##Queen Letter Formal English

Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa
1
Collected and Shared by Tran Manh Trung – Foreign Language
Department
Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa Province
************************
THE BEST GUIDES

TO IELTS WRITING
Thanh Hoa City 12/2012
Page 2
2
FORMAL AND INFORMAL WORD

LIST
(Collected and selected by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University)
Rules for formal writing are quite strict, though often unstated. Formal
writing is used in academic and
scientific settings whenever you want to convey your ideas to a wide
audience, with many possible backgrounds
and assumptions. Unlike casual conversation or emails to friends, formal
writing needs to be clear,
unambiguous, literal, and well structured.
Table 01:
Ord
INFORMAL/EVERYDAY
FORMAL/ACADEMIC
VIETNAMESE MEANING
01
a lot of/ loads of/ plenty of
a great deal of /numerous/ several
02
a bit
Somewhat (before adj. or adv.)/ slightly
03
to get together
to collaborate with sbd on smth
04
to start/to begin
to initiate/to commence smth/v-ing
05
big
large (number/percentage), considerable
lớn, to lớn
06
thing
device/object
vật dụng/vật thể
07
stuff
material
chất liệu, vật liệu
08
to find out
to ascertain/discover
tìm ra, tìm thấy
09
to do again
to repeat
lặp lại
Page 3
3
10
to do well
to succeed
thành công
11
to set up
to establish
thiết lập
12
to cut down on
to reduce
giảm bớt
13
to go up
to increase
tăng lên
14
to come up with
to create
tạo ra
15
to look into
to investigate
điều tra
16
to go up and down
to fluctuate
dao động
17
to bring up a question
to raise a question
đưa ra vấn đề
18
to get rid of
to eliminate
loại bỏ
19
to turn down smth
to refuse
từ chối
20
to turn out smth
to produce
làm ra, tạo ra
21
to take smth back
to retract (a statement)
rút lại
22
to put off smth
to postpone smth
hoãn lại
23
to put up with
to tolerate
chịu đựng
24
to put away smth
to save
tiết kiệm, để dành
25
to put down to smth
to attribute to
quy cho, gán cho
26
to come about
to occur
xảy ra
27
to give up
to relinquish
từ bỏ
28
to go back/give back
return to swh/ smth
trở lại/ trả lại
29
to give off smth
to produce (heat)
sản sinh, tạo ra
30
to give away
to betray
tiết lộ, phản bội
31
to carry out smth
to conduct
tiến hành
32
to seem
to appear
hình như, dường như
33
to climb
to ascend
đi lên, tăng lên (số lượng)
34
to help
to assist/ aid
giúp đỡ
35
to stop
to cease
dừng lại
36
to use
to consume
dùng, tiêu dùng
37
to shorten
to decrease/ to abbreviate
giảm bớt/ rút ngắn
37
to show
to demonstrate
chỉ ra, chứng minh
38
to go
to depart
đi, khởi hành
Page 4
4
39
to want
to desire
mong muốn
40
to end
to finish/ to terminate
kết thúc
41
to tell
to inform
thông tin, cho biết
42
to keep
preserve/ retain
giữ gìn/ giữ
43
to say no
to reject
từ chối
44
to free
to release/ to liberate
trả tự do, phóng thích
45
to mend/ to fix
to repair
sửa chữa
46
to need
to require
cần
47
to live
to reside
ở tại, trú tại
48
in the end
finally/ultimately
cuối cùng
49
at once
immediately
ngay lập tức
50
at the same time
simultaneously/ concurrently
đồng thời, cùng lúc
51
at first
initially
đầu tiên
52
on and off
intermittently
gián đoạn, lúc có lúc không
53
mainly
principally/primarily
chủ yếu
54
next
subsequently
tiếp theo
55
again and again
repeatedly
lặp đi lặp lại
56
so
therefore/ consequently
vì thế, vì vậy
57
understanding
comprehension
sự hiểu
58
lack
