events leading to the current
problem. The three basics types of causes that are usually looked at include:
(a) Physical causes ă tangible, material items that failed in certain ways.
(b) Human causes ă a mistake committed by an individual, or a certain task that

was not carried out accordingly by an individual.
(c) Organisational causes ă a faulty system, process, or policy that people

employ to make decisions.
RCA has been found to be effective in investigating the patterns of negative effects,
identifying hidden flaws in a particular system, and also uncovering specific
actions that have contributed to the problem. Thus RCA can be applied to
practically all types of problems as long as one is determined to go far in his or her
investigation with a good judgment and common sense. The steps involved in the
RCA process include:
(a) Defining the problem ă in this step you are to observe what is happening and
at the same time look out for specific symptoms.

(b) Collection of data ă this step is important to prove that the problem exists, or
that the problem has been there for a period of time and has created a
particular impact. In this step, assistance from individuals who understand
the situation and are most familiar with the problem will help you in tackling
the problem better. CATWOE is a useful tool that can be employed at this
stage in order for you to look at the problem from different perspectives
[the Customers, the people (Actors) who implement the solutions, the
Transformation process affected, the World view, the process Owner, and
Environmental constraints].
(c) Identification of possible causal factors ă this stage allows you to recognise
the sequence of events that led to the problem, the conditions that permitted
the problem to occur and the other problems that surrounded the occurrence
of the main problem. The most important fact is that one should always look
for as many causal factors as possible.
(d) Identification of the root cause(s) ă this step is carried out to find out the
reason behind the existence of the causal factor and the occurrence of the
problem.
(e) Recommendation and implementation of solutions ă in this final step, you

are supposed to come up with ideas to prevent the problem from occurring
again, planning the implementation of a solution by the assigned
individuals, and identifying the risks that may arise with the implementation
of the chosen solution.
You are encouraged to plan ahead to predict the effects of your solution in order
for potential failures to be spotted even before they occur using tools such as
Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA), Impact Analysis and Kaizen.
4.6 CONSTRAINTS
According to Dörner & Wearing (1995) and Funke (1991) some of the constraints
faced in solving difficult problems include:
(a) Lack of clarity of the situation ă in this case, one may face difficulty in either
initiating or continuing in the problem solving.
(b) Polytely ă this involves complex problem-solving characterised by the

presence of several goals or endings.
(c) Complexity ă problems with a large number of items, interrelations and

decisions.

(d) Dynamics ă problems that cannot be solved due the insufficient time frame
provided. In certain cases, the exact time required to solve the problem is
unpredictable.
Finally, we will explore the term solution again and relook at planning of the
solution.
4.7 WHAT IS A SOLUTION?

In everyday life, our understanding of solving a problem is by eliminating the
problem. This is just one approach to solving problems. There are problems,
however, that cannot simply be eliminated. These include things like waste, wear
and tear, or the occurrence of illness. Often, such „problems‰ are related to the
laws of nature and are therefore an integral part of our existence. When faced with
such problems, our main task is to make them less disruptive to the process of
reaching our goals. For this purpose, Harris, R. (1998) defines „solution‰ as the
management of a problem that successfully meets the goals established for treating
that problem. Harris goes on to clarify that sometimes the goal will be to eliminate
the problem entirely; sometimes the goal will be only to treat the effects of the
problem. As such, it is vital to realise that your goal as a problem solver will be
shaped by various factors that include your ambitiousness, resources, values and
expectations, as well as the possibilities inherent in the problem itself.
Problems can be solved by applying two basic approaches:
(a) Addressing the cause or source of the problem; and
(b) Addressing the effects or symptoms of the problem.
Harris conveniently calls these the „stop it‰ and the „mop it‰ approaches
respectively. Each of these approaches has three basic forms.
4.7.1 The “Stop It” Approach

When we use the stop-it approach, we tackle the problem in such a way that, for
all intents and purposes, the problem no longer exists. There are three ways in
which the problem may be tackled:
x Prevent the problem
x Eliminate the problem
x Reduce the problem

(a) Prevent the Problem
(i) Preventing a problem from occurring (or recurring) in the first place is
probably the ideal solution.
(ii) This is often done by approaching any task with the desire for utmost
quality, regardless of cost or time.
(iii) The prevention approach is often difficult to apply because it requires

predictive foresight (the ability to foresee a problem before it occurs).
(iv) However, most problems appear unexpectedly.
(v) Similarly, by preventing misunderstandings, the need for lots of

damage control and emotional healing can be avoided.
(b) Eliminate the Problem
(i) An excellent way of dealing with a problem is to eliminate it.
(ii) There is no recurrence of the problem if elimination is properly done.
(iii) You should always consider elimination solutions as possible

