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    ou jra Gana National Open University Schoo! of Socal Selencos : PROJECTIVE TECHNIQ! _PSYCHODIAGNOSTICS | GROUPA MPCE-012 PSYCHODIAGNOSTICS THe Peortes © ignou GROUP A an MPCE-012 Nasal Opn Univer Psychodiagnostics Sind of Sora Sess Blak 4 PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES IN PSYCHODIAGNOSTICS UNITI Introduction to Projective Techniques and Neuropsychological Test UNIT 2 Principles of Measurement and Projective ‘Techniques, Current Status with Special Reference to the Rorschach Test UNIT3 ‘The Thematic Apperception Test and Children’s Apperception ‘Test UNIT 4 Personality Inventories 19 38 81 UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES AND NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL TEST Structure 1.0 Inrodvetion LA Objectives 12 Projective Techniques 121 tmporastProjnctiveTelnignes 1.3 Categories of Pojectve Techniques 14 Basie Assumptions LS Projective Testing LSI The Rocchich Tet 142 The Themis Appecepton Test (TAT) SA Sentence Completion Tcigus 1.6 Merits of Projective Tests 1.7 Neuropsjebologicl Assesment 1.8 Purposes of Neuropsychological Assesment 1.9 Dimensions and Level of Assessment 110 Newopsyhotoical Tsing LIL Linisons 112 Let Us Sum Up 1.13 Unit End Quesions 1.14 Suggested Readings INTRODUCTION In this un, we wil first consider wha projective testing is, Then we wil discuss the categories and assumptions of projective tess. The main projective tests used to assess personality are described. Next we will explain some of the core ‘concepts afte discipline of neuropsycolopical assessment Ia this unit we will trl evew the major testing approches we in contempcrary neuropsychology practice. 1.1 OBJECTIVES ‘After completing this unit, you will be abet: | | Prajective Theigue a Pochodiognstis ‘+ Provide the definiton and characterises of projective techniques, ‘+ Discuss the categeries ane basic assumptions of projective techniques; Describe the dtfeent types of projective tests used ‘+ Biplain what neurpsychological assessments; ‘© Discus the purposes and dimensions of neropsycholopical assessment; nd ‘© Discuss the most widely used neuropsychologca ests, 1.2_ PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES rojective Techniquesare indirect and unstructured methods of investigation ‘which have been develored by the psychologists and use projection of respondents for infeting about undeine mosives, urges o intentions which cannot be secure through direct questionng asthe respondent either resists o reveal them or is ‘unable to figure out himself. These techniques are usaf in giving rexpondents ‘opportanities to express their atindes without personal embarrassment, These techniques helps the respondents to project his own attude and felings ‘unconsciously on the subject under study: Thus Projetive Techniques play a Jmportant ole in mosivaional searches orn tinge surveys. Projective technique is any peesonality test designed oVield information about ‘someone's personality onthe bass oftheir unrestricted response to ambiguous bjects or stations. Projectvetechuiques area set of instruments whose main objestive isto describe and characterise personality. The adjective projective is, a detivative of “projestin’, a concept introduced by Fre inthe vocabulary of psychology to describe te design ofa defense mecharism leading the subjec to "eansfe to another person, or thing, his urges, feelings, etc, that he cannot accept asbelonging to him, However, this concept isnot commonly used in the field of projective techniques, Re, another concept with a les estritive and specific ‘meaning is used. This means that, in responding tothe stimulus situation, the subject reveals or extemaises aspects of his own personal fe, such as motives, interests, felings emotions, conflicts andthe ke ‘Toa lange extent, te chances ofthe simul of the projectves are responsible for this extenalisation ard have an impertant effect on te nature and content of ‘the subject's responses. Two such characteristics are the structure and ambiguity cof stimuli, The structure refers tothe degree of organisation of the stimulus: incompleteness, nearly an organised whole a lly divided, close too far fom being a el represetator, ee. The ambiguity concems the number and vribilty of responses each timulselics. 1.2.1 Important Projective Techniques ‘Te following ae some ofthe major projective techniques: 1) Word Association Test. 2) Completion Test. 3) Consouction Techniques 4). Expression Techniques 1) Wor Association Test: An individual is given a clue or hit and asked to respond othe frst thing that comes 1 mind. The association can take the shape ofa pictute ora word, There canbe many interpretations ofthe same thing. list of words is given and you don't know in hich word they are most interested. The interviewer record the responses which reveal the inner feeling ofthe respondents. The frequency with which any words given ‘response andthe amount of tine that elapses before the response is given ‘are important forthe researcher. For example: Out of $0 respondents 20, people asocite the word Fie” with “Complexion” 2) Completion Test: In this the respondents are asked to complete at incomplete sentence or sory. The completion wil reflect their atiude and state o mind, 3) Construction Test: Tiss more or less ike completion est. They can give you a pitue and you are asked to wrt a tory about it. The inal structure is timited and not detailed like the completion test, For eg: 2caftoons are ven and a dialogue isto writen, 44) Expression Techniques In this the people are asked to expres the feeling ‘or atiude of ether people Disadvantages of Prajective Techniques 1) Highly ined interviewees and skilled interprecers are needed. 2) Interpreters bias can be thee 3) Ttis a costly method. 4) Therespondent selected may not bo representative of the entre population. 