Q1. Difference between guided and unguided medium? Give example of each.

Answer :-

BASIS FOR
GUIDED MEDIA UNGUIDED MEDIA
COMPARISON

Basic The signal requires a The signal is broadcasted

physical path for through air or sometimes

transmission. water.

Alternative name It is called wired It is called wireless

communication or communication or

bounded transmission unbounded transmission

media. media.

Direction It provides direction to It does not provide any

signal for travelling. direction.

Types Twisted pair cable, coaxial Radio wave, microwave and

cable and fibre optic cable. infrared.

Q2. Difference between IPV4 and IPV6?

IPV4 IPV6

IPv4 has 32-bit address length IPv6 has 128-bit address length
 IPV4 IPV6

It Supports Manual and DHCP address configuration It supports Auto and renumbering address configuration

In IPv4 end to end connection integrity is Unachievable In IPv6 end to end connection integrity is Achievable

Address space of IPv6 is quite large it can produce

It can generate 4.29×109 address space 3.4×1038 address space

Security feature is dependent on application IPSEC is inbuilt security feature in the IPv6 protocol

Address representation of IPv4 in decimal Address Representation of IPv6 is in hexadecimal

Fragmentation performed by Sender and forwarding

routers In IPv6 fragmentation performed only by sender

In IPv6 packetflow identification are Available and uses

In IPv4 Packet flow identification is not available flow label field in the header

In IPv4 checksumfield is available In IPv6 checksumfield is not available

In IPv6 multicast and any cast message transmission

It has broadcast Message Transmission Scheme scheme is available

In IPv4 Encryption and Authentication facility not In IPv6 Encryption and Authentication are provided

provided

Q3. Write the difference between TCP and UDP. What are application of UDP ?
Answer:-

TRANSMISSION CONTROL PROTOCOL (TCP) USER DATAGRAM PROTOCOL (UDP)

TCP is a connection-oriented protocol. UDP is the Datagram oriented protocol.

Connection-orientation means that the This is because there is no overhead for

communicating devices should establish a opening a connection, maintaining a

connection before transmitting data and connection, and terminating a connection.

should close the connection after UDP is efficient for broadcast and

transmitting the data. multicast type of network transmission.

TCP is reliable as it guarantees delivery The delivery of data to the destination

of data to the destination router. cannot be guaranteed in UDP.

TCP provides extensive error checking

mechanisms. It is because it provides flow UDP has only the basic error checking

control and acknowledgment of data. mechanism using checksums.

Sequencing of data is a feature of

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). There is no sequencing of data in UDP. If

this means that packets arrive in-order at ordering is required, it has to be managed

the receiver. by the application layer.

UDP is faster, simpler and more efficient

TCP is comparatively slower than UDP. than TCP.

Retransmission of lost packets is possible There is no retransmission of lost packets

in TCP, but not in UDP. in User Datagram Protocol (UDP).

 TRANSMISSION CONTROL PROTOCOL (TCP) USER DATAGRAM PROTOCOL (UDP)

TCP has a (20-80) bytes variable length

header. UDP has a 8 bytes fixed length header.

TCP is heavy-weight. UDP is lightweight.

TCP doesn’t supports Broadcasting. UDP supports Broadcasting.

UDP is used by DNS, DHCP, TFTP,

SNMP, RIP, and VoIP.

Applications of UDP:
 Used for simple request response communication when size of data is less and hence
there is lesser concern about flow and error control.
 It is suitable protocol for multicasting as UDP supports packet switching.
 UDP is used for some routing update protocols like RIP(Routing Information Protocol).
 Normally used for real time applications which can not tolerate uneven delays between
sections of a received message.

Q4 :-Explain FTP and its operation in detail.?

Answer:-

o FTP stands for File transfer protocol.

o FTP is a standard internet protocol provided by TCP/IP used for transmitting the
files from one host to another.
o It is mainly used for transferring the web page files from their creator to the
computer that acts as a server for other computers on the internet.
o It is also used for downloading the files to computer from other servers.

Objectives of FTP

o It provides the sharing of files.

o It is used to encourage the use of remote computers.
o It transfers the data more reliably and efficiently.

Q5 :-What do you mean by network topology? Explain any four.?

Answer :- A Network Topology is the arrangement with which computer systems or

network devices are connected to each other. Topologies may define both physical and
logical aspect of the network. Both logical and physical topologies could be same or
different in a same network.
Four topologies are :-
1. Bus
2. Star
3. Mesh
4. Ring
Q2.1) {A} Explain Classful Addressing in detail. Also write the ranges, numbers of address, HOSTID
and NETID for each class.

