SPE 69697
Reservoir Characterization of the Orinoco Heavy Oil Belt: Miocene Oficina
Formation, Zuata Field, Eastern Venezuela Basin
Robert Kopper (Petrozuata, C. A.), Julie Kupecz (Kupecz Copley Associates), Carl Curtis, Tony Cole (Petrozuata, C. A.),
Donald Dorn-López SPE (G&G Turning Point), Jeffrey Copley (Kupecz Copley Associates), Alberto Muñoz SPE (PDVSA
Intevep), Vladimir Caicedo (Landmark Graphics)
Copyright 2001, Society of Petroleum Engineers Inc.
This paper was prepared for presentation at the 2001 SPE International Thermal Operations
and Heavy Oil Symposium held in Porlamar, Margarita Island, Venezuela, 12-14 March 2001.
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Abstract
The Zuata Field, located on the southern flank of the
Eastern Venezuela Basin, produces heavy oil from porous
unconsolidated sandstones of the Lower Miocene Oficina
Formation. The Oficina Formation is composed of multiple
depositional sequences which display complex erosional
geometries. This creates an intricate reservoir architecture as
younger fluvial systems down-cut, erode and re-distribute the
sediments of earlier-deposited systems within each
depositional sequence. Superimposed on this intra-sequence
complexity is the downcutting and interconnection of sands of
different depositional sequences.
The Oficina Formation within the study area can be
subdivided into eleven depositional sequences. Each
depositional sequence has been characterized in terms of
environments of deposition and mapped, which has allowed
visualization through time of the facies and reservoir
geometries. Within sequences, environments of deposition
include a mix of fluvial, distributary channel, estuarine, tidal
channel, delta plain and coastal plain, resulting in variable net
to gross ratios and variable kv/kh. Productive sands are located
within incised valleys, usually within the basal part of each
depositional sequence, while sediments in the inter-valley
areas comprise a combination of older (pre-incision) deposits
and thin delta plain / coastal plain deposits. These are
variously intercalated siltstones, fine-grained sandstones and
coals, and are generally non-productive.
Introduction
Petrozuata
Petrozuata, S. A. is a joint venture company with
Conoco (50.1%) and Petróleos de Venezuela, S.A. (49.9%).
Built from the ground-up in less than three years, Petrozuata
has drilled 306 horizontal laterals and 145 vertical wells and is
currently producing approximately 120,000 bbls oil per day.
Each of the horizontal wells is custom designed and then "geo-
steered" during drilling to access the reservoir in the most
efficient manner.
Petrozuata produces extra-heavy crude oil (9 to 10
API) from the Zuata Region of the Faja Petrolífera del
Orinoco (the Orinoco Oil Belt). The heavy oil is diluted with
naphtha to yield a 15-17 API blend, which is transported via a
200 km pipeline to the north coast of Venezuela. There, a
delayed coking-based upgrader facility converts the diluted
crude to synthetic crude oil, along with associated by products
of LPG, sulfur, petroleum coke and heavy gas oil. With over
20 billion bbls of oil in place, the Petrozuata joint venture has
a 35-year operating life. This will require the drilling of up to
750 horizontal wells to ultimately recover 2 billion barrels of
extra-heavy crude.
Location and Geological Setting
The Faja (Orinoco Oil Belt) is located on the southern flank of
the Eastern Venezuela Basin (Fig. 1), and contains about 1.2
trillion bbls of in-place oil, stratigraphically trapped in
Miocene-age fluvial- and marginal-marine reservoirs. PDVSA
has subdivided the Orinoco Oil Belt into four areas (Machete,
Zuata, Hamaca and Cerro Negro). Petrozuata is currently
developing part of the Zuata area.
The Zuata Field, like its neighboring fields in the
Faja, produces from lower Miocene- age fluvial- and marginal
-marine reservoirs of the Oficina Formation (Fig. 2). During
2 KOPPER, KUPECZ, CURTIS, COLE, DORN-LOPEZ, COPLEY, MUÑOZ, CAICEDO, SUTER
the Early Miocene, large volumes of quartz-rich sediments
were transported and deposited by the numerous channel
systems feeding the basin to the north. Through the normal
evolution of these channel systems, including avulsion,
erosion and deposition, the basin was filled with a series of
coalesced, amalgamated multi- and single-storied sand
deposits interspersed in a fine-grained silt matrix.
Field data set
A comprehensive data acquisition program and an
accurate characterization of the reservoir have been essential
to the Zuata Field development success. Data are continually
being acquired and integrated into the ongoing development
drilling program. The following data sets were incorporated
into the characterization of the Oficina reservoir (Fig. 3):
Wireline logs 149 vertical wells
LWD logs 184 wells (298 laterals)
3-D seismic 291 km2
Checkshot velocity surveys 18 wells
Vertical Seismic Profiles (VSP) 3 wells
Whole cores 8 wells (4 within field; 4 outside)
Synthetic Seismograms 137
Sidewall cores 51 wells, 2229 samples
Biostratigraphy 17 wells, 335 samples
Geochemistry 23 wells, 243 sidewall cores; 12 oil
samples, 6 gas samples
Table 1 - Data used in study.
Integrating this information and placing it into a sequence
stratigraphic context has allowed a better understanding of the
depositional complexity of the reservoir and has resulted in the
most efficient horizontal drilling.
Reservoir Characterization
The reservoir characterization of Zuata Field can be
viewed as having evolved in two basic stages. The initial
phase was based on 7 wells in the field area, 8 wells in the
reserve area acreage, 18 regional vertical exploratory wells, 4
cored wells outside the field area and sparse 2-D seismic1.
This interpretation was the initial (i.e., 1996) basis of the
development-drilling plan for the field. Stochastic modeling
was later performed using the same data2. It should be noted
that the original wells used for the “Basis of Design” have,
after extensive field drilling, proven to represent some of the
thickest sands in the field. This biased the initial interpretation
toward a more optimistic model of widespread thick and
laterally extensive sands. Subsequent drilling suggests that the
reservoir is much more complex and, although interconnected,
it is more compartmentalized. The second and current phase of
reservoir characterization includes the data detailed in Table 1
and incorporates the following studies: reprocessed 3D
seismic data3; description sand interpretations of additional
cores4,5,6; petrographic7; biostratigraphic8,9,10; geochemical11;
seismic attribute12,13,14; seal capacity15; maturity and
16
compaction ; petrophysical17; stochastic modeling
heterogeneity ; and connectivity studies20. All studies were
18,19
integrated into a sequence stratigraphic framework.
SPE 69697
Petrophysics
Rock Properties. The main lithologic types in the
study area are sands, silts, shales and coals. Individual sands
range up to 130 ft thick; however, most of the oil is contained
in beds that are between 20 and 40 feet (Fig. 4). Within the