deficiency
sự thiếu hụt
59
chance
opportunity
cơ hội, dịp
60
sweat
perspiration
mồ hôi
61
house
residence
nơi cư trú (count)
62
sight
vision
khả năng nhìn, thị giác
63
friendly
amiable
thân mật
64
whole
complete
toàn bộ
65
lively
energetically/animated
đầy sinh lực/ sống động
67
lucky
fortunate
may mắn
Page 5
5
68
childish
immature/ infantile
như trẻ con (tính cách)
69
wrong
incorrect/questionable
sai/ có vấn đề
70
worse
inferior to
thấp kém hơn
71
cheap
inexpensive
rẻ
72
dim
indistinct
không rõ ràng, mờ
73
mad
insane
điên
74
to lay back
to relax
thư giãn
75
in charge of
responsible for
chịu trách nhiệm
76
enough
sufficient
đầy đủ
77
better
superior to
tốt hơn, giỏi hơn
78
clear
transparent
rõ ràng
79
empty
vacant
trống không
80
to ask for
to require/ to request
đòi hỏi, yêu cầu
81
hot (topic)
controversial
đang gây tranh cãi
82
more and more
Increasingly/ unceasingly/non-stop
tăng lên không ngừng
83
to get
to obtain/ to receive
đạt được, lấy , mua
84
bad
disappointing
tồi tệ, đáng thất vọng
85
to get worse
to deteriorate
trở nên xấu đi
86
horrible
unacceptable
không thể chấp nhận, kinh khủng
87
to come in
to enter
đi vào
88
to talk about
to discuss
thảo luận
89
to go down
to descend
đi xuống, giảm xuống
90
to come up with
to suggest
gợi ý, đưa ra
91
to look at
to examine
xem xét
92
to pin down
to determine
quyết tâm , dứt khoát
93
to experience the influence of
to be influenced
chịu ảnh hưởng
94
Let’s consider …
It is important to consider …
hãy cân nhắc, xem xét
95
I love/like/prefer
Personally, I favour …
Tôi thích, tôi ủng hộ
96
On top of that
Another point is …
một điểm khác nữa là
Page 6
6
97
Government must make laws
There is a need for laws
cần có luật về …
98
In a nutshell
To state it briefly/ In brief
tóm lại
99
Every coin has two sides
There are advantages and disadvantages to
mọi vấn đề đều có ưu điểm và nhược điểm
100
by chance
Incidentally
nhân tiện
101
to try
to attempt/ to endeavor
cố gắng
102
to swap
to exchange
trao đổi
103
as far as x goes
in respect of / with respect to
đối với, về phần
104
to skip
omit/not attend smth
bỏ qua, không tham dự
105
by accident
accidentally
ngẫu nhiên, tình cờ
106
kids
infants/offsprings
trẻ em
107
O.K
acceptable/ satisfactory
được, chấp nhận được
108
to make up for
to compensate for
đền bù, bù lại
109
to catch on smth
to understand
nắm bắt, hiểu
110
to go down with a disease
to contract a disease
mắc bệnh
111
to go up
to increase
tăng lên
112
to get in touch with
to contact
liên hệ. liên lạc
113
to let somebody know
to inform
cho biết
114
to call off
to cancel
huỷ bỏ, bãi bỏ
115
to sort out
to resolve
giải quyết, đi đến quyết định
116
to deal with
to handle/ to address
giải quyết, xử lý
117
small
minimal/limited/ modest
nhỏ, bé
118
to think of
to conceive of/imagine
nghĩ về, suy tính
119
about
an estimated, approximately, roughly
khoảng chừng
120
to do (research)
to carry out, perform, undertake
tiến hành (nghiên cứu), đảm nhiệm
121
hard
difficult, problematic,challenging
khó khăn
122
to keep up
to maintain
duy trì
123
a lot
a substantial amount, a considerable sum
nhiều
124
stand for
denote, represent
chỉ, thay cho
126
next
adjacent
kề cận
Page 7
7
127
prove
confirm
khẳng định
128
rich
affluent, wealthy, prosperous
giàu có
129
the same as
equivalent to
giống nhau, tương đương
130
drink
beverage (count)
đồ uống
131
man
male
đàn ông
132
old people
senior citizens, retirees
người cao tuổi
133