Answer:-
Internet Protocol hierarchy contains several classes of IP Addresses to be used
efficiently in various situations as per the requirement of hosts per network. Broadly,
the IPv4 Addressing system is divided into five classes of IP Addresses. All the five
classes are identified by the first octet of IP Address.
Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers is responsible for assigning IP addresses.
The first octet referred here is the left most of all. The octets numbered as follows
depicting dotted decimal notation of IP Address −

The number of networks and the number of hosts per class can be derived by this
formula −

When calculating hosts' IP addresses, 2 IP addresses are decreased because they

cannot be assigned to hosts, i.e. the first IP of a network is network number and the
last IP is reserved for Broadcast IP.
 Class Address range Supports
Class A 1.0.0.1 to 126.255.255.254 Supports 16 million hosts on each of 127 networks.
Class B 128.1.0.1 to Supports 65,000 hosts on each of 16,000 networks.
191.255.255.254
Class C 192.0.1.1 to Supports 254 hosts on each of 2 million networks.
223.255.254.254
Class D 224.0.0.0 to Reserved for multicast groups.
239.255.255.255
Class E 240.0.0.0 to Reserved for future use, or research and development
254.255.255.254 purposes.
Ranges 127.x.x.x are reserved for
the loopback or localhost, for
example, 127.0.0.1 is the loopback address.
Range 255.255.255.255 broadcasts to all
hosts on the local network.

Q2.2) {B} Explain OSI reference model. How communication is done using OSI reference model.?

Answer :-

o OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that

describes how information from a software application in one computer moves
through a physical medium to the software application in another computer.
o OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network
function.
o OSI model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization
(ISO) in 1984, and it is now considered as an architectural model for the inter-
computer communications.
o OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable tasks. Each
layer is assigned a particular task.
o Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be performed
independently.

Characteristics of OSI Model :-

o The OSI model is divided into two layers: upper layers and lower layers.
o The upper layer of the OSI model mainly deals with the application related issues,
and they are implemented only in the software. The application layer is closest to
the end user. Both the end user and the application layer interact with the
software applications. An upper layer refers to the layer just above another layer.
 o The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data transport issues. The data
link layer and the physical layer are implemented in hardware and software. The
physical layer is the lowest layer of the OSI model and is closest to the physical
medium. The physical layer is mainly responsible for placing the information on
the physical medium.

For more detail visit :- (https://www.javatpoint.com/osi-model)

Q3.3 {A} Explain MAC sublayer protocol format for ethernet.

Answer:-

In Layer 2 of a network, the Media Access Control (MAC) sublayer provides addressing and channel
access control mechanisms that enable several terminals or network nodes to communicate in a
network.
The MAC sublayer acts as an interface between the logical link control (LLC) Ethernet sublayer and
Layer 1 (the physical layer). The MAC sublayer emulates a full-duplex logical communication channel
in a multipoint network. This channel may provide unicast, multicast, or broadcast communication
service. The MAC sublayer uses MAC protocols to prevent collisions.
In Layer 2, multiple devices on the same physical link can uniquely identify one another at the data
link layer, by using the MAC addresses that are assigned to all ports on a switch. A MAC algorithm
accepts as input a secret key and an arbitrary-length message to be authenticated, and outputs a
MAC address.
A MAC address is a 12-digit hexadecimal number (48 bits in long). MAC addresses are usually written
in one of these formats:
 MM:MM:MM:SS:SS:SS
 MM-MM-MM-SS-SS-SS
The first half of a MAC address contains the ID number of the adapter manufacturer. These IDs are
regulated by an Internet standards body. The second half of a MAC address represents the serial
number assigned to the adapter by the manufacturer.
Contrast MAC addressing, which works at Layer 2, with IP addressing, which runs at Layer 3
(networking and routing). One way to remember the difference is that the MAC addresses apply to a
physical or virtual node, whereas IP addresses apply to the software implementation of that node.
MAC addresses are typically fixed on a per-node basis, whereas IP addresses change when the node
moves from one part of the network to another.
IP networks maintain a mapping between the IP and MAC addresses of a node using the Address
Resolution Protocol (ARP) table. DHCP also typically uses MAC addresses when assigning IP
addresses to nodes.

Q3.3 {B} Explain 3-way handshake for connection establishment in TCP/IP model.?