reservoir section, porosity ranges from 18-40%, with the
median being 32% and permeability ranges between 750-
14,000 mD with a median of 7800 mD.
Petrophysical cross plots made to investigate the
potential correlation of core-derived permeability with well
logs indicate that resistivity correlates sufficiently with
permeability, above the oil water contact, to be used as a
permeability prediction tool. Resistivity - permeability
correlations range from a pay cut-off of Rt of 20 ohm-m,
which is equivalent to approximately 800 mD, to Rt 100 ohm-
m, or 7800 mD.
The technique used for identifying Vclay is the rho-
matrix curve (ROMA), generated from the neutron-density
log. ROMA can be zoned between 0-100% clay. The 0% line
corresponds to ROMA of 2.64 gm/cc (clean sandstone
baseline) and the 100% line corresponds to approximately
3.00 g/cc (shale baseline).
Improved horizontal well performance is achieved by
"geo-steering" each lateral using the bit and ring resistivity
readings to maintain the well bore in the highest resistivity
sands. This technique results in increased permeability-feet
along the horizontal lateral, and thus higher production rates.
Fluid Properties. Oil was initially sourced from deep
within the Eastern Venezuelan Basin to the north and then
migrated toward the south as a light oil until it reached the up-
dip stratigraphic pinchouts of numerous intercalated sands
within the lower Oficina Formation. Reservoir sands appear to
have high inter-connectivity, because every sand/silt above the
oil-water contact having sufficient poro-perm is filled with oil.
Water saturation of the oil-bearing sands is calculated from
Archie and Modified Simandoux. The Archie equation is used
in clean sands and offers a quick-look evaluation of the oil-
bearing interval. In rocks containing clay, an adjustment
(Modified Simandoux) must be made to the Archie-derived
water saturation to account for the effect of lower resistivity
clays on the value of Rt. For Sw calculations, the inputs used
are a= 1.0, m= 1.5, n= 2.0. Rw varies between 0.9 - 1.5 at 125
(corresponding to 2200-3500 ppm NaCl). The average value
of Sw is 20%, the range being 8-55%.
Because Rw is quite fresh and the oil sands have high
resistivity, the main resistivity tools used are laterologs. The
deep-laterolog, when combined with a micro-resistivity tool,
provides an excellent "quick-look" for evaluating movable oil.
Predicting oil mobility is critical in modeling well
performance. Remaining uncertainties in understanding oil
mobility in the Zuata Field are vertical and lateral viscosity
variations measured from fluid samples and wireline-derived
magnetic resonance tools. Further work is needed to quantify
SPE 69697 RESERVOIR CHARACTERIZATION OF THE ORINOCO HEAVY OIL BELT
these variations, both geographically as well as
stratigraphically.
Gas is present in minor quantities in isolated sands
and silts. The gas sands are generally thin, but are easily
identified using "cross-over" on the neutron/density curves.
Some of the gas is situated adjacent to coal beds; geochemical
analyses suggest that it was probably sourced from the coals.
The oil in Zuata Field migrated in as light oil, then
subsequently degraded. Oil produced in Zuata Field is extra-
heavy and has an average gravity of 9.0 API. However, some
well logs and drill stem test data suggest that certain regions
were more degraded; this oil is referred to as "tar".
Constructing Rt/Rxo cross-plots can help identify tar (Fig. 5).
Values of Rt < 20 ohm-m and MSFL > Rt suggest the
presence of tar (Fig. 6). Based on drill stem tests, wells
completed in these intervals may produce low volumes of oil.
Net pay in vertical wells has been identified by
utilizing standard techniques (i.e., Vsh < 0.40; Phie > 0.18 and
Sw < 0.55). However, in a field developed utilizing horizontal
drilling, a net oil counting technique using Logging While-
Drilling (LWD) GR and resistivity is necessary, as these are
the only two curves measured in the horizontal sections.
Resistivity has an adequate correlation with grain-size and an
excellent correlation with water saturation; therefore, Rt
cutoffs of 20, 30, 50, 100 and 500 ohm-m are used in
calculating the range of net oil and its associated permeability.
By utilizing resistivity to predict permeability and net oil, a
consistent methodology is applied in quantifying reservoir
quality in vertical and horizontal wells.
Based on well logs and RFT pressure data, the field
has a regionally extensive oil-water contact. The structural
map of this contact shows a regional tilt to the north (Fig. 7).
This tilt is caused by an active aquifer drive from the fresh-
water recharge to the south. No internal "movable" water-
bearing sands exist within the oil column above the regional
oil-water contact.
Geochemistry
A geochemical study11 utilizing produced oils, gases
and samples from sidewall cores was undertaken to determine
if there were fluid properties unique to each depositional
sequence (e.g., viscosity, sulfur content, API gravity, gas
composition), to evaluate compartmentalization, and to
determine the origin of the gas (biogenic vs. thermogenic).
Sidewall cores from each producing sand and produced oil
samples were analyzed by a method which uses biomarker
parameters linked to a training data set to determine
approximate viscosity and API gravity. Gas samples were
analyzed for compositional analysis and stable carbon isotope
values to determine their origin.
The oils are derived primarily from a single marine
carbonate or calcareous shale source rock; however, a slightly
more clastic source with terrestrial organic matter input has
been interpreted for some wells. The more clastic-sourced oil
contains less sulfur, has a higher API gravity, and is
predominantly found in Sequence 6-9 sands (Fig. 8).
3
The gas is interpreted to be a mixture of thermogenic and
biogenic origin. The thermogenic component is likely
associated with the oil; however, the biogenic is possibly
associated with earlier generation under more saline
conditions. This earlier biogenic and possibly thermogenic
gas was adsorbed by coals and subsequently released on uplift
or unroofing in the area. Present-day gas generation from
biodegradation is unlikely based on the lack of evidence of the
fermentation process, isotopically heavy CO2 and only slightly
isotopically light methane. Gas in the Sequence 8-9 sands
differs isotopically from gas found in the Sequence 4-5 sands.
It is interpreted that that the gases from the Sequence 8-9
sands are slightly higher in thermal maturity.
Biomarker data analysis from sidewall cores suggests
that variability in viscosity and API gravity exists within the
different sand intervals (Fig. 9). However, saturate and
aromatic biomarkers indicate that the level of thermal maturity
and biodegradation among samples from different sands is
essentially the same, so an alternative mechanism affecting the
viscosity and gravity must be envisioned. It appears that the
degree of water washing is a controlling factor of changes in