1.3. CATEGORIES OF PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES FFormany years, the primary testing tools of linia peychologists were projetive techniques such asthe Rorschach Inkblot Technique, These techniques have in ‘common the presentation of ambiguous and malleable stimuli to whic a large numberof different responses can be made. Presumably, the specific responses ven by aclient fet something shou that individ’ paychosknamc fanctoning, Projctiveteciniques no longer occupy the dominant pestion they did years ag, butnevertbeless continue o be used in elinical practice and research, ‘Most projective technique fal into one of ive categories , vie, ') Associative techniques: The subject responds to particular stizulus, such a8 an inkblot ot a word, by indicating what the stimulus suggests. The Rorschach Inkblot Technique i a prime example. Construction techniques: The subject construct a response, usualy inthe orm ofa story, toa stimulus, ususlly a piture, The prime example here i the Thematic Appereption Test (TAT). i] Ondering techniques: This involves placing st of stimuli in «particular ‘order. Typically the stimuli area se of pictures, very much lke the panels ‘of newspaper com sp bu the panels are presented in random order, and they need to be placed in oer to make eobrent sequence. The Picture Arrangement subrestof the WAIS s sometimes used a an ordering technique. ntrodution to Projeve “Tecigaes Neuropsychologial Test, ProjetiveTeegues Pochodiognstis 18) Completion techriques: Here the subject responds roa “partial” stimulus. For example, the abject may be given the beginning ofa story to complete ‘ora set of sentene stems (2g, Tam always ...) to complete. Sentence ‘completion tsi re a prime example here. 1») Expressive technicues:‘The subject engages in some “creative” activity, such as drawing, finger painting, acting out certain feslings or situations (sin ‘sychodeama). The Draw-A-Person tat isa good example. 1.4 BASIC ASSUMPTIONS In general, psychologss believe dit behaviour is determined or can be expliined by specific principles. tf we observe a person verbally or physically attacking ‘others, we label the beaviours as aggresive and we seek explanation forthe ‘behaviour, perhaps pst ating “Yrutaon”or looking for aldhood developmental explanations or antecedent conditions. With projective test, the assumption is ‘hat specific responses reflect the persons personalityan for psychodynamic functioning. This is based, however, on the questionable assumption that the test Protocol present a sufficienly exensive sampling ofthe cient. Second, we know that secific behaviours canbe stongly inftenced by transitory ‘aspects. A person can do well academically in all courses except one, with performance in that conse influenced by dislike forthe intrutoe oe some ‘ther “chance” factor. Projecive tests however, assume that each and every ‘sponses indeed basic and reflective of some major personal themes, ‘The projective viewpoint futher asumes that perception isan asive and elecive roots, and thas what i perceived sinfluenced not only by the person's curent ‘eed and motivation, bt by that person's unique history and the person's habit ‘ways of dealing with th world The moce ambiguous a situation the more the ‘esponses will fet incividval diferences in tempting o structure and respond ‘to thet situation. Thus, projective tests are sen as ideal miniature situations, ‘Where prsentation can te contoled and resulting responses carefully observed. Inroducono Proje 3) What ar the five categories of projective tests? “Techniques od ‘Nearopsycholotal Tet 4) What are the basic assumptions underlying projective tess? 15 PROJECTIVE TESTING Just there are numerous objective personality and psychological functioning instruments, thee are many projective instruments. Most psychologists use a= small nmber of prefered projective tsts—typically the Rorschach, the Thematic Appercetion Test (TAT), Projective Drawings, and Incomplete Senienes, 1.5.1 The Rorschach Test ‘The Rorschach Testis te famous inkblot test Rorschach, 1921/1942, 1951) "Many people ave fscinated by te ide of using inkblos to investigate personality and psychological uncioning, Of couse. many peopl inluding paychologis) are skeptical of projective techniques such as the Rorschac, questioning its val as a measure of psychological fnctioning, ‘The Rorschach consists of 10 nkblots that are symmetrical; that the lt side ‘of ach cardi essentially miror image ofthe right side. The same 10 inkblos ‘have been used (nthe same oder of presentation) since they were frst developed ‘by Herman Rorschach in1921 (Rorschach, 1921/1942). Half of te cards are back, white, and gray, and half we color While there are several different ways to administer the Rorschch and sore the vast majority of psycologist today tse the method developed by John Exner (Exner, 1974, 1976, 1986, 1993, 2003; Exner & Weiner, 1995). Each card is handed to the patient with the question, “What might this be?” The psychologist writes down everything the patient says verbatim. During ths foe association portion of the test, the psychologist doesnot question the patient. Aft all 10 cards ae administered the psychologist shows the patient each card a second time and asks questions that \will help in scoring he test. For example, the psychologist might say, "Now I'd like to show you the cards once again and ask you several questions sbout each ‘card so that I can be sue that I see it as you 60°" ‘Wi each cad, he or she sks ana leading question such a, “What bout he card made it look ike ato you?"The psychologist looks for ansers that wll him or le scare the test in several categories such a5 Jocation (ie. the aes ofthe blot being ued), content ie, the nae ofthe bjt ring desebed, uch «person, animal, or eneat of natu), deems . 9 ProectveTecnigue in Payhodiagostis 10 (Ge, the parts ofthe blot thatthe patient used inthe response, such as form, colour, shading, and movemen), and popular Ge. the responses typically seen by others). This portion of the testis erred to asthe inquiry, Once the tests completed, coring involes a highly complex sytem and analysis, Each response ‘scareflly sere basedon the content, location, determinants, and quality ofthe response. Various aspects ofthe Rorschach responses are associated with psychological fanctioning. For example, the fequent use of shading is generally considered to Dereflcive of anxiety ard depression. The wse of human movement and adequate number of popular responses are usually associted with adaptive and well imegrated psychological functioning. Numerous responses that tend to tninor ‘exis ofthe blots often eflect obsessive compulsive traits. Frequent use ofthe ‘whitespace around the Bots generally anscisted with oppostionalty andor svoidince, 1.5.2 The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) ‘The TAT (Murray & Befack, 1942; Tomkins, 1947) was developed during the late 1930s by Henry Muray and Christiana Morgan at Harvard University. The “TAT was orginally designed to measure personality factors in research stings. Specifically it was used o investigate goal, cenral conflicts, needs pres (i, factors that ait or ipede progres owas reaching pals) and achievement strivings associated with Henry Muay’ theory of personology Murray. 