Answer:-

TCP traffic begins with a three-way handshake. In this TCP handshake process, a client needs to
initiate the conversation by requesting a communication session with the Server:
  Step 1: In the first step, the client establishes a connection with a server. It sends a
segment with SYN and informs the server about the client should start communication,
and with what should be its sequence number.
 Step 2: In this step server responds to the client request with SYN-ACK signal set. ACK
helps you to signify the response of segment that is received and SYN signifies what
sequence number it should able to start with the segments.
 Step 3: In this final step, the client acknowledges the response of the Server, and they
both create a stable connection will begin the actual data transfer process.

Summary

 TCP 3-way handshake or three-way handshake or TCP 3-way handshake is a

process which is used in a TCP/IP network to make a connection between server
and client.
 Syn use to initiate and establish a connection
 ACK helps to confirm to the other side that it has received the SYN.
 SYN-ACK is a SYN message from local device and ACK of the earlier packet.
 FIN is used for terminating a connection.
 TCP handshake process, a client needs to initiate the conversation by requesting
a communication session with the Server
 In the first step, the client establishes a connection with a server
 In this second step, the server responds to the client request with SYN-ACK
signal set
 In this final step, the client acknowledges the response of the Server
 TCP automatically terminates the connection between two separate endpoints.

Q4.4 {A} Explain the following in detail : (ANY 3)

1) HTTP/HTTPS :-

HTTP : Full form of HTTP is Hypertext Transfer Protocol. HTTP offers set of rules and
standards which govern how any information can be transmitted on the World Wide
Web. HTTP provides standard rules for web browsers & servers to communicate.

HTTP is an application layer network protocol which is built on top of TCP. HTTP uses
Hypertext structured text which establishes the logical link between nodes containing
text. It is also known as "stateless protocol" as each command is executed separately,
without using reference of previous run command.

Advantages of HTTP:
 HTTP can be implemented with other protocol on the Internet, or on other networks
 HTTP pages are stored on computer and internet caches, so it is quickly accessible
 Platform independent which allows cross-platform porting
 Does not need any Runtime support
 Usable over Firewalls! Global applications are possible
 Not Connection Oriented; so no network overhead to create and maintain session state and
information.

Limitations of HTTP
  There is no privacy as anyone can see content
 Data integrity is a big issue as someone can alter the content. That's why HTTP protocol is an
insecure method as no encryption methods are used.
 Not clear who you are talking about. Anyone who intercepts the request can get the username
and password.

HTTPS : HTTPS stands for Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure. It is highly advanced
and secure version of HTTP. It uses the port no. 443 for Data Communication. It allows
the secure transactions by encrypting the entire communication with SSL. It is a
combination of SSL/TLS protocol and HTTP. It provides encrypted and secure
identification of a network server.

HTTP also allows you to create a secure encrypted connection between the server and
the browser. It offers the bi-directional security of Data. This helps you to protect
potentially sensitive information from being stolen.

In HTTPS protocol SSL transactions are negotiated with the help of key-based
encryption algorithm. This key is generally either 40 or 128 bits in strength.

Advantages of HTTPS

 In most cases, sites running over HTTPS will have a redirect in place. Therefore,
even if you type in HTTP:// it will redirect to an https over a secured connection
 It allows users to perform secure e-commerce transaction, such as online
banking.
 SSL technology protects any users and builds trust
 An independent authority verifies the identity of the certificate owner. So each
SSL Certificate contains unique, authenticated information about the certificate
owner.

Limitations of HTTPS

 HTTPS protocol can't stop stealing confidential information from the pages
cached on the browser
 SSL data can be encrypted only during transmission on the network. So it can't
clear the text in the browser memory

 HTTPS can increase computational overhead as well as network overhead of the

organization

o TELNET : The main task of the internet is to provide services to users. For
example, users want to run different application programs at the remote site and
transfers a result to the local site. This requires a client-server program such as
FTP, SMTP. But this would not allow us to create a specific program for each
demand.
 o The better solution is to provide a general client-server program that lets the user
access any application program on a remote computer. Therefore, a program that
allows a user to log on to a remote computer. A popular client-server program
Telnet is used to meet such demands. Telnet is an abbreviation for Terminal
Network.
o Telnet provides a connection to the remote computer in such a way that a local
terminal appears to be at the remote side.