oil chemistry. Water washing preferentially removes aromatic
compounds from the original oil. These aromatic compounds
dissolve higher molecular weight non-hydrocarbon
compounds in the oil (resins and asphaltenes), effectively
lowering the viscosity of the oil. When the aromatic
compounds are removed, the effective viscosity of the
remaining oil is increased.
The degree of water washing, though known to affect
oil quality, has not been directly linked to the production rates
of the horizontal wells. In fact, no correlation was found
between fluid chemistry of the produced oils and the average
production rate. This is not surprising because the produced
oil from each well is actually a blended product derived from
drilling long reach horizontal laterals through multiple “oil
pools” (zones of varying viscosity/mobility). If significant
variations in oil viscosity are recognized to occur both
vertically and spatially (from the analysis performed on the
sidewall cores) and if variation in viscosity within a sand
interval reduces the cross sectional area to flow, then this
viscosity change should affect rate.
The accuracy, or degree of uncertainty, of the
prediction of the viscosity and API gravity can be refined by
analysis of sidewall cores from the same intervals from which
the production samples are taken. However, because the
degree of water washing varies both spatially and vertically,
the performance of the same reservoir interval will likely vary
for different parts of the field. The problem lies in the inability
to reliably measure viscosity/mobility variations along the
length of a horizontal using LWD-derived data. Prototype
LWD Magnetic Resonance tools are currently being
developed by some companies for use in heavy oil. The use of
such prototype technology might allow for better flow rate vs.
viscosity/mobility correlation for horizontal wells and allow
for a better prediction of how well different sands will produce
in different parts of Zuata Field.
4 KOPPER, KUPECZ, CURTIS, COLE, DORN-LOPEZ, COPLEY, MUÑOZ, CAICEDO, SUTER
Biostratigraphy
A paleo-ecological and chrono-stratigraphic model was built
from analysis of 335 samples from 17 wells8, 9,10, Palynoflora
(pollen) and calcareous nannofossils were studied. All
sequences of the stratigraphic framework were represented,
although the samples from the dominantly fluvial facies
contained few specimens. As a result, data are skewed toward
the siltstones of the transgressive/highstand systems tract
(TST/HST). Paleo-geographic reconstructions indicate the
paleo-environments range from upper delta plain to fully
marine. Based on the sidewall core data set, the majority of
paleo-environments are within the marine-influenced lower
delta plain; however, this interpretation may be skewed both
by the sampling (i.e., higher recovery in the siltstones), and by
greater abundance and higher recovery of fossils within
marine flood deposits. It is interpreted that most reservoir
sands were deposited by fluvial systems in the upper delta
plain. Some samples contained abundant mangrove pollen and
dinoflagellate cysts, indicating deposition under marine and
tidal influence. A northwest-southeast paleo-shoreline trend is
interpreted, with deeper marine paleo-environments to the
northeast and the hinterland (source) to the southwest. Figure
10 shows a modern analog taken from a portion of the Orinoco
River delta, with fractional relative abundance diagrams
superimposed from the Zuata field. Note the scale represented
within the Zuata database; it forms an area quite small in
comparison to the analog delta.
Observed lateral and vertical facies associations
suggest widespread lateral migration of facies belts, especially
during the shift from lowstand to transgressive/highstand
periods. Figures 11A and B show the interpreted paleo-
environments for the lowstand and the highstand parts of
Sequence 5, respectively. During the lowstand, most of the
area is interpreted to have been in the upper delta plain with its
fresh water fluvial and swamp paleo-environments. The
boundary separating the upper and lower delta plain
environments is shown in the northern part of the field. One
anomalous point in the south, containing abundant mangrove
pollen, is found at the edge of an interpreted deep tidal
channel that can also be recognized in the well logs and 3-D
seismic data.
At least five major flooding surfaces are confirmed
by pollen spores and dinoflagellates. The Sequence 5
maximum flooding surface (18.0 Ma) is identified as the most
marine paleo-environment (Fig. 11B). During this time, inner
to middle neritic marine paleo-environments (0-50 meters
water depth) are interpreted for the northeast portion of the
Zuata Field, with the paleoshoreline located in the
southernmost part of the field.
Calcareous nannofossils in the Zuata Field offer some
useful tie points to worldwide chronologies8,10,21,22
Calibrations to the cycle chart of Hardenbol et al.23 indicate
regional Sequence Boundaries 4, 5 and 6 correlate to major
sequence boundaries at 19.5 Ma, 18.7 Ma, and 17.3 Ma
respectively. Sequences 7 through 11 are of local magnitude,
and calibrate to local cycles within the remaining 0.9 million
years of the Early Miocene. Also, sequences 4, 5 and 6
SPE 69697
represent much lower accommodation with greater
amalgamation of sediments, whereas Sequences 7-11 show
much higher accommodation with less amalgamation.
Seismic Data
Geophysical studies of the Zuata Field have focused
on four main aspects: seismic-well tie correlation; reprocessed
seismic data; seismic mapping; and seismic attribute analysis.
These aspects have been integrated with the lithologic and
sequence stratigraphic information to improve the
characterization of the reservoir, to plan specific well
targeting, and to "geo-steer" the borehole while drilling.
Prior to production drilling of the Zuata Field, a 3-D
seismic survey (291 km2; Fig. 3) was acquired over the
Petrozuata concession acreage. As drilling has progressed, the
vertical well database established by the stratigraphic well
program (137 wells) has provided, among other data, a grid of
time-depth relationships that has allowed the seismic data to
be depth converted with a great deal of accuracy (2-3 meters
vertical). Synthetic seismograms were generated in all vertical
wells and shifted in time and adjusted in phase to obtain the
best tie with the seismic data as evaluated by the correlation
coefficient over the zone of interest. Check shots were
integrated and time-depth curves were plotted as a quality
control check to identify anomalous areas or errors.
Time-Depth tables for each of the 145 wells were
used to create a velocity cube for the depth conversion. Figure
12 shows time-depth curves from the well and the velocity
cube.
Horizontal wells are planned and "geo-steered" using
depth converted seismic data. Because Petrozuata is drilling
extended reach (up to 1900 m) horizontal laterals in sands, 20
and 40 feet thick, an accurate depth model is critical.
Importantly, the integration of the vertical well database with