solutions.
(iv) Elimination solutions, however may not always be feasible. For

example, the AIDS problem might be solved by eliminating unwanted
social behaviours, such as sexual practices and drug use. Parties with
vested interests would expectedly resist the implementation of such a
solution. Therefore, the mop-it approach is the usual approach taken to
solve the AIDS problem.
(c) Reduce the Problem
(i) There are problems, such as garbage production, that cannot be

eliminated entirely. When faced with such a situation, reducing the
problem can prove to be highly effective.
(ii) We can lessen the impact of practically any problem by reducing its
size. A real-life example is the current approach to the flow of illegal
drugs into many countries. Most governments use reduction strategies
to approach the illegal drug problem. The flow of drugs cannot be
eliminated as long as demand continues, so law enforcement agencies
work to reduce as much as possible the routes of entry, the middlemen
dealing the drugs on the street and the number of end-users.

4.7.2 The “Mop It” Approach

A mop it approach focuses on the effects of a problem rather than on the problem
itself. There are three forms of the mop it approach:
x Treat the problem
x Redirect the problem
x Tolerate the problem
(a) Treat the Problem
(i) In this form, the damage caused by the problem is repaired or treated.
(ii) Note, however, that by itself, a „treat it‰ solution is not going to be
nearly as effective as some form of „stop it‰ solution.
(b) Redirect the Problem
(i) In this approach, the problem is deflected, either physically by moving

it to another locality (a common solution in garbage problems) or by
postponing its solution by redefining it as not a problem.
(ii) Remember that a problem is a problem only when someone defines it

as such.
(c) Tolerate the Problem

In this form, the effects of the problem are tolerated. It is debatable whether
this can be considered a form of „problem solving‰ but for the sake of
completion, we will leave it in the list. Basically, in this scenario, the effects
are taken for granted and measures are taken to endure them.
The best approach is, of course, the stop-it approach. However, this is not always
possible in all cases, and it may be that the only solution to a problem at hand is
the mop-it one. Nevertheless, an effective problem-solver will always consider
stop-it solutions before exploring mop-it alternatives. It is also important that
problems be solved by treating the root (or underlying) causes rather than merely
addressing the symptoms.

4.8 IDENTIFYING POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS

It is believed that „the best way to have a good idea is to have a lot of ideas‰. Thus,
identifying possible solutions to a particular problem is also known as looking out
for „optional solution‰ due to the fact that the main objective is to bring to an end
the list of all possible alternatives to the particular problem. A wide range of
conceivable solutions can be generated using a variety of creative techniques.
This works best where a team is concerned. Every team member should contribute
one or more suggestions in order for all ideas to be taken into account. This is
important because when all viewpoints are thoroughly considered by the team,
members have a sense of direct ownership in the decision making process.
Eventually, this can assist the team in coming up with a consensus later in the
decision making process.
4.9 PLANNING THE SOLUTION

It is often vital to plan the solution before you can proceed to solve it or choose the
most suitable tool for it.
Planning your solution can be approached in the following way:
(a) Defining four or five key causes of the problem, followed by identifying the
intervention needed to resolve them.
(b) There may be several alternatives, with the best one depending on the cost,
effectiveness and forces that favour or impede it.
(c) You can determine the best approach in the following manner:
(i) Write down clearly what you expect your results to be.
(ii) Evaluate possible alternatives. Are the alternatives doable, practical

and feasible? The following techniques are helpful:
x Generate ideas by brainstorming.
x Identify how forces can affect the viability of alternatives by using

the force field analysis.

x Identify and explore the Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and

Threats of the alternative solutions using the SWOT analysis.
x Benchmark your processes with another similar organisation and

look for learning opportunities.
(iii) Follow the analysis process to resolve the most important causes of the
problem:
x Compare the effectiveness and viability of the alternative solutions

by using the prioritization matrix.
x For the strategies selected, use the hierarchical flow chart to

determine which activities are the major focus, and what the
chronological order of their execution is.
(iv) As part of your implementation plan, use the programme matrix to

define your goals and allocate the resources (human, material,
financial, time) that you need.
These techniques are explored again in later topics.
4.10 TAKING RESPONSIBILITY

Finally, it is crucial to take responsibility of a problem should we want to bring
about constructive change to the situation. When we deflect ownership and blame
only external circumstances for the problems we face, it can lead to a feeling of
helplessness which will undermine our capability to find a way out of the problem.
„External locus of control‰ refers to a person who believes that his problems are
caused and determined by external stimulus, which are beyond their own personal
control and hence there is nothing he or she can do to change a situation. This
mindset can be unhealthy in the context of positive thinking.
We should not succumb to defeat with the belief that forces outside of ourselves
affect our ability to succeed.