crooks
offenders, lawbreakers
tội phạm
134
great, awesome
preferable, desirable
tuyệt vời, đáng ao ước
135
sick of, fed up with
dissatisfied with
không hài lòng
136
feature
characteristic
đặc điểm
137
before
Prior to
trước
138
to think (that)
to assume (that)
cho rằng
139
Because
Owing to or due to the fact that/As a result of
vì
140
Nobody can say
It is impossible to predict …
Không có thể dự đoán trước
141
I think that
It seems that/ It could be argued that
nNười ta nói rằng
142
About
Regarding/ Concerning
Về, về phần
143
And
as well as
còn, cũng như
144
but
while/whereas
nưng, khi mà
145
to write a cheque
to issue a checque
viết tờ ngân phiếu
146
carefull/cautious
prudent (imprudent)/prudential
cẩn thận, thận trọng
147
to check
to verify
kiểm tra
148
to agree with
to be bound by
đồng ý với
149
to go over
exeed
vượt quá, quá mức
150
to hand / to give
to submit
trình lên, nộp
152
In accordance with
Pursuant to
Phù hợp với
153
to involve
to entail
kéo theo, kèm theo
154
lost
inadvertently mislaid
vô tình thất lạc
155
to make sure
to ensure
để đảm bảo rằng
156
to order
to authorise
uỷ quyền
Page 8
8
157
to pay
to settle
trả tiền, thanh toán
158
to supply
to furnish
cung cấp
159
to take away
to withdraw
lấy ra, rút (tiền) ra
160
when we get …
On receipt of …
Khi nhận được …
161
Whenever we like / want
Without prior notice …
Không báo trước …
162
One after the other
At regular intervals
Đều đặn
163 There are no big differences between
No significant differences emerges between
Không có sự khác biệt đáng kể nào
164
This shows that
This demonstrates that
Điều này chỉ ra rằng
165
to put smth into action
To be implemented/ carried out
Được tiến hành, được đưa vào hoạt động
166
etc./ and so forth./ and so on.
among other examples
và v.v
167
i.e
namely, / that is,
tức là, chẳng hạn
168
e.g
For example,
ví dụ
169
vs.
versus/as apposed of
chống lại, ngược với
170
nice/ cute
attractive
hấp dẫn, lôi cuốn
171
smart
intelligent
thông minh
172
come
arrive
đến
173
lifestyle
way of life / manner of life
lối sống
174
19th century
The nineteenth century
Không viết tắt
175
workmate
colleague
đồng nghiệp
176
tired
exhausted
mệt mỏi
177
drunk
intoxicated
bị say rượu
178
sad
dejected
buồn, chán nản
179
who
whom ( đại từ tân ngữ, sau giới từ)
ai
180
to get your money back
refund your payment
lấy lại tiền
181
to pay your bills
to settle your account
trả tiền hoá đơn mua hàng, thanh toán
182
really
extremely
cực kỳ, vô cùng
183
to go up to
to reach
lên tới (con số), đạt tới
184
to work
to function
hoạt động
185
breathing
respiration
sự hô hấp
Page 9
9
186
meat-eater
carnivore
động vật ăn thịt
187
chance
opportunity
cơ hội
188
wrong
erroneous
sai sót
189
died out
extinct
tuyệt chủng
190
relevant
pertinent
thích đáng, đúng chỗ
191
relatives
kindred
họ hàng thân tộc
192
copy
imitate
bắt chước
193
break
fracture
đập vỡ
194
mix
blend
pha trộn
195
preference
predilection
sự thiên vị
196
to come across
to find
tìm thấy
197
to do away with
to abolish
bãi bỏ
198
to build up
to accumulate
tích luỹ
199
to finish off
to conclude
kết luận
200
to back up
to support/to advocate
ủng hộ
201
to put forward
propose
đề xuất, đề nghị
202
to put across
to express
biểu lộ, bày tỏ
203
to obey a law
to comply with a law
tuân thủ pháp luật
204
poor country
developing country
nước nghèo
205
That’s why/ why
For this reason, … / … the reason for …
Ví lý do này
206
new
novel
mới
207
dependence