the seismic data provides the key link between the advanced
drilling technology developed in the project and the
production / reservoir planning, as it allows the precise
placement of boreholes within a stratigraphically complex
reservoir. The ability to "geo-steer" the borehole, in real-time,
based on a continually updated interpretation of the data, in
turn provides confidence to develop a complex network of
boreholes to drain the reservoir.
Data processing routines have been refined since the
initial acquisition, with the current final volume a much-
improved version. Three important parts of this processing
effort have been the spectral balancing to improve the overall
frequency content or bandwidth of the data, the resolution of
statics-induced distortion within the common depth point
(CDP) gathers, and the dip moveout correction (DMO) done
before stack.
Mapping
Figure 13A demonstrates in a local area of the field
how the seismic horizons were picked and mapped (see Figs.
13B, C for location). Key seismic horizons corresponding to
relevant flooding surfaces and sequence boundaries were tied
SPE 69697 RESERVOIR CHARACTERIZATION OF THE ORINOCO HEAVY OIL BELT
to all of the stratigraphic test wells and were mapped over the
entire field area.
Sequence Boundaries. Sequence boundaries (SB)
typically exhibit an erosional character marking the base of
incised valleys cut by fluvial erosion. Paleo-topography
associated with the sequence boundaries ranges from a
minimum of 25 meters to a maximum of 200 meters. In some
areas of the Zuata Field, sequence boundaries cut into and
erode the underlying section to such a degree that, locally, one
or two entire sequences may be removed (Figs. 2, 13, 19). It
should be noted that this erosion and interconnection between
the sequences provides direct connection between different
reservoir sands, and makes the entire section behave, in many
respects, as one single reservoir.
Flooding Surfaces. Flooding surfaces (FS), in contrast,
have very little evident paleo-topography and likely represent
a paleo-horizontal marine sea level datum. Maximum flooding
surfaces (MFS) mark the top of the undifferentiated lowstand /
transgressive systems tract (LST/TST). These continuous
horizons are relatively easy to follow and map on the seismic
data, when not severely eroded from the sequence boundary
above (Fig. 13). Several MFS, chiefly WS5, MFS2 and WS2,
which are widely correlative across the block, were
extensively utilized as datum surfaces for seismic attribute
extractions.
Attribute Extractions. The use of the seismic data to
interpret lithology is very difficult in the study area and is part
of the ongoing challenge posed by the requirements for this
project. The sedimentary section of interest consists of poorly
consolidated sediments (sands, silts and shales) which have
minimal impedance contrasts. In spite of these fundamental
limitations, the seismic data volume has become an important
part of the spatial interpretation for the depositional facies
characterization, which in turn is the basis for development
target planning. For this purpose seismic data are displayed in
a horizontal "slice" type of format. These "slices" can be
created either at a simple constant time/depth value
(time/depth slice) or conformable with an interpreted surface
(Fig 13B). Horizon-based "slices" or "extractions" are the
most useful for facies characterization as the methodology in
effect "flattens" the data on the selected datum horizon. The
volume itself can also be flattened on an interpreted
depositional horizon, from which slices (relative to the datum
horizon) can be viewed in a progressive manner, up or down,
to display the lateral movement of depositional systems and
features (channels, bars, etc.) through geological time.
Extensive use has also been made of the coherence
cube for horizon extractions and depositional facies mapping
(Fig. 13C). This is a derivation of the original seismic volume
where each trace is compared, over a window, to those
adjacent and a similarity or correlation coefficient is
determined.
Depositional features are recognized by their
morphology in both the amplitude and coherency displays.
Unfortunately, sand bodies do not have unique seismic
signatures. In sequences containing more confined sands such
as the Sequences 6-9, boundaries are often well defined by
5
abrupt lateral changes in character. In contrast, sequences
with more “amalgamated” sands, e.g., Sequences 4 and 5, the
“reworked” or “channelized” areas are observed to have a
more “chaotic" character. In these cases the low coherency can
be distinctive, with characteristic shapes of incised valley fill
and point bar development. Some of the most obvious
features, such as individual channels, have proven to be late
stage or abandonment features barren of reservoir sand (Figure
13).
Sedimentology and Sequence Stratigraphy
The reservoir intervals in the Zuata Field consist of
fine- to coarse-grained- (predominantly medium-grained),
well-sorted, unconsolidated, quartzose sands. Lithologically,
the reservoir consists of 92% quartz, 5% feldspars, 2% clays
and 1% heavy minerals.
The sands commonly have a sharp, erosional lower
contact and have a blocky to fining-upward morphology (Figs.
14, 15). Blocky sands are often amalgamated, which can best
be seen in distinct vertical changes in the resistivity curve.
These sands are interpreted to be fluvial channel sands and
laterally-accreted point bars (Fig. 14). The upper contact is
gradational into siltstones, except where it is cut out either by
other channels or by erosion at an overlying sequence
boundary.
Laterally-equivalent non-reservoir rock consists of
siltstones and coals, interpreted to be thin, areally-limited
crevasse splay deposits, abandoned channel fill and coastal
plain facies (Figs. 15, 16, 17). Overlying these deposits are
thin, marine to brackish-water siltstones.
Eleven depositional sequences have been interpreted
for the Oficina Formation within Zuata Field (Fig. 2). The
sequences were interpreted on the basis of information from
core, electrofacies, well-log stacking patterns, biostratigraphic
data, and regional seismic horizons. The biostratigraphic data
were correlated to the cycle chart for age determination23. The
composite log (Fig. 2) illustrates the typical well-log response
of the sequences. Blocky sands generally are present at the
base of each sequence, in the undifferentiated
lowstand/transgressive systems tract (LST/TST). In most
cases, the sands directly overlie the erosional sequence
boundary. The stacking pattern of the LST/TST sands
generally shows that the sands decrease in thickness and the
interbedded siltstones increase in thickness vertically toward
maximum flooding surface (MFS). Biostratigraphic data
verify that the siltstones are progressively more marine-
influenced toward the MFS and that the MFS of Sequence 5
(18.0 Ma) is the most marine of the Oficina Formation in the
field. Deposits of the highstand systems tract (HST) are thin