1938). ‘The TAT consists of 31 petures (one of whch is bank, most all of which dept people rater than object. Some ofthe pictures are designed to be administered to males, some to females, and others to both genders (Figure below). Generally only a selected number ef cards (e.g, 10) are administered to any one patient, i At: Am example ofa TAP card ‘The psychologist introduces the ts by telling the patient that he or she will be given a series of pictures and requested to tell story about exch, The patients insucted to make up a story that reflects what the peopl i the picture are ‘hinking,fecting, and doing and also to speculate on what led upto the events ‘depicted in te picture ard what wil happen in the future, After each card is presented to the patient, the psychologist writes down everything tat is sad verbacim. Although a variety of complex scoring approaches have been ‘developed (uray. 1943; Shneidman, 1951), most clinician we thei clinical experience and judgment to analyse the themes that emerge from the patient's stores. Since ‘linicians generally donot officialy score the TAT, conducting elicility and vaty ‘esearch is challenging. ‘Odie sts similar to the TAT have been develope for special populations, sch 48 the Robert's Apperception Test for Children (RATC; Medthur & Roberts, 1982) for use wih elementary schoolchildren, The 27 pitures depict children interacting with parents, teachers, and peers, The Children’s Apperception Test (CATT; Bolla, 1986) was developed fr very young children and depicts animals ineracting in various ways. 1.5.3. Projective Drawings ‘Many clinician's ask both children and adults to daw pictures in order to assess their psychological functioning. Typically, people are asked to draw a house, a ‘we, person, and thes fanily doing something tether. Fo the Draw a Person test ( Machover, 149), the House Tree Person Technique (Buck, 1948), and the ‘Kinetic Family Drawing Technique, the patients instructed to craw each pcre Jn pencil ona separate blank piece of paper and to avoid the use of stick figures. (On the assumption that a drawing tells us some thing about its crestor, clinicians ‘often ask lens to daw human figures and talk about her, Evaluations of these ‘drawings ae based onthe details and shape ofthe drawing, solidity ofthe pencil ine, Joeation ofthe drawing on the paper, size ofthe figures, features ofthe figures, use of background, and comments made by the respondent daring the srawing task. In the Draw a Person (DAP) Test, the most populat of the drawing tests, subjects are fs told o draw “a person,” and then ae insrocted to draw another person ofthe opposite sex 1.54 Sentence Completion Techniques Another projective technique involves the use of sentence completion. There are ‘many differen versions of his technique (eg, Fre 1957; PA. Goldberg, 1965; ‘Lanyon & Lanyon 1980; Roter, 1954; Roer& Rafferty, 1950) Te pate is resented (ether orally bythe examiner orn writing through a questionnaire) a series of sentence fragments. These might include ites such as,"When he answered fhe phone he —————" or “Most mothers are." ‘The patent is asked to give the first response that he or she thinks of and complete the sentence, Again, like projective drawings and the TAT, several Scoring systems have been develope to asin interpretation, However, these scoring approaches ae generally used ony in research stings. “Most clinicians prefer to use their own expesience ad lncaljugment interpret the themes tha emerge from the completed sentences. 1.6 MERITS OF PROJECTIVE TESTS Unt he1950s, projective tests were the most commen technique for assessing personality. In ecent years, however, clinicians and researches have relied on ‘hem largely to gain “supplementary” insights. One reason fortis shift is hat Introduction to Prajecve ‘Techniques nd Nearopsyholgial Test Projctie Teehagues in Pegcodlagnstis R Practitioners who follow the newer models have less use forthe tests than Dsychodynamic clinics do. Even more important, the tess have rarely the TAT's ‘nonclinical uses are just as mportantas its clinical ones, Indeed the TAT sone ofthe most important teciniques used in personality research (Abrams, 1999; Bellak, 1999; Cramer & Bla, 1990; MeCielland, 1999). ‘As stated, the TAT is based on Murray (1938) theory, which distinguishes 28 ‘human needs, including the needs for sex, affiliation, and deminance, Many of ‘hese neds hve been extensively researched through use ofthe TAT (MeClelen, 1999), The theoretical need for achievement that i "the desire or tendency to do ‘hings as rapidly andor as wel as possible" (Murray, 1938. 