surbodination
sự phụ thuộc
208
quarrel
debate/dispute
Cãi nhau
209
In the same way
Similarly,
Tương tự như vậy
210
to look for
to seek
Tìm kiếm
211
way
manner/solution
giải pháp
212
money
currency
tiền tệ
213
to imagine
to conceive / conceivably
tưởng tượng
214
place
location
nơi, vị trí
Page 10
10
215
viewpoint
stance
lập trường, quan điểm
216
fast/quickly
rapidly/ as a matter of urgency
nhanh
217
how much
to what extent (not applicable to price or amount)
tới mức độ nào
218
when (conj)
At the time of …
Khi mà
219
In/For many years
During a considearble period of years
Trong nhiều năm
220
to make smth better /to get better
to improve/to upgrade
cải thiện, làm cho tốt hơn
221
To put on weight
to gain weight
Tăng cân
223
verb + not + any + noun
verb + no + noun
… không (cái gì)
224
verb + not + many/much + noun
verb + few/little + noun
… không (cái gì)
225
to give
to provide
đưa cho, cung cấp
226
as you can be seen
as can be seen
như ta có thể thấy
227
wood
timber
gỗ
228
to describe
to depict
mô tả
229
to learn by heart
to memorise
ghi nhớ
230
to go on
to continue
tiếp tục
231
may be
possibly, perhaps
có lẽ
232
somehow
in a certain way
bằng cách nào đó
233
job
occupation
nghề nghiệp
234
to take on
employ
thuê
235
to give
donate, contribute
cho, tặng
236
dad
father
bố
237
plane
aeroplane
máy bay
238
(not) smoke.
to refrain from smoking
không hút thuốc
239
to follow these guidelines.
to adhere to these guidelines.
theo sự chỉ dẫn
240
gran/granny/nana
grandmother
bà
241
every year/ each year
annually
hằng năm
242
glasses
spectacles
kính đeo mắt
243
shop
retail outlet
cửa hiệu
244
fridge
refrigerator
tủ lạnh
Page 11
11
245
TV/ telly
television
tivi
246
boss
employer
ông chủ
247
change
transform
chuyển đổi
248
phone you back
return your call
gọi điện lại
249
bin man
refuse collector
người thu rác
250
and so on. / and so forth / etc.
among other examples. / or avoid using them
v.v.
Academic Language
The term academic language commonly refers to the language that is used in
formal situations such as
classrooms, college or universities. Moreover, it is the language of textbooks
and exams. Academic language is the
language used by teachers and students in order to acquire new knowledge
and skills. It differs in structure and
vocabulary from language used in daily social interactions. This means that
academic language includes
specialized vocabulary, as well as conventional text structures such as the use
of nominal groups, i.e., groups of
words that provide more information about particular concepts. For example,
the language of linguistics includes
words like morphology, language acquisition, or language learning.
Features of Academic Language
The uses of specific linguistic features depend on the discipline for which an
assignment is written. For
example, an essay in history may contain a number of past tense verbs than a
paper that discusses the dialects
spoken by a particular speech community in which the present tense verbs are
used. The three features of academic
languag are lexical, grammatical, and discourse”.
Page 12
12
IELTS Writing Task 2: Useful Language
Memorising set phrases for use in the IELTS test is a highly effective way of
achieving a higher score. Try
learning the following signposting language which will make you sound more
confident and sophisticated when
writing an opinion or argument essay in Task 2.
Introducing the topic