and generally sand-poor. The thin nature of these deposits is
thought to be a combination of slow rates of deposition and/or
removal by erosion at the overlying sequence boundary(ies).
The sequences are thought to represent a series of erosional
valleys and valley-fill deposits 24, which serve to concentrate
the reservoir sands.
Although the depositional environments of the
Oficina Formation in Zuata Field are predominantly fluvial,
6 KOPPER, KUPECZ, CURTIS, COLE, DORN-LOPEZ, COPLEY, MUÑOZ, CAICEDO, SUTER
there was increasingly more marine influence toward the
maximum flooding surface of Sequence 5 (18.0 Ma), as
mentioned above. Significantly, the facies and depositional
environments representing the transgressive systems tract of
Sequence 5 also appear to have had a more marine influence,
and contain reservoir sands that are different from those of the
rest of the Oficina Formation in the field. These consist of thin
(~10 ft.) distributary channel sands interbedded with coastal
plain siltstones and coals, and thicker (>20 ft) interlaminated
and rhythmically bedded tidal channel sands. Both of these
types of sands exhibit lower kv/kh than is observed in the
more fluvially-dominated sands of the other sequences. Above
the Sequence 5 MFS, depositional environments are again
fluvially dominated.
The complexity of the reservoir sands can be seen at
an intra-sequence scale (Fig. 18), with channel migration,
erosion, reworking and avulsion forming a complex
interconnected internal geometry of the sand bodies.
Additionally, there exists the complexity of inter-sequence
interconnection. Erosion at sequence boundaries can cut
deeply into underlying units (Fig. 19), and in many places can
juxtapose sands of different sequences (Figs. 2, 19). Because
of this internal complexity, we believe that it is impractical, if
not impossible, to correlate with any degree of confidence
individual sand bodies over large areas.
Example of Integrated Reservoir Characterization
A representative example from Sequence 9 (17.0 Ma;
Fig. 2) is discussed below. All productive sequences
(Sequences 4-9) have been studied in a similar manner.
Two of the cores in the Zuata Field recovered section
from the Sequence 9 (E20P-14 and SDZ-86X), with both
representative reservoir and non-reservoir deposits being
sampled (Figs. 14, 16). The reservoir sand in the E20P core
displays an irregular lower contact which erodes the siltstones
of the underlying Sequence 8 (Fig. 14). The sand is medium-
grained, massive, oil impregnated, and with an erosional base
and characteristic fining-upward profile (as seen in GR and
resistivity logs), is interpreted to represent a fluvial channel
(Fig. 15). Biostratigraphic data from similar facies are
consistent with this interpretation 8,9,10.
The SDZ-86X core, in contrast, represents the non-
reservoir section. It contains laminated siltstone to fine-
grained sandstone, interbedded with silty claystone and coal
(Fig. 16). Coal layers are approximately 0.5 to 1 ft thick, and
the underlying claystone contains rootlets. It is interpreted that
local paleosols were developed where sediment accumulation
exceeded synsedimentary subsidence, which led to the
localization of marsh plants. Quiet water conditions allowed
the deposition of fine clays and organic material. Near
channels, silts and fine-grained sands were probably
introduced via overbank floods, crevasse channels and splays.
Elsewhere, possible tidal bundles (Fig. 16) suggest that there
was some tidal influence, with the connection to the sea
possibly through tidal channels. Therefore, the interpreted
environments of deposition include marsh, shallow brackish
lagoon, and crevasse channel/splay deposits in a lower coastal
SPE 69697
plain complex (Fig. 17). Biostratigraphic data from similar
facies corroborate this interpretation 8,9,10.
Using core-gamma logs, the cored intervals were
calibrated to the well logs. In the E20P-1 core, the gamma ray
and resistivity logs corresponding to the cored interval show a
sharp basal contact and a fining-upward signature (increasing
GR and decreasing resistivity), similar to that seen in the core.
Therefore, the channel interpretation from the core data is
consistent with the log signature, and the electrofacies can be
used as a proxy in non-cored wells. Another distinctive log
signature in this sequence is one with blocky gamma-ray
morphology and varying resistivity. The abrupt shifts in
resistivity suggest that individual sands are stacked; these are
interpreted to be laterally-accreted point bar deposits as shown
in Figure 15. Logs with thinner sands but a similar signature
(sharp base and fining-upward morphology) are interpreted to
be located at the edge of channels (Fig. 15), which is
corroborated by the seismic data. The interbedded siltstones
and coals of the non-reservoir deposits can also be identified
on well logs. Interpreted crevasse splays have characteristic
fine grain size and a coarsening-upward morphology; coals
have a characteristic low-density spike in the bulk density log
curve (Fig. 16).
With the well log signature calibrated to the core and
its facies interpretation, "electrofacies" of the non-cored wells
were established and used to interpret the field-wide facies
distribution in non-cored wells (Figs. 15, 17, 20). For this
study, the main logs for facies work are gamma ray, resistivity
and bulk density (which aids in identifying coals). Using this
information, well logs were calibrated to establish
electrofacies (Fig. 20).
The electrofacies were mapped using the vertical and
horizontal well control (Fig. 21), 3D seismic data, and
amplitude slices of two representative intervals. The areal
distribution of the facies is also important in the determination
of environments of deposition. Channel sands, laterally-
accreted point bars and crevasse splay deposits all have
characteristic areal morphology, and the interpretation of
depositional environments of Sequence 9 is consistent with
both the electrofacies and their mapped distribution.
Representative amplitude slices for Sequence 9 were chosen at
+ 6 to -6 msec from the flooding surface and +12 to +24 msec
from the flooding surface. The interpreted lateral distribution
of depositional environments for the +6 to -6msec time-slice is
shown in Figure 22. Note that there are channel deposits of
different orientations (e.g., the channel system labeled
"Avulsed Channel"). The major shift in orientation of the
channel systems is interpreted to be the result of small-scale
syn-depositional movement along faults. Post-dating the
Sequence 9 deposition, a younger channel, filled
predominantly with shale, crosscuts and erodes the Sequence 9
sand (Fig. 22).
The sand distribution in Sequence 9 is compared to the
map of interpreted depositional environments in Figure 22.
Note that the sand distribution is confined to the areas
interpreted as channel belts and that there is no significant
amount of sand located outside of these belts. As noted before,
SPE 69697 RESERVOIR CHARACTERIZATION OF THE ORINOCO HEAVY OIL BELT 7