164)—alone has generated avery lage numberof shies involving the TAT. ‘The TAT measare ofthe achievement need has been rested to factors such as ‘areal perceptions, prea expectations, an parental tudes towant ofp, "Need achievement is als related tothe Standard that you as student se for ‘yourself farexampl, academic sandal). The higher your need fr achievement, he more likely you ae to stay and ubimatly achive a high economic and soil Position in society. Studs such as thoze onthe achievement motive have provid ‘snstet elated evidence for valtyand have increased the sini respecaity of the TAT. 3.2.1 Description ‘The TAT is more structured and less ambiguous than the Rorschach Test. TAT stimuli consist of pictues that depict a varety of ssenes. There ae 30 pictures and one blank card, Specific cards are designed for male subjects, others for {emate. Some of te cars are appropriate for older people, others for young ‘ones. A few ofthe cards are appropriate forall subjects, such as Card 1 ‘An Example of a TAT card (Source: ne) ‘This card shows a boy, neatly dressed and groomed, siting at a table on which lies @ vot, In his description of Card. 1, Muay stated thatthe boy is “contemplating” the violin, According to expers such as Bella (1986), Card | ofthe TAT tends to reveal a person's relationship toward parental figures. Other TAT cards tend to elicit other kinds of information. Cand 4 is a picture of 8 Woman “clutching the shoulders ofa man whose face and body ae verted 2s ihe were tying to pull avay from her” Bell, 1975, p. $1), This can elicits ‘The Thema Appercepton “Tstand Chen Appereetion Tt Prajctine Techniques in Pahodiagnsts information concerning ale female relationships. Bella (1986, 1996) and others provide s description of te TAT card along with the information tha each ced tends to elicit. This knowledge i essential in TAT interpretation. Card 12R, sometimes elicits conflicting emtions about the self, Other felings may aso be lie, 3.2.2 Administration Although theoretically he TAT could be used with hiléren, itis typically wed with allescents an sduls. The original manual (H. A. Murry, 143) doeshave standardized instructions bat typically examiners use their own versions, Whats necessary is thatthe instructions include the points that: the client is to makeup an imaginative o dramatic sry; = the story ist include what is happening, what ed to what is happening, and wat wl happen; Finally should inude what the story characters are feting and thinking. AAs par ofthe administraon, te examiner unoblmusivey records the response Iatency of each card, ie, how Tong it takes the subject to begin a story. The examiner writes doom he tory as acct a possible noting any oter responses (such as nervous laughs, facial expressions, etc). Some examiners Use 8 tape ‘recorder, but such a device may significandy alter the test situation (R. M. Ryan, 1987), ‘The examiner avo records the reaction time shat iste time interval between the intial presentation of a card and the subject's first response. By recording reaction time, she examiner can determine whether the subject has Aitfcuity with a particular car, Because each card is designed to elicit its own themes, needs, and confhets, an abnormally long reaction time may indicate a specific probiem, If, for example, the reaction time substantially ineases fr all i ving hts lt enh xi hype at the subject is experiencing difficulty in this area ‘Often, afterall the stories tave been ected, there an inquiry phase, where the examiner may atempt to btn ational information abou the stories the cient has given. A varity of techniques are used by different examiners, inchuding ‘asking the cient to ideniy the last prefered and mos prefered cards, 3.2.3 Pull of TAT Cards ‘TAr-cads elicit typical” sponses from many subjects, somewhat ike the popular responses on the Rorschach Test. Tiss called the “pul!” ofthe card, and some Ihave argued that his pulls the most important determinant of a TAT response (Murstein, 1963). Many ofthe TAT cards are from wood cuts and other art, medi, with ts of shading: andar, sometimes inditingushable dels. Became ofthis simul pall, many ofthe card elses that re loom or melanchol, ‘There i some evidence sggest thatthe actual TAT card may be more important than the respondent’ “pjetions”in determining te actual emetionl one of the story (Exon, Tey, & Callahan, 1950). 3.2.4 Scoring HA, Murray (1938) developed the TAT in th context ofa personality theory that saw behaviour asthe result of psychobiologeal and envionmental aspects. ‘Thus aot omy are there needs that a person has (both biological needs, such ss the need for food, and psychological, such asthe need to achieve or the nee for ‘contol, bu thee are also forces in the environmen, called pes, that can affect ‘heindividua. resumebly, the tories sve by the individual reflec the combination ‘of such needs and presses, both in an objective sense and es perceived by the person. ‘There were a number of atempts to develop compeehensive scaring systems for ‘he TAT. A numberof manuals are available tht can be used (Henry, 1956;tein, 1981), although none have become the standard way, and ultimately the scoring reflect the examines clinical sls and theoretical perspective. Almost all methods of TAT interpretation take into account the hero, needs, ‘press, themes, and outcomes. The hero isthe charter in each pictre with ‘whom the subject sems to identify. In most cases, the sory revolves aound one easly recognisable characte. If more than one character seems tobe important, then the character mos ke the storyteller is selected asthe her. Of particular importance are the motives and needs ofthe hero. Most systems, inclading ‘Murray's original, consider the intensity, duration, and frequency ofeach need to ‘ndieate the importance and relevance ofthat need, Ia TAT interpretation press refers tothe environmental forces tht interfere wih or facilitate stisfacton of the various needs. Again, fctors such a fequeney, intensity, and duration are ‘sed to judge the relative importance ofthese factors, The frequency of various ‘hemes (for example, depression) and outcomes (fr example, failures) also indicates their importance, Analysis of TAT protocols is often impressionistic tha is subjective, intuitive approach where te TAT protocols perused fr such things as repetitive themes, conflicts slips of the tongue, degree of emotional con, sequence of stories, te ‘As with the Rorschach, the interpretation isnt tobe dane blindly butin accord with other information detived from interviews with the client, othe test rests, ec. Ineffect then, the tity ofthe TAT isin large pa, function ofboth the specif Sscering procedure used and the talent and sensitivity ofthe individual clinician Many specific scoring guide lines have also been developed tat focus on the measurement ofa specific dimension, such as gender identity (May, 1966) oF 'chievement motivation (McClelland, Atkinson, Catk, etal, 1953) A recent ‘example sa scoring system designed to measure how people er key to resolve ‘personal problems; fr each card a total score aswel as four subscale scores are obtained, and