Some people argue that…

Have you ever considered… ?

The question raises the issue of…
Stating an opinion (thesis statement)

I believe that…

It is my belief that…

This essay will argue that…
Indicating the scope of the essay

In this essay, I will state…

This essay will examine…

… will be covered in this essay.
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13
Giving reasons

One reason for this is that…

This can be explained by…

This can be attributed to the fact that…
Giving further reasons

Not only that, but…

A further reason is…

It should also be stated that…
Citing general opinions

It has been claimed that…

It is widely believed that…

There is a widespread belief that…
Refuting opinions

I would dispute this, however.

However, this is not necessarily the case.

There are some faults with this reasoning, however.
Hedging strategies

It could be argued that…

One explanation might be that…
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14

This suggests that…
Strengthening an argument

There can be no doubt that…

Therefore, we can say beyond any doubt that…

These are just some of the reasons why…
Concluding and summarising

To sum up, … / In summary, … / In short, …

Overall, … / On the whole, …

To return to my original idea,…
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15
IELTS Writing Task 1: Useful Language
1. THE LANGUAGE OF APPROXIMATION
In report writing it is good style to use approximation. Approximation means
describing numbers or
statistics by using a fraction that is similar to the exact number. There are a
number of reasons for doing this.
Firstly, it is easier for people to understand and remember. Secondly, the
numbers or statistics may be more
detailed than necessary.
Table 02:
Ord numbers/statistics
similar fractions
Ord numbers/statistics
similar fractions
1
65 %
about two-thirds of
13
1,043
over a thousand
2
28 %
just over a quarter of
14
115
over a hundred
3
21 %
about a fifth of
15
9
fewer than ten
4
49 %
just under a half of
16
2
a small number
5
74 %
almost three – quarters of 17
4
a few
6
33.333 %
a third of
18
6/7
several
7
92 %
most of
19
749,982
about three-quarters of a million
8
98,5 %
almost all
20
1,256,890,534
over 1.2 billion
9
19.98 %
about a fifth of
21
101,997
about 100,000
10
26 %
just over a quarter of
22
248.112
a quarter of a million
11
48.873 %
almost a half of
23
1,695,193
about 1.7 million
12
74.25 %
nearly three - quarters
24
97
just under a hundred
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16
2. THE WORDS AND PHRASES TO DESCRIBE TRENDS:
Table 03:
Nouns
a rise
an increase
a surge
a growth
a peak
a fluctuation
a variation
a period of stability
a plateau
a fall
a decrease
a decline
a dip
Verbs
to rise
to increase
to surge
to grow
to peak
to skyrocket
to fluctuate
to vary
to fall
to decrease
to decline
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17
to dip
to dive
to plunge
Phrases
to show an upward trend
to show a downward trend
to hit the highest point
to hit the lowest point
to reach a peak
to show some fluctuation
to fluctuate wildly
to remain stable
to remain static
to remain unchanged
to stay constant
to reach a plateau
to level off
to flatten out
the highest
the lowest
the second highest
the third highest
compared to
compared with
relative to
Adverbs
sharply
suddenly
rapidly
abruptly
dramatically
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18
significantly
steadily
considerably
markedly
slightly
gently
gradually
wildly
Adjectives
sharp
sudden
rapid
abrupt
dramatic
steep
significant
steady
considerable
marked
slight
gentle
gradual