we have interpreted the sands of this and other sequences to

have been deposited above a major erosional surface as
fluvially-dominated deposits in a lowstand/transgressive
systems tract. The areas of erosion are interpreted as lowstand
paleo-valleys, and the accumulated sands are considered to be
the valley fill. A possible analog is from the modern Arkansas
River Valley (USA), which has similar dimensions to the
paleovalleys of Sequence 9, as well as similar facies
distributions and concentration of sand exclusively within the
valley 25.

PRESSURE TRANSIENT ANALYSIS OF HORIZONTAL WELLS A

Pressure Transient Analysis, performed on horizontal
development wells, is an additional tool for characterization of
the Lower Oficina Reservoirs. This tool has been used to
complement the description of the reservoir geometry and
depositional environment, integrating the geophysical studies
and dense vertical well information with the petrophysical
characteristics available through the interpretation of pressure
transients. In general, these data have been used to help in the
identification of the most productive sands and to design the
most suitable well architecture for draining a given reservoir 26.
An example of pressure transient analysis is presented here for
the upper Sequence 5 reservoir sands of JK23-1 (Figs.2, 3).
The pressure response during horizontal well tests is
characterized by at least three flow regimes27: early time radial
flow, intermediate linear flow, and a late-time pseudo-radial
flow. Each of these flow regimes is controlled by the geometric
mean of different combination of the principal components of
the permeability tensor. Namely, the early-time radial flow is
controlled by the effective geometric mean of the vertical to
horizontal permeability kvky ; the intermediate linear is flow
controlled by the permeability perpendicular to the horizontal
well direction ky; and the pseudo-radial flow is controlled by the
average horizontal permeability in the reservoir kHkh Thus,
the pressure response of wells placed in different sands provides
a basis for comparing their respective petrophysical
characteristics. This tool provides direct evidence that the
increasing marine influence observed in Sequence 5 toward the
MFS2 has a negative effect on the vertical communication, and
that it is poorer than that in the fluvially- dominated sands.
As indicated by the type log (Fig. 2), two sands are
present in Sequence 5. Four horizontal wells were drilled in an
east-west direction. Specifically, both well A (towards the east)
and B (toward the west) where drilled in targets corresponding
to the upper Sequence 5 and the lower Sequence 5 sand,
respectively. After an initial period of production, a 14-day well
shut-in period was used to record the pressure buildup in wells
A and B. Their respective pressure responses are compared in
Figure 23a, b. This figure shows change in pressure,
normalized by oil rate, versus elapsed time since well shut-in,
with their respective derivative curve for flow regime
identification.
B
Figure 23. Oil rate-normalized Pressure response for two
horizontal wells in the Lower Oficina Formation with their
respective derivative analysis. A) Lower Sequence 5, Well A;
B) Upper Sequence 5, Well B.
As indicated in both derivative traces, a period of zero-
slope, indicating an early-time radial flow, can be observed. In
the case of Figure 23a, this flow period is followed by a
relatively rapid transition to the expected linear flow regime (in
less than 8 hours after shut-in). This transient indicates that the
pressure wave has reached the top and bottom boundary of the
reservoir and the pressure response is then dominated by the
flow perpendicular to the horizontal well axis.
Similarly, Figure 23b shows an incipient transition to a
linear flow regime. However, this transition is substantially
delayed, to more than 80 hours after shut-in, with respect to the
lower Sequence 5 sand.
The following equation provides an estimate of time
required for the transition from the early-time radial flow to the
linear flow teepr, 26 and a basis for comparing these pressure
responses: φµct
t eepr = max{z w2 , (h − zw2 }
0.000264πk v
As can be observed from the above equation, the transition time
to a linear flow regime is controlled by parameters such as
reservoir porosity φ, total system compressibility ct, fluid
viscosity µ, horizontal well standoff (represented by the term in
brackets), and more importantly absolute vertical permeability
kv. Given the depth of both horizontal wells, both wells are
expected to have similar fluid viscosity and rock
compressibility. Also, there is a similar uncertainty in well
placement with respect to the reservoir (standoff). Thus, these
8 KOPPER, KUPECZ, CURTIS, COLE, DORN-LOPEZ, COPLEY, MUÑOZ, CAICEDO, SUTER
parameters cannot account alone for the significant difference, a
10-fold ratio, in transition time to a linear flow regime found in
these two wells.
Such variation in teepr has been attributed to differences
in vertical permeability between the upper and lower Sequence
5 sands. Lower vertical permeability suggests that important
baffles to flow are present in the upper sand. These baffles
interfere with the propagation of the pressure wave and
eventually with the movement of oil from the reservoir to the
well. As a consequence, a substantially lower horizontal well
deliverability can be expected. Indeed, numerous wells drilled
in the upper Sequence 5 have shown a reduced rate of oil
recovery when compared to wells drilled in fluvially- dominated
sequences.
A direct consequence of this characteristic has been
the need to mechanically enhance vertical communication
through the use of well architectures such as "fishbone" wells.
These wells are designed to intersect the flow barriers present
in this particular upper sequence and thus overcome through a
proper well design the geological barriers present in the
reservoir and allow for enhanced well performance 26.
Conclusions
Reservoirs of the Oficina Formation within the Zuata
Field are clean, unconsolidated fine- to coarse-grained
(predominantly medium-grained) quartz-rich sands with
porosity averaging 32% and permeability averaging 7800 mD.
The producing sands have net: gross between 40-60% and are
interconnected. The high viscosity of the oil, rather than
degraded rock quality, results in the low oil mobility. The key
to minimizing the impact of high oil viscosity on well
performance in the Faja is to maximize total drilled footage in
sands having resistivity values greater than 100 ohm-m.
Geochemical analyses indicate that the oils within the
Petrozuata concession are primarily derived from a single
marine carbonate or calcareous shale source rock; however, an
additional charge from a slightly more clastic source with
terrestrial organic matter is observed in some wells.
Variability in the viscosity and API gravity exists within the
oils. It is interpreted that the degree of water washing is the
major controlling factor of changes in oil chemistry. The
Zuata gas is interpreted to be a mixture of thermogenic and
biogenic gas. The thermogenic component is considered to
have been derived from the oil; however, the biogenic is
probably associated with earlier generation under more saline
conditions. This earlier biogenic and possibly thermogenic
gas was adsorbed by coals and subsequently released on uplift
or unroofing in the area.
Paleo-geographic reconstructions based on
biostratigraphic data indicate that paleo-environments vary from
upper delta plain to fully marine. During periods of lowstand,
most of the area is interpreted to have been in an upper delta
plain setting with fresh-water fluvial and swamp paleo-
environments. During highstand, the abundant mangrove pollen
and dinoflagellate cysts indicate deposition under marine and
SPE 69697
tidal influence. At least five major flooding surfaces are
confirmed by pollen spores and dinoflagellates. The Sequence 5
maximum flooding surface (18.0 Ma) is identified as the most
marine paleo-environment (inner to middle neritic). Observed
lateral and vertical facies associations suggest widespread
lateral migration of facies belts through time.
Close integration of the vertical well database with the
seismic data provides the key link between the advanced
drilling technology developed in the project and production /
reservoir planning, as it allows the precise placement of
boreholes within a stratigraphically complex reservoir. The
effectiveness of planning and drilling these complicated wells
has clearly demonstrated the value of the geoscience effort. The
resulting reservoir interpretation also provides a basis for the
longer-term modeling and monitoring program for the field.
Three important aspects of the seismic processing are:
spectral balancing to improve the overall frequency content or
bandwidth of the data; resolution of statics-induced distortion
within the common depth point gathers; and dip moveout
correction done before stack. The seismic data volume is also
important for the depositional facies characterization. Extensive
use has been made of both the horizon-based amplitude and
coherence extractions for depositional facies mapping and
reservoir characterization.
Eleven depositional sequences have been interpreted
for the Oficina Formation within Zuata Field. Blocky sands
generally are present at the base of each sequence, in the
undifferentiated lowstand/transgressive systems tract. The
stacking pattern of the LST/TST sands generally shows that the
sands decrease in thickness and the interbedded siltstones
increase in thickness upward toward the maximum flooding
surface. Although the depositional environments are
predominantly fluvial, there was increasingly more marine
influence toward the maximum flooding surface of Sequence 5.
Pressure transient analysis in horizontal wells has
provided additional support to the geological interpretation of
the depositional sequences found the in the Lower Oficina. In
particular, it has confirmed the effects of the marine influence
for the upper Sequence 5 on petrophysical characteristics at the
bed scale, i.e. lower vertical communication than in the fluvial
environments. This information has provided an assessment of
"rock quality" that has been tied to estimates of reservoir
deliverability and ultimately to well performance.
SPE 69697 RESERVOIR CHARACTERIZATION OF THE ORINOCO HEAVY OIL BELT 9

SDZ-21
(10 Km West)

SDZ-79

SDZ-4
3D Survey Area

Sidewall Cores (51 Wells / 2229 SWC’s)

SDZ-86
Petrozuata Whole Cores

PDVSA Whole Cores

Field Check Shots (19 Wells)

Maraven Exploration Wells

Fig.1. Location Map Fig.3. Basemap of Zuata Field, illustrating location of data.