x A problem exists when there is a mismatch between what actually happens

with what we want or expect to have happened.
x A problem can be defined as an opportunity for improvement.
x Problem solving is the process of obtaining a satisfactory solution, preferably

in a novel way.
x Problem solving can be seen as a structured or directional. The stages in

problem solving are:
Recognising and defining a problem;
Finding possible solutions;
Selecting the best solution; and
Implementing the solution.
x Defining a goal is essential in determining how much of a problem exists or

whether or not there is a problem in the first place. It is vital to realise that goals
change with time and so do the problems you face.
x Whenever faced with a problem, an effective solution can be developed by

following these steps:
Problem Exploration;
Goal Establishment;
Idea Generation;
Idea Selection;
Implementation; and
Evaluation or Follow Up.

x Root Cause Analysis (RCA) involves the following processes;
Defining the problem;
Collection of data;
Identification of possible causal factors or root causes; and
Recommendation and implementation of solutions.
x Constraints faced in problem solving include lack of clarity, polytely,

complexity and dynamics.
x Two basic approaches to solving problems can be tackling it at the source, or

tackling its symptoms or effects.
x It is important to plan the solution for the problem before proceeding to the
actual process of solving it.
Closed-ended problems Root Cause Analysis (RCA)

External Locus of Control „Stop It‰ Approach
„Mop It‰ Approach SWOT Analysis
Open-ended problems Thinking out of the box
Problem-solving cycle
1. Based on your understanding, explain what constitutes a problem.
2. A problem can be seen as both an opportunity for improvement and a

yardstick showing the difference between your current state and your ideal
state. Can you elaborate on both of these states?

Module 4

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Module 4

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Topic X Problem

constructive manner. Hence, problem solving is an important skill. Whether we

4.1 WHAT IS A PROBLEM?

(a) A question raised for consideration or solution (WordNet® 2.0, Princeton

(b) A question to be considered, solved or answered (The American Heritage®

(d) Any question or matter involving doubt, uncertainty or difficulty

Depending on the context, some problems may be minor, personal or caused by

Different authors define a problem differently. Generally, we can define a problem

(a) A problem is an opportunity for improvement.

Such a situation requires flexibility in approaching the problem at hand. This

At times, a problem can manifest itself in different ways. An example is a situation

„Each problem has hidden in it an opportunity so powerful that it literally

4.2 WHAT IS PROBLEM SOLVING?

As Woods (1975) and colleagues suggested, „Problem solving is the process of

As a whole, problem solving involves a series of steps, from the identification of a

4.2.1 Stages in Problem Solving

The four stages involved are presented in Figure 4.3.

Figure 4.3: Stages in problem solving

(a) Recognising and Defining a Problem

other hand, an open-ended problem involves both identifying and defining

Table 4.1: Differences between Closed- and Open-ended Problems

Closed-ended Problems Open-ended Problems

Analysing a problem thoroughly is important in order for you to fully

(b) Finding Possible Solutions

(c) Selecting the Best Solution

(i) Identifying the characteristics of the possible solutions, including any

(ii) Eliminating the solutions that cannot overcome the limitations;

(iii) Evaluating the remaining solutions;

(v) Coming up with a decision to implement the chosen solution.

It is believed that a problem is considered solved when a solution has been

(d) Implementing the Solution

Table 4.2: Steps Involved in the Implementation of a Solution

To sum up, the emphasis of a closed-ended problem is on defining and

2. Explain briefly the differences between open-ended and closed-

4.3 IMPORTANCE OF GOALS IN PROBLEM

As the above example illustrates, in order to determine whether or not a problem

(a) Your goal(s); and

(b) Your current state.

4.4 GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR PROBLEM

Figure 4.5: The problem-solving cycle

4.4.1 Explore the Problem

(a) Problem Statement

(i) What is the problem?

x Is the problem multi-faceted? If so, what are its various facets or

x If the problem was passed on to you from someone else (another

x In any problem definition or statement, it is useful to state what the

(ii) Restate it differently.

x Restate the problem in a completely different way.

x Do this several different times.

x This helps to separate the real problem from our verbal

(iii) Make a broad statement about the problem.

x State the problem in abstract terms, perhaps even with a

x Using general statements allows the issues surrounding the

(b) Problem Clarification

(i) What are the key terms of the problem?

x Use words with similar meanings.

x Define the terms recursively, making them more general or more

x Anything that is ambiguous or uncertain about the problem must

x It is important to list the obvious assumptions because often it is

x Many assumptions are necessary while some are not.

(iii) Obtain further information about the problem.

x Get ideas for solving the problem by researching how similar

x Often, you may discover alternative solutions used previously to

(c) Explanation of the Problem

Preparation: Initial thought, research, study, work;

Incubation: Time to let the unconscious work;

Insight: The flash of recognition of a solution path, also called the

Implementation: Working out the solution; and