these are aggregated across cards (Ronan, Colavito, &Hammontee, 1993), 3.2.5 What does the TAT Measure? First and fore most TAT steries are samples ofthe subject’ vrbel behaviour ‘Thus, they canbe used to asoss the person’ intellectual competence, verbal lvency, pacity to think abstractly, and otber cognitive aspects, Second, the TAT ‘presents an ambiguous situation presented by an “authority” fig, 19 which the subject must somehow respond. Thus some insight ean be gained about the Person's coping resource, interpersonal sills, and_ so on, Finally the TAT ‘responses can be assumed toreflect the individual's psychological functioning, and the needs, conflicts, feelings, et, expressed in the stories are presumed to reflect the clint’s perception of the word and inner psychodynamic functioning ‘TAT stories are sid to yield information about the person's: “The Tema Appereption "estand Cidren's perception Test 9 Prlete Reign 1) thought npiaton, apm 2) eno aposivnen, 3) psychological needs, 6 view ofthe wrk . 5). tenon isos, 6) sean 7) coping pattems, Ho pine ot st he esponses othe TAT alae pote efetive | of pans unomcisfrtoning, na ane oceans, tte | frcamimbec of “deminne” tampa po he espns shine. or | example hesitation is ery important. Wher ajc s eng | vated as prof our manatl procedngs wheter the sn ‘avoir pee vlneean kes scl dence, Te “tetng Set” is also important, ie. the preconceptions that the person has of what the et, ‘ester and testing situations ae lke | 3.2.6 Reliability ‘The determination ofthe rlisbity (and validity) ofthe TAT is a aher complex mater because we must ak which scoring system is being used, which variables ‘are scored, and perhaps even what aspets of specific examinees and examiners ae invalved. ron (1955 pitted out th the TAT was a eeach 0, one of many ecriques sed o sd the fantasy of norma inviduals, but hat twas icky adopted forse inthe clini without any scious test f the rlslity and validity of the ‘any methods of analysis that were proposed. He poated out hat tere ze a many ways of analysing AT stories as there are practoncrs, and ha ow of these methods have ben dmoaste tobe reliable Some woud rg thatthe concept of reliably is meaningless when spi to rojective techniques. Even if we don’t accept that argument it clear ha the andard methods of detenining reliably ate not paca applicable tthe ‘TAT. Each ofthe TAT cans is unique, so neither spli-half nor parallel -orm rishi is appropiate. Tstetet relat is a inited cae on the ne hand the tet shuld be seasitive to changes overtime, and on the other the subject may foes on diflrent aspects of the simul fom one tine to snot ‘The determination of relat also assumes that extraneous sources of vation ate held in check, ie, tetest is standardized. This is clearly not the case with ‘the TAT, where instructions, sequence of cards, seoring procedut,e, can vary 3.2.7 Validity ‘Valdis lo a very comple issue, with studies tha support the validity ofthe “TAT and siudies that donot. Varbe (1971) reviewed this issue and indicated the 1) the TAT i not well suited or useful for differential diagnosis; 2) the TAT canbe useflin the identification of personality variables, hough there are stodies that support this conclusion and studies that do not, 40 3) dierent reviewers come toffrentconchsions ranging frm “he validity. the TAT s practically nil” to “thee is impressive evidence forts vali Holt (1951) pointed out thatthe TAT is nota est in the same sense that a intelligence scale i, but that the TAT really reflects a Segment of human behaviour ‘that can be analysed in many ways. One might as wel ask whats the elibiity and vaiity of everyday behaviour Itis interesting to note that Bellak's (1986) book on the TAT, which is quite comprehensive and often used as «taining ‘manuel, does not stele elialtyor val ints index. Bu the TAT contnaes to be of interest to oth practitioners and researchers. ‘Self Assessment Questions 1) Whats Thematic Apperception Test? ‘The Thema Apperson “Tetand Chile's “Appercepton Tt 4 Proetive Techniques in Psychodlagnstic a 3.3. APPLICATION OF TAT ‘The TAT is ofen administered to individuals as pat ofa batey, or group, of st ‘mended to evaluate personality. is considered oe eect in eing information shout «person's view of the world and his or her atituds toward the self nd ‘ters. As people aking th> TAT proceed through the various story cards and tell, Sores about the pictures, they reveal ther expectations of relationships with eer, parents or other authority figures, subordinates, and possible romantic partners, In ation to assessing the content ofthe sores tat the subjects telling, the ‘examiner evaluates the subjects manner, vocal tone, posture, hesitation, nd ‘other signs of an emotional response toa paicular stor picture, Fo example, person who is mace anxous by a certain picture may make comments about tho artistic style ofthe pict, or remark that he oF she doesnot ik the picture; this sa way of avoiding telling story about ‘The TAT soften used in ntividual assessments of candidates for employment in Feld reusing a high degree of killin dating with ther people andor ability to ope with high levels of rychologial stress as for example aw enforcement, niltary leadership position, religious minis, education, diplomatic verve, ee Although the TAT should nx be used inthe dered dignoss of mental disorders, itis often administered to individuals who have already teceved a diagnosis in ‘order to match them withthe ype of psychological treatment thats best uted to their personalities. Lasly the TAs sometimesused fr forensic puposesin evaluating the motivations and general tines of perons accused of violent cris. For example, the TAT ‘was recently administered 224 year old man in prison fo a series of sexual ‘murders. The results indicmed that his atitades toward ther people are not ely ‘tse normal limits but a similar to those of eter persons fund guilty ofthe same type of erie, ‘The TAT canbe given repeatedly to an individual as a way of measuring progress in psychotherapy of, in some cases, to help tbe therapist understand Why the ‘weatment seems tobe stalled or blocked In akiton co its appicaonin individu assessment, the TAT sequently used for research into specific espeets of human personality, most often needs for ‘achievement, feats of alu, hostility and aggression, and interpersonal object ‘elations. “Object relations" a phrase used in peyhiary and psychology orefer to the ways people intenalse their relationships with others and the emotional tone oftheir relationships, Reseaeh into object relatins using the TAT investigates a variety of differnt (opis, including ') the extent to which pele are emotionally involved in relationships with others. 