Fig.2. Stratigraphic Column. Type Log comprises wells F15, JK23-1, DF17-1.
10 KOPPER, KUPECZ, CURTIS, COLE, DORN-LOPEZ, COPLEY, MUÑOZ, CAICEDO, SUTER SPE 69697

Fig.4. Sand packages in vertical wells vary from thick,

massive sands to thinly laminated sands. This variability
is dictated by the well’s location in regard to the areal
distribution of the depositional facies.
Fig.5. The potential for tar existence can best be evaluated
using an Rt (LLDC) / Rxo (MSFC) cross-plot. When resistivities
are greater than 20 ohmm, Rt tends to read higher than Rxo;
and thus decreases the risk of tar occurrence. This is one
additional reason Petrozuata has chosen 20 ohmm as the
lowest net oil resistivity cut-off.

5 km

Fig.7. The regional oil-water contact interpretation is based on 156

vertical wells and RFT pressure data. The structure map at the oil-
water contact illustrates a north dipping surface, with approximately
270 Feet of vertical relief across the field. The progressively darker
colors represent increasing depth.
Fig.6. Possible tar occurs between 2120-2265 Feet. Rxo reads
higher resistivity than Rt, suggesting no movable oil exists in this
interval. A whole core in this interval indicates the zone is oil-
saturated, however, it produced very little oil during drill stem
testing.

0.03 Oil Samples More terrestrial organic

matter input to source.
C30 diahopane/C30 hopane

DE22-4, 3A sand
0.02 17a-Diahopane DE26-2, 2C sand
DE26-1, 3A sand
IJ31-2, 3B sand
0.01 WS5 sands
WS4 A &C sands

0
0.3 0.31 0.32 0.33 0.34 0.35 0.36 0.37 0.38 0.39 0.4
C24 tetracyclic/C26 Tricyclic Terpanes
Biomarkers that reflect differences in organic matter or depositional environment facies show only subtle
changes. WS2 and WS3 sands break out as separate and non communication with WS4 and WS5 oils.

E.Michael, CONOCO 1999

E.Michael, CONOCO 1999
Fig.9. Figure illustrating the variability of the viscosity of the oils from
Fig.8. Figure illustrating differences in oils from the different reservoir zones in the Petrozuata field. The yellow colorfill
sequence 9 and 8 sands compared with the sequence 5 and represents sandstones, while the red colorfill represents deep
4 sands. Biomarkers reflecting differences in organic matter resistivity above 20 ohmms. The green colorfill represents silts and
or depositional environments show only subtle changes. clays. Arrow signify depths from which sidewall cores were taken.
SPE 69697 RESERVOIR CHARACTERIZATION OF THE ORINOCO HEAVY OIL BELT 11

Fig.10. Composite radar image of

the Orinoco River delta (Delta
Amacuro). Relative abundance
charts of dinoflagellates and pollen
from mangroves, palm, ferns and
upland forest indicate the paleo-
environment of deposition.
Dinoflagellates and mangrove
pollen indicate marine influence,
while the other forms are of
terrestrial origin, but redistributed by
fluvial processes. The Petrozuata
concession is shown to scale.
(Modified From: UTBEG Website
Image)

25 km

2
1

T. Demchuk 2000 T. Demchuk 2000

A 1: Maximum landward extent of marine/saline influence. 2: Shoreline. B

3: Inner-Midle neritic(?). Arrows: Possible locations of fluvial channel/tidal inlets.
Fig.11. A. Lowstand paleo-environments. Most of the field is interpreted to lie in the upper delta plain. The dashed line shows the
interpreted boundary between the upper and lower delta plain. Mangrove pollen in the south is associated with a relatively deep tidal
channel. Direction of sediment transport is shown by the arrows. B. Highstand paleo-environments. Boundaries of the upper/lower delta
plain and possible shorelines are shown by the dashed lines. Direction of sediment transport is shown by the arrows. (From Demchuck,
2000).
Depth (ft)

Velocity
Cube

Fig.12 . Time-depth curves from 145 wells used to create the velocity cube (inset).
 12 KOPPER, KUPECZ, CURTIS, COLE, DORN-LOPEZ, COPLEY, MUÑOZ, CAICEDO, SUTER SPE 69697

A - Seismic Profile (Flattened at MFS2)

Borehole

MFS 2

Coherency Slice

Extraction Horizon
WS4.5

1 km
B - Amplitude Extraction 1 km
C - Coherency Slice (Flattened Volume)

Resistivity
Overlay

1
1 el
el nn
ann Ch
a
Ch

Channel 2

Fig.13. Summary of the interpretive process utilized in the depositional facies characterization. A. Seismic profile, located as shown on the map (B) and
coherency slice (C). The display has been adjusted to show the interpreted horizon for the MFS 2 at a constant time value; other major horizons are also shown.
GR and resistivity (LLD) curves are shown for two stratigraphic wells, with key formation tops and the borehole path for the horizontal wells. B. Seismic amplitude
extraction, with drainage polygons and vertical and horizontal wells. The patterns of amplitude illustrate geomorphologic features characteristic of Sequence 5.
“Channel 1” cuts SW-NE across a darker meandriform feature. Many of these channel features are observed to crosscut each other forming an amalgamated
channel system. The coherency slice shown in C (from the same area) shows lateral changes in seismic response or wavelet shape. The darker areas are low
coherency and form outlines for features of similar seismic “character”. The yellown grid is the 150 x 150 trace spacing (750 m).
 SPE 69697 RESERVOIR CHARACTERIZATION OF THE ORINOCO HEAVY OIL BELT 13

Model of fluvial channel and bar deposition, with examples

Fig.14. Core and well log illustrating the cored interval of Sequence 9 in well Fig.15.
E20P-1S. The close-up photograph shows the erosional contact at the base of from the Sequence 9 interval. Modified from Galloway and Hobday. 25
the sequence, with laminated siltstone overlain by oil-impregnated medium-
grained unconsolidated sand above.

Fig.16. Core and well log illustrating the cored interval of Sequence 9 in well Model of coastal plain deposition with examples from selected
SDZ-86X. The close-up photographs A and B are coals, and their location in the Fig.17.
Sequence 9 well logs. Modified from Miall. 28
well log is shown by the arrows. Note the characteristic low density reading in
the coals. The close-up photograph C is a laminated siltstone/very-fine
sandstone interpreted to represent tidal bundles.
 14 KOPPER, KUPECZ, CURTIS, COLE, DORN-LOPEZ, COPLEY, MUÑOZ, CAICEDO, SUTER SPE 69697

Fig.22. A. Interpreted environments of

deposition of upper Sequence 9. The
interpretation was based on the integration
of core, biostratigraphic, electrofacies, 3D
A seismic data and the seismic amplitude
extraction. The channel labeled "younger
channel" post-dates the deposition of the
Sequence 9 sediments. B. Net sand isopach
0 5 mi
of Sequence 9. C. Modern incised-valley
0 8 km
deposits of the Arkansas River Valley, USA
Galloway and Hobday, 24
( ). Note the similarity in
scale with the Sequence 9 channel belts in
the Zuata Field, which are also interpreted
to be valley-fill deposits.