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MORE WORDS AND PHRASES TO DESCRIBE TRENDS:
A. Introduction
1. The graph (biểu đồ)/table (bảng)/ shows (cho thấy)/indicates (chỉ)/
illustrates (minh hoạ)/ reveals (tiết lộ)/
represents (trình bày) …
2. It is clear from the graph/table …
3. It can be seen from the graph/table …
4. As the graph/table shows …
5. As can be seen from the graph/table …
6. As is shown by the graph/table …
7. As is illustrated by the graph/table …
8. From the graph / table it is clear …
B. Verbs
1. to constitute/ make up: tạo thành
2. to comprise: bao gồm
3. to account for: chiếm đến
4. to amount to : lên đến (số)
5. to stand at: giữ ở (số)
6. to treble: gấp ba lần
7. to double: gấp đôi
8. to increase three fold: tăng gấp ba lần
9. to halve: chia đôi, giảm đi một nửa
10. to diminish: sụt giảm, làm sụt giảm
11. to slow down: chậm lại
12. to remain the same/ unchanged: không thay đổi, giữ nguyên
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13. to deplete: làm giảm
14. to lessen: giảm bớt, làm giảm bớt
15. to escalate: leo thang, tăng nhan
16. to stand at the same level: giữ nguyên
17. to fall to … %: giảm tới … %
18. to fall from … %: giảm xuống dưới … %
19. to fall by …%: giảm khoảng … %
20. to drop to … : giảm tới … %
21. to rise to … %: tăng tới … %
22. to rise by … %: tăng khoảng
23. to rise from … %: tăng từ … %
24. to increase at …% /reduce at … %: tăng/giảm … %
25. to increase to … /reduce to … : tăng/giảm tới … (số)
26. to remain relatively steady: vẫn duy trì tương đối ổn định
C. Adverbs
1. exceptionally: cá biệt, khác thường
2. remarkably: đáng chú ý
3. moderately: vừa phải
4. extremely/enormously: cực kỳ, rất
5. substantially: to lớn, đáng kể
6. marginally: hơi, đôi chút
7. hardly/ scarcely: hầu như không
8. slowly: chậm
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D. Prepositions and prepositional phrases
1. In/within the range of … and … :Trong phạm vi
2. For/During the first six months, …: Trong sáu tháng đầu
3. During the remainder of the year, …: Trong thời gian còn lại của năm …
4. During the first half of this century, …: Trong nửa đầu thế kỷ này …
5. Between 1950 and 1960, …: Giữa năm 1950 và 1960 …
6. In the period from 1960 to 1990, … :Trong giai đoạn từ 1960 to 1990 …
7. In the period between 1950 and 1960, … : Trong giai đoạn giữa năm 1950
và 1990 …
8. From that time on: Từ thời gian đó trở đi
9. Over a ten-year period, … : Trong giai đoạn 10 năm
10. Throughout the nineteenth century: Trong suốt thế kỷ 19
11. Unlike …: Không giống với …
12. In contrast to …: so với … /tương phản với …
13. In comparison with … : so sánh với …
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E. Nouns and noun phrases
1. overview: cái nhìn khái quát, cái nhìn tổng quan
2. a large number /percentage of … : một số lớn /một tỷ lệ phần trăm lớn của
…
3. the whole/total amount/quantity of … : tổng lượng của …
4. the total number of … : tổng số của … 5. An increase of … %: sự tăng lên
…%
6. trend: khuynh hướng
7. correlation: mối liên hệ
8. a drop of … %: sự giảm … %
9. an increase in … : sự tăng về …
10. a slight increase: sự tăng nhẹ
11. a drop in …: giảm về ….
F. Comparison
1. Comparing the figures for 1990 and 2000 …: So sánh các con số của năm
1990 và năm 2000 …
2. Compared to/with x, y is …: So với x, y thì …
3. Comparing with x, y is more …: so với x , y thì hơn…
4. Comparing X with Y we find that … : So sánh X với Y chúng ta nhận thấy
…
5. Comparing x with y, it can be seen by us that …: So sánh x với y chúng ta
có thể thấy rằng …
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Types of Trend
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THE RULES SHOULD BE