CLIENT SERVER ARCH :

1. Client/server architecture is a producer-consumer computing architecture

where the server acts as the producer and the client as a consumer.
2. Client/server architecture is a computing model in which the server hosts,
delivers and manages most of the resources and services to be consumed by
the client. This type of architecture has one or more client computers
connected to a central server over a network or Internet connection. This
system shares computing resources.
3. This computing model is especially effective when clients and the server each
have distinct tasks that they routinely perform. For example : In hospital data
processing, a client computer can be running an application program for
entering patient information while the server computer is running another
program that manages the database in which the information is permanently
stored.
4. Clients and servers exchange messages in a request - response messaging
pattern. The client sends a request, and the server returns a response. This
exchange of messages is an example of inter-process communication. To
communicate, the computers must have a common language, and they must
follow rules so that both the client and the server know what to expect. The
language and rules of communication are defined in a communication
protocols. All client-server protocols operate in the application layer. The
application layer protocol defines the basic patterns of the dialogue.

Q5.5 {A} What do you mean by networking devices? Explain any 2 devices.?

Answer :-

Hardware devices that are used to connect computers, printers, fax machines and other
electronic devices to a network are called network devices. These devices transfer data
in a fast, secure and correct way over same or different networks. Network devices may
be inter-network or intra-network. Some devices are installed on the device, like NIC
card or RJ45 connector, whereas some are part of the network, like router, switch, etc.
Let us explore some of these devices in greater detail.

Types :-

Modem
Modem is a device that enables a computer to send or receive data over telephone or cable
lines. The data stored on the computer is digital whereas a telephone line or cable wire can
transmit only analog data.

The main function of the modem is to convert digital signal into analog and vice versa. Modem
is a combination of two devices − modulator and demodulator. The modulator converts
digital data into analog data when the data is being sent by the computer.
The demodulator converts analog data signals into digital data when it is being received by
the computer.

Switch – A switch is a multiport bridge with a buffer and a design that can boost its efficiency(a
large number of ports imply less traffic) and performance. A switch is a data link layer device. The
switch can perform error checking before forwarding data, that makes it very efficient as it does not
forward packets that have errors and forward good packets selectively to correct port only. In other
words, switch divides collision domain of hosts, but broadcast domain remains same.

Q4.4 {B} What are Network security goals? Also explain different kind of
network attack possible.?

Answer :-

The objective of Cybersecurity is to protect information from being stolen, compromised

or attacked. Cybersecurity can be measured by at least one of three goals-

1. Protect the confidentiality of data.

2. Preserve the integrity of data.
3. Promote the availability of data for authorized users.

These goals form the confidentiality, integrity, availability (CIA) triad, the basis of
all security programs. The CIA triad is a security model that is designed to guide
policies for information security within the premises of an organization or
company. This model is also referred to as the AIC (Availability, Integrity, and
Confidentiality) triad to avoid the confusion with the Central Intelligence
Agency. The elements of the triad are considered the three most crucial
components of security.

The CIA criteria are one that most of the organizations and companies use when
they have installed a new application, creates a database or when guaranteeing
access to some data. For data to be completely secure, all of these security goals
must come into effect. These are security policies that all work together, and
therefore it can be wrong to overlook one policy.

For more detail :- https://www.javatpoint.com/cyber-security-goals

 Possible attack are :

1. Denial-of-service (DoS) and distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attacks

A denial-of-service attack overwhelms a system’s resources so that it cannot

respond to service requests. A DDoS attack is also an attack on system’s resources,
but it is launched from a large number of other host machines that are infected by
malicious software controlled by the attacker.

Unlike attacks that are designed to enable the attacker to gain or increase access,
denial-of-service doesn’t provide direct benefits for attackers. For some of them, it’s
enough to have the satisfaction of service denial. However, if the attacked resource
belongs to a business competitor, then the benefit to the attacker may be real
enough. Another purpose of a DoS attack can be to take a system offline so that a
different kind of attack can be launched. One common example is session hijacking,
which I’ll describe later.

There are different types of DoS and DDoS attacks; the most common are TCP SYN
flood attack, teardrop attack, smurf attack, ping-of-death attack and botnets.

Man-in-the-middle (MitM) attack

A MitM attack occurs when a hacker inserts itself between the communications of a
client and a server. Here are some common types of man-in-the-middle attacks:

Session hijacking

In this type of MitM attack, an attacker hijacks a session between a trusted client and
network server. The attacking computer substitutes its IP address for the trusted
client while the server continues the session, believing it is communicating with the
client. For instance, the attack might unfold like this:

1. A client connects to a server.

2. The attacker’s computer gains control of the client.
3. The attacker’s computer disconnects the client from the server.
4. The attacker’s computer replaces the client’s IP address with its own IP address and
spoofs the client’s sequence numbers.
5. The attacker’s computer continues dialog with the server and the server believes it is
still communicating with the client.