0 1 2 3 Km

B
SPE 69697 RESERVOIR CHARACTERIZATION OF THE ORINOCO HEAVY OIL BELT
REFERENCES
1. Davidson, J., R. Reagan and J. Adams: "Petrozuata Map
Book", Conoco, Inc. Internal Technical Report, 9 Tables,
42 Figures, 1996.
2. Davidson, J., R. Reagan and J. Adams: "Petrozuata Map
Book, Petrozuata Block, Venezuela", Conoco, Inc. Internal
Technical Report, 29 Tables, 131 Figures, 1998.
3. Winterrowd, W., Reusser, J., Anderson, D.: “ Seismic
processing report Petrozuata 3D seismic Survey” Conoco
Technical service report April 1999.
4. Suter, J.: “Depositional Environments and Sequence
Stratigraphy of E20P-1S and NO18-1S Cores: Revisions
to Depositional Model for Petrozuata” Conoco Inc.
Internal Document, “Preliminary Report”, 1999.
5. Suter, J.: “Integrated Geological Model for Petrozuata”
Conoco Inc. Internal Interim report, March 2000.
6. Aguado, B.: “GH27-1Core description” PDVSA
INTEVEP Internal Report, 1999.
7. Lahann, R.: “Petrozuata Resistivity/Permeability Study”
Conoco Internal document, November 2000.
8. Colmenares, O. A. et al.: "A biostratigraphic study of six
wells in the area of Zuata (for Petrozuata)". PDVSA-
Intevep Technical Report, 34p. with enclosures, 1999.
9. Demchuk, T.D.: "Bio- and Chronostratigraphic Evaluation
of the Oficina Formation ant Petrozuata, Venezuela (for
Petrozuata)", Conoco Inc. Technical Report, 15p. with
enclosures, 2000.
10. Gonzalez-Guzman, E.: "Palynostratigraphy and correlation
of seven wells (D-14, GH-19, JK-21, OP-16, N-13, NO-18,
L-32, LM-15, EF-25, JK-13 and IJ-33) from the Petrozuata
field, Anzoategui State, Venezuela", Petrozuata internal
report. 2000.
11. Michael, E.: "Petrozuata Reservoir Geochemical Study –
Venezuela", Conoco, Inc. Internal Report, 1999.
12. Beier, R., Corbin, R., Gaston, D., Hardy. H.:
“Correlations Between Seismic and Well Log Attributes
using Vertical and Horizontal Wells in the Zuata
Production Area, Venezuela” Conoco internal document
September 1999.
13. Beier, R., Corbin. “ Seismic Attributes in Zuata
Production area, Venezuela” Conoco Inc. Internal
Technical Service report, June, 1998.
14. Suter, J. R., and S. D. Levine: "Petrozuata Stratigraphic
Pilot Study", Conoco EPT Internal Report, 1999.
15. D’ Onfro, P.: “ Sealing Capacity of Shale Samples from
Wells NO-18C and E20P-1, Zuata Field, Venezuela,
Conoco Inc. Internal report, July, 2000.
16. Thompson-Rizer, C.: “Thermal Maturity and Compaction
Analyses of Two Coal Samples from the No-18C well,
Zuata Field, Venezuela” Conoco Inc. Internal Report,
2000.
17. Mitchell, R.: “ Petrozuata Petrophysical Analysis and Pay
Cut off Criteria” Conoco Inc., Internal document, 1999.
15
18. Fielder, G., Dickinson, J., Gaynor, J.: “ Interim Report on
Evaluation of Reservoir Volumes and Heterogeneity in
the Petrozuata Project Area” Conoco EPT Inc. Internal
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19. Fielder, G.: “ Petrozuata 2000 Geologic Model, Results of
Stochastic and Deterministic Cellular Modeling of
Reservoirs”, Conoco EPT Inc. Internal Report, October,
2000
20. Gaynor, J.: “ Petrozuata Reservoir Connectivity Studies”
Conoco EPT Inc. Internal Report, 2000.
21. Martini, E.: "Standard Tertiary and Quaternary calcareous
nannoplankton zonation". (in) Proceedings of the Second
Planktonic Conference, Rome (edited by) A. Farinaci.
Tecnocienza, pp. 739-785, 1971.
22. Lorente, M. A.: Palynology and palynofacies of the Upper
Tertiary in Venezuela. J. Cramer, Berlin. 222p, 1986.
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Stratigraphic Framework of European Basins". (in)
Mesozoic and Cenozoic Sequence Stratigraphy of
European Basins (edited by) P. -C. de Graciansky et al.
SEPM Special Publication No. 60. pp. 3-13, 1998.
24. Zaitlin, B. A., R. W. Dalrymple y R. Boyd: "The
Stratigraphic Organization of Incised-Valley Systems
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Dalrymple, R. W., R. Boyd y B. A. Zaitlin (eds.), Incised
Valley Systems: Origin and Sedimentary Sequences:
SEPM Special Publication 51, p. 45-60, 1994.
25. Galloway, W. E. and D. K. Hobday: Terrigenous Clastic
Depositional Systems, Springer-Verlag, 423p, 1983.
26. Stalder, J., York, G., Kopper, R., Curtis, C., Copley, J.,
Cole, T., “Multilateral Horizontal Wells Increase Rate And
Lower Cost Per Barrel In The Zuata Field, Faja, Venezuela,
SPE nnnnn, Presented at the 2001 SPE International
Thermal Operations and Heavy Oil Symposium, Margarita
Island, Venezuela. Copley, J.; Cole, T, and “ Multilateral
Horizontal Wells Increase Rate And Lower Cost Per Barrel
In The Zuata Field, Faja, Venezuela, SPE nnnnn, Presented
at the 2001 SPE International Thermal Operations and
Heavy Oil Symposium, Margarita Island, Venezuela.
27. Shah, P.C., Gupta, D.K., Singh, L and Deruyck, B.G.:
“Field Application of a Method for Interpretation of
Horizontal-Well Transient Tests”, SPE Formation
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Acknowledgements
The authors wish to acknowledge Petrozuata, PDVSA and
Conoco Inc., for permission to publish this paper. We want to
thank Ignacio Layrisse and Jose Luis Perez of PDVSA for
providing insight and technical guidance over the past three
years in support of Petozuata’s development and reservoir
characterization effort. There have been many outstanding
studies done by both PDVSA and Conoco, Inc., (see reference
section), making it difficult to acknowledge each contributor
16 KOPPER, KUPECZ, CURTIS, COLE, DORN-LOPEZ, COPLEY, MUÑOZ, CAICEDO, SUTER SPE 69697

separately; however, we extend our thanks to them all. We

would like to thank Gordon Fielder and John Suter of Conoco,
Inc. for many years spent helping us in our reservoir
characterization studies. Finally, we thank Juan Carlos Bueno
of Petrozuata for his tireless work, his creativity and his great
attitude.