MEMORISED
PRIOR TO WRITING ACADEMIC ESSAYS
Rule 01: Avoid using contractions or abbreviations. (Ex. Use can
not instead of can’t)
Avoid contracted auxiliary verbs and negatives. These are very common in
informal speech and writing, but
are considered inappropriate in academic writing.
Non-academic: I don’t think that I’m working hard.
Academic: I do not think that I am working hard.
For example: can’t, couldn’t, wouldn’t, didn’t, I’ll, I’ve, I’d, won’t, etc…
Note that “cannot” is one word.
Do not use abbreviations or symbols.
Spell the words out. Ex: & = and; dept. = department
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Rule 02: Use third person voice or impersonal language.
(Ex. One can interpret...instead of You can interpret...)
In other words, the impersonal language should be used. Most formal
writing aims to establish an air of
objectivity and impartiality, an air with which the personal pronouns I,
me, and my seem inconsistent. In truth,
objectivity results from proper use of evidence and logic rather than pronoun
choices, but there is something to be
said for seeming as well as being objective. Moreover, some professors
prohibit their students from using first-
person pronouns as a kind of discipline: many students do inject personal
opinions and unexamined assumptions
where persuasiveness demands objective evidence, and prohibiting personal
pronouns seems to help curb this
tendency.
The convention in much academic writing is to write with minimal reference
to yourself as an author. The
reason for this lies in a tradition of needing to present your work
"objectively", as the work of a dispassionate and
disinterested (that is, unbiased) researcher. So, one of the features of
academic writing is a general absence of the
first person pronoun "I". This can be difficult, as lecturers often say, "tell me
what you think". Well, they do want
to know what you think, but presented as a rational, objective argument. For
this reason we also avoid using
emotive language; instead we let the "facts" - or our reasoned argument -
make the point for us.
It is important to note that while the avoidance of "I" has long been part of the
academic tradition, these days
some academics consider its use to be acceptable. So, you may encounter
different views about the use of "I" over
the course of your degree. In any case, you will need to develop the flexibility
in your writing to play down the
"personal element". Your lecturer, Cathi Lewis, for example, has stated that
she prefers undergraduates to avoid the
use of "I" in Introduction to Sociology (See the Lecturer's Advice section of
this tutorial). Regardless of your
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particular lecturer's views, you will need to learn how to use "I" sparingly. So
let's look at how we can write
passages without reference to the first person pronoun.
Avoid personal "I", "you", and "we", except for the thesis statement. So,
instead of: "As I mentioned
above...", write" "As was mentioned above..." except for the thesis statement.
So, instead of: "As I mentioned
above...", write" "As was mentioned above..."
There are several ways to avoid using the first person pronoun "I":
One way is to let the assignment "speak for itself": for example,
"I show..." becomes "The report shows..."
"I interpret the results as..." becomes "The results indicate..."
Another way to avoid the first person is to use the passive voice construction:
Instead of
write
"We administered the questionnaire..."
(active voice)
"The questionnaire was administered..."
(passive voice)
"I surveyed the literature"
(active voice)
"The literature was surveyed"
(passive voice)
"I took a sample..."
"A sample was taken"
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(active voice)
(passive voice)
NOTE: for further help with using the passive voice, go to the passives
tutorial in the Grammar section of this
Website.
- The second-person singular pronoun - you - raises a similar issue when used
to refer to a hypothetical rather than
a real individual. Consider the following sentence:
You eat peas with a fork, not with a knife.
- This you is not a definite person who chooses to eat peas with one utensil
rather than another. The meaning of the
sentence is actually something like, "Peas should be eaten with a fork, not
with a knife." This you is a fictional
character who in sentences of this kind also frequently goes by the
name one, and who is standing in for a whole
class of persons.
- The fictional you is a welcome character in speech and informal writing but
is perhaps best left out of formal
writing. Since your reader, too, is you, the hypothetical or indefinite you may
seem to cross a little too far into the
reader's space for the maintenance of an impersonal air.