4) heirabilty to understand the completes of human relationships. i) thei ability to distinguish beeween their viewpoint on a situition andthe penpectives of thers iwelved, 5x) their abit to contol aggressive impulses. YW) Selfesteem issues; and issues of personal identity. For example, one recent study compared responses tothe TAT from 2 group of Psychiatric inpatients diagnosed with dissociative cisorders with responses from 4 group of non dissociative inpatients, in order to investigate some ofthe controversies about dissociative identity disorder (formerly called multiple personality disorde). 3.4 ALTERNATIVE APPERCEPTION PROCEDURES ‘An alternative thematic apperception test (Ritzer, Sharkey, & Chudy, 1980; ‘Sharkey & Ritzer, 1985) has been constricted with pictures fom the Family ‘2 Man photo-essay collection (Museum of Modern At, 1955). According to ‘hese autor, te relatively new procedure can be scored quantitatively. provides balance of positive and negative stories anda variety of action and energy levels forthe main charac. In comparison, the TAT elicits predominantly negative and low-energy tories, Preliminary results with ths new procedure, known i the ‘Souther Mississippi TAT (or SM-TAT), have been encouraging. These results indicate thatthe SM-TAT preserves many ofthe advantages of the TAT while roving a more rigorous and modem methodology. Naturally, more research i needed but his attempt to modernize the TAT is jo be appladed ‘The versatility and usefulness ofthe TAT approach are illustrated not only by attempts such as those of Ritzer et al (1980) to update the test but also bythe availabilty of special forms of the TAT for children and others forthe elder, The Children's Apperception Test (CAT) was created to meet the special needs of| chaldren ages 3 trough 10 (Bellak, 1975), The CAT simul contain animal rather ‘han human figures asin the TAT. A special children’s spperception txt has been ‘developed specifically for Latino and Latina children (Malgady, Constantino, & Rosle, 1984) 3.4.1 Tell Me A Story Test ‘Thisisa multcutural thematic ppercepton ts designed to use with minority and ‘non minority chien and adolescents with se of stimulus cars ad extensive ‘omuative data for each group. The stimulus cards ae structured elicit specific ‘responses and ae in colour to facilitate vrbalization ad projection of emotional Sales. Iediffers from the TA is the following aspects: 1) Ifeuses on personality function as manifested in ntemalised interpersonal relationships rather han on ita peychie dynamics. 2) oonsists of 24 cards with chromatic pisures while the TAT ha 19 actromae pictures and one blank card 3). Tellme a story test aterpts to elicit meaningful tris indicating conflict, ‘esolation of bipolar personality functions while the TAT uses ambiguoas smal to elct meaning stories. 4) The Tell me sory stimuli represents the polaris of negative and postive ‘emoaons cognitions and interpersonal functions while the TAT is primarily Weighted to represent negative emotions, depressive mood and hostility. ‘The ThemaleApperception “Testand Cress Aopercepton est | | | | Prajetive Techniques in Psjchodiagnstic 5) The Tell Mea Story test sta cud ae culty relevant, gender sensitive and bave diminished ambiguity. ‘The Gerontological Appeseption Test uses stimuli which one or more elderly individuals are involved in a scene with a theme relevant othe concerns ofthe der, suc loneliness and family conics (Wolk & Wolk, 1971). The Senior ‘Apperception Technique isan alternative to the Gerontological Apperception ‘Test and is parallel in content (Bella, 1975; Bellak & Bella, 1973, ‘This test measures the experience es ofthe older persons. The wearing erteria as developed to refit theinerpersnal, beak ested ad intapsyechie dimensions ‘ofthe experience of late life. There ae a total of 20 items. Stories based on the pictures were written down verbatim. The stores received a score of for tolerance and I for lack oftlerance. The sample items forthe eldery inched ‘he fllowing + Toleratslonctinesseparateness ‘+ Concem for affiliation with others + Fearoflosing one's placestats inthe community + Conoemn for hetersenuaity- sexual + Concer forheterosemaliy-companioashpy sociability 342 The Childrex’s Apperception Test (The CAT) ‘The Children's Appercepton Tes, often abbreviated as CA, is an individually ‘administered projective personality test appropriate for children aged thee to 10 yeas. ‘The CAT is inended to meee the personality tits aides, nd poychodynamic processes evident in prepubertal cildre, By presenting a serie of pictures and asking a child to describe he situations and makeup stories about the people or animals in te pictures, anexaminer can eit this information about the cil ‘The CAT was orginally developed wo assess psychosexual conflicts related to cetain stages of a child's development. Examples of these conflicts include relationship issues, sblingrivalry, and aggression, Teday, the CAT is more often sed as an assessment echnique in clinical evaluation, Clinics diagnoses can be ‘sein part onthe Chile's Appercepion Test and oer projective echnigues (343 Description of CAT ‘The Chilen’s Appercepion Test was developed by Leopold Bella andl Sonya Sorel Bella. It as an offioc ofthe Thematic ApperceptionTestCTAR), which ‘was based on Henry Muray's need-based theory of personality. Beak and Bellak developed the CA because they saw a need for an spperception test specifically designed for children, The most recent revision ofthe CAT was poblished in 1996 ‘The original CAT featured en pictures of animals in such hunvan soci contexts ‘playing games or sleeping ina bed. Today, this version is known as the CAT. ‘or the CAT-A (for animal) Animals were chosen for he pictures because it was ‘eleved tht young chile late beter to animals tha humans. Each pict is presented by a test administrate in the form of a card, The test is always alministered to an individual eile should never be given ingroup form. The ‘est sno timed but normally takes 20-30 minutes shouldbe given in a quiet room in which the administrator and the child will not be disturbed by other people or activites ‘Te second version ofthe CAT the CATH includes ten pictures of human beings inthe same situations asthe animals inthe original CAT. The CAT-H was designed for the same age group as the CAT-A but appeals especially to children aged seven to 10, who may prefer pictures of humans to pictures of animals. ‘The pictures on the CAT were chosen to raw out children’s fantasies and ‘encourage storytelling. Descriptions ofthe ten pictus areas follows: baby chicks ‘stated around atble with an adult chicken appearing in the background a large ‘bear and a baby bear playing tug-of-war a lion siting on a throne being watched by amouse through a poephoe; a mother kangaroo wi joey (baby Kangaroo) imher pouch and an older joey beside her; two baby bears sleeping on a small ‘bed in font of larger bed conaining two bulges cave in which vo large beats ae ying dowa next to a baby bes; Terocions tiger leaping toward a monkey ‘sho is trying to climb a tee; wo adult monkeys sitting on 2 sofa while another ult monkey talks toa baby monkey: arabit siting on childs bed viewed through a doorway; and a puppy being spanked by an adult dog in font of & bathroom. The cards in the human version substitute urman adults and chien forthe animals but the situations ae the same. Gender identity, however, is more ambiguous in the animal picts than inthe human ones. The ambiguity of gender ‘ean allow fr children to relate to ll the cil animals in the pitores rather than jst te human beings of their own sex. ‘The pictues are meant to encourage the children to tll stories related to competion, ilness, inure, body image, family lif, and school stations. The ‘CAT test manval suggests tat the administrator should consider te following ‘variables when analysing a child's story about apatculr card: the protagonist (main character ofthe story; the primary needs ofthe protagonist; and the relaonship of the main character o hs or her personal environment. The pictures also draw outa cil’ anxieties, fears, and psychological defenses. 344 Scoring of CAT Scoring of the Children’s Apperception Testis not based on abjectve scales: it must be performed by a tained test administrator or scorer. The scoret’s ierpretation should tke into acount the folowing variables the story's primary ‘theme; the story’shero or heroine; the needs or drives ofthe hero or heroine: the ‘environment in which the story takes place; the child's perception ofthe figures inthe picture; the main confit nthe try the anxieties and defenses expressed nthe story the function of te i's superego; and the integration ofthe child's 2x0. Consider, for example the card in which a ferocious tiger leas toward a monkey ‘who is trying to climb a tre. A child may alk about his or er fears of aggression orpunishment. The monkey may be described asa hero escaping punishment from the evil tiger. This story fine may epresent the child's perceived need to ‘escape punishment from an angry parent ora bully. Conversely, child may erosive the picture in a relatively hannless way, peshape seeing the monkey’ and lige playing an innocent game, ‘The THamaticappercepton “estond Chdre's Appereepton Test 45 | | | Proective Tegner in Payehodapnastos 46 A projective tes lke the CAT allows for a wide variety of acceptable responses. ‘There is no “income” esponse to the pictures. The scorer is responsible for intespreting the childs responses in coherent way inorder to make the test ‘useful asa clinical assessment technique, Its recommended peetice forthe ‘administrator to obsain the chiles personal ae medical history before giving the CCAT, in onder to provide a context for what might otherwise appear to be sbnormal responses. Forexample, it would be nocnal under the cteumstances fora child whose pet has just died to tell stories that include themes of grief or loss eventhough most eildren would not respond tothe cards in that Wa. ‘A person scoring the CAThs considerable flexibility in interpretation. He or she can use the analysis ofa eis responses to suppor a psychological diagnos, provide a basis fora clnizal evelustion, o gan insight into the childs ternal Psychological structure. 3.4.5 Precautions psychologist o oer professional person who is administering the CAT most ‘oe trained in its usage and interpretation, and should be familiar with the psychological theories unerying the pictues. Because ofthe subjective nature of Interpreting and analysitg CAT results, caution should be used in drawing ‘conclusions from the test resus. Mos clinical peychoogists recommend using the CAT in canjuncton wit ether psychological ests designed for chleren. ‘The CAT is frequently cicize for its lack of objective scoring its reliance on ‘he scorers own scoring method and bas, nd the lack of accepted evidence for it reliability (consistency of resus) and validity (effectiveness in measuring what ‘twas designed ro measur). For example, no clear evidence exists that the test ‘measure’ needs, conflicts oF other processes related to human motivations ina valid and reliable way, ‘An Example of CAT Card, (Source: Net) Self Assessment Questions 1) Deserie the various applications ofthe TAT test. ‘Toe Thaatc Apperson ‘Ttand Chilre's ‘Appercepton Test ” Prajective Techniques fa Paphodlagnstes 3.5 LET US SUM UP ‘The TAT, enjoys wide esearch aswell s clinical use. The TAT imal consist of 30 pictures, of various seenes, and one blank card. Specific cards a sited for adults, children, men, and women. naministering the TA, the examiner ask he subject to make up a story: he or she looks for the events that led up tothe Scene, what the characte are thinking and feeling, and te outcome. Almost all, methods of TAT intepretation take into account the hero, needs, press, themes, and outcomes. Like the Rorsctach, the TAT has strong supporters but bas also ‘been attacked ona varie of scientific grounds. Though not psyehometrcaly ‘sound by traditional stanards, the TAT is in widespread use, The TAT is based ‘on Murray's (1938) thecry of needs. ‘Many variants ofthe TAF approaches have been developed, including set of ‘ands that depict animal characters for use with children eg, the Children’s Apperception Test, sets fr use wit the elderly the Gerontological Apperception ‘Test, with files and with specific ethnic or cultural groups. 