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Rule 03: Be sure to use transitions between points, within a
paragraph.
Use appropriate linking words/phrases to show the links between paragraph,
as well as to link sentences
within paragraphs. Do not use simple linking words (e.g. and, but, so) except
for variety.
Conjunctions: avoid weak conjunctions such as "but." This is a VERY weak
word with which to begin a
sentence. Look in the thesaurus for others, such as "however," "moreover,"
"nevertheless," "nonetheless,"
"regardless," etc. Although it is grammatically correct to begin sentences with
"And", “Or”, and "Because," you
should be careful and avoid doing this because many students do not do so
correctly.
- Coordinating Conjunctions (and, but, or, yet, so):
Put a comma before these conjunctions. (Don't use them at the beginning of a
sentence in more formal writing.)
example: The movie has already started, but my friend has not arrived yet.
- Correlative Conjunctions (These have two parts: either . . . or):
* Put a comma before the second part if it connects 2 clauses (complete
sentences).
example: Eric is not only an outstanding teacher, but he is also a gourmet
cook.
* You don't need a comma if it only connects words or phrases.
example: Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but also a gourmet cook.
- Transitional Words and Phrases:
* Put a comma after these if they are at the beginning of a sentence.
example: I like to travel. Specifically, I enjoy places with old cathedrals.
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* Use a semicolon to connect the two sentences.
example: I like to travel; specifically, I enjoy places with old cathedrals.
* Use a comma before and after the transitional word/phrase in the middle of
a clause.
example: I like to travel, and, specifically, I enjoy places with old cathedrals.
Some Common English Transition Words and Phrases
Adding Information
and
not only . . . but also
also
moreover (more formal)
furthermore (more formal)
in addition (more formal)
Examples
We have seen the movie twice, and now we want to see it again.
Not only did my brother break his leg, but he also bruised his rib.
My friend speaks Korean and English. She also speaks Chinese.
Cheating is dishonest. Moreover, it hinders students from learning.
Students should be on time. Furthermore, they must be prepared.
You must complete this essay by 5 p.m. In addition, you must do the exercises on page 47.
Giving Examples
for example
for instance
specifically
in particular
The first (second, another, etc.)
example/reason is . . .
Examples
I have been to many countries. For example, I have been to Russia, Canada, Mexico, and
Spain.
He often eats strange foods. For instance, he once ate cow brains.
I like to travel. Specifically, I enjoy places with old cathedrals.
I love fruit. In particular, I like bananas, pineapple, and berries.
My friend hates skiing for several reasons. The first reason is that she dislikes being cold.
Another reason is that she often falls.
Showing a Contrast
but
however
Examples
Bill earned an A on his essay, but Susan got a B.
We wanted to leave at 8:00. However, Mike arrived too late.
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on the other hand
otherwise
instead
in contrast (more formal)
She hates housecleaning. On the other hand, she doesn't mind cooking.
Students should attend class. Otherwise, they may lose their status.
I am not going out tonight. Instead, I will stay home and watch a video.
Women usually enjoy shopping. In contrast, men often dislike it.
Showing a Concession
yet
nevertheless (more formal)
even so
however
although
even though
despite the fact that . . .
despite
Examples
He knows that he should do his homework, yet he never does it.
I need to wear reading glasses. Nevertheless, I hate how I look in them.
I know you don't like to study. Even so, you must pass your exam.
There are many benefits to exercising. However, you must take some precautions to avoid
injury.
Even though the book is difficult to read, it is very interesting.
Although the book is difficult to read, it is very interesting.
Despite the fact that Kate is good at tennis, she lost the match.
Despite Kate's skill at tennis, she lost the match.
Showing a Similarity
likewise (more formal)
similarly (more formal)
in the same way
Examples
Math was hard for me in high school. Likewise, it is hard in college.
Houseplants require much care and attention. Similarly, outdoor plants must be cared for
properly.
Rock climbing takes much practice and skill. In the same way, learning to write well
requires a great deal of practice.
Showing a Result
so
as a result
therefore
thus (more formal)
as a consequence
consequently (more formal)
Examples
Janet passed her exam, so she is very happy.
Tim was late. As a result, we could not go to the concert