3.6_ UNIT END QUESTIONS 1) The TAT consists of 8) Wo sets of 45 inks 1b) series of stories chosen for their emotional impact ©) series of pictues depicting the adventures of Blacky 4, aset of 31 picts, most of which are ambiguous 2). Inadminsering the TAT most cnicians 8) ave a favorite sbset of cards that they administer to every client 1) minister the exie sto pictures ©) select subset of 6 to 10 cards relate to the specific client 4) ask te cient which pictures are best and last liked 3) The “pull” of the cant refers to: 8) common themeselicite by a particular card 1b) whether a subject touches «card and thus shows compliance ©) the influence of picture on subsequent stores 4) ow often that adi selected for administration 4) The theory behind the TAT focuses on: . 2) achievement and lure 1) castration anxiety 1) eds and presses 4) sefesteem and competence 5) In regards othe hero of TAT stories, it is assumed that, TeeThenatiprcin 8) the hero represents what Freud eae the Id “Appereeton Tt ) the client entities psychologically wit the hero ©) the bro is always a masculine figure 1 in each story there are several herces ©) Inacliical setting, he analysis ofthe TAT 4) follows a stict scoring procedure based on 36 needs ‘by assesses such aspects as determinants and frm quality ©) requites & content analysis ofboth needs and presses usualy reflects an impressionist, boise approach ‘7D, reguds tothe reliability ofthe TAT we can conclude tht: 4) standard methods of determining reliability are not fll applicable b) testretesis unusually high fora projective technique ©) both splivalf and paral! form relsbiltes ar adequate the TAT isa research tol not a psychological test 8) The CAT stimuli contain figures ®) Honan ) Cartoon ©) Ania Toys 9) The Children’s Apperception Testis administered for children aged 8) 3:10 years by SA years ©) 5:20 years 1) 3:15 years 10) The Gerontological Apperception Test has themes relevant to the concems ofthe eldery, such as 8) latonships 1) nein and family conits ©) cxeer education 1). Wite aout be main differences between the Rorsshch and TAT? ry Prajective Techniques Pyychodiagnsties 12) Waite about TAT and also disuse is prychometio properties? 13) What are the different variations of TAT? Briefly discuss CAT? 3.7_ SUGGESTED READINGS Kaplan, R. M,, & Saosuzz0, D. (2001). Payehological Testing: Principles, “Applications, and Issues (Sth Ed). Pacific Grove, CA: Wadsworth, ‘Trl, TJ. 2005), Ctinicat Psychology (7). USA: Thomson Learning, Ine UNIT 4 PERSONALITY INVENTORIES Structure 40° Invoducion 41 Objectives 42. Personality Testing 421. Pesomlty ad Prycbologel Fanconng 422 Is Pesonalty Realy Ending 43 Measurement of Personality and Pychological Fictoning 431 Objective Tsing 432 The Mianesoe Magni Pesos Inventory (MET, MMPE2, MMPIA) 435 The Mlanesot Mugs Peooaliy Laventor-Adoleicens 434 The Millon Clas! Matai nents 435 The Siten Pesonlty Factor (16°F) 436 The NEO-Peronalty Invenio Revised 44 Other Objective Tests 4441 The Bards Peon! Preference Sebi (EPPS) 42 The Calton Payctolgil Inventory (CPD) 45° Let Us Sum Up 466 UnicEnd Questions 417 Suggested Readings 4.0 INTRODUCTION Analtemative way to collec information abou individuals is oak them to asess ‘themselves. The personality inventory asks respondents «wide range of questions about their behaviour, bei, and feelings. Ta the typical personality inventory, individuals indicate whether each of a long list of statements applies to them Gincins then use the responses o caw conclusions about the person's personality and psychological functioning In his unit we will consider some of the most ‘widely used objective measures of personality such as MMPI, MCMI, 16 PF, EPPS, CPT and NEO-PLR, 4.1 OBJECTIVES ‘Alter readng this uni, you willbe abe to Define personality, ‘+ Deserbe personality testing; ‘+ Explain the relationship between personality and psychological functioning; ‘+ Explain what personality testing is ‘+ Blucidate the conceps of measurement of personality and psychological facing: 31 | Project Techies in Payhlagnests 2 Describe the most widely used objective tests of personality such asthe ‘MMPI; and, Analyse the other osjctve test. 42 PERSONALITY TESTING Before taking up persomiity testing, let us se what is personality Personality ‘concerns the most important, most noticeable parts ofan individual's psychological life Personality concerns wither a person is happy or sad, energetic or apathetic, smart or dul. Over the years, many diferent definitions have been proposed for petronaliy. Most ofthe definitions refer toa mental sysiem — a collection of ‘ychological parts including motives, emotions, and thoughts. The definitions ‘vary abit as to what thove pats might be, but they come down othe idea that personality involves 2 patem or global operation of meatal systems. Here are ‘some defnions: “Personality isthe entre mental organisation of a human being at any stage of his ‘development. Itembracesevery phase of human character: intellect, empeament, ‘kil, morality, and every atime that has been built up in the course of one's if” (Warren & Carmichael, 1930, p. 333) “Personality isthe essence ofa human being.” (Hall & Lindzey, 1987, p. 9)" An individu’ patter ofprychologcal processes ising from modves,fecings, ‘hough and ther majorareas of psychological function. Personality is expressed through its influences ox the body, in conscious mental life, and through the individuals socal behaves.” (Mayer, 2005) Personality testing in sense scceses the heat and soul of an ndvidl’payche Personality testing strives to observe and describes the structure aed content of personaly, which can bedefined a the characteristic ways in which an indivi thinks, fels, and behaves. Personality testing is particularly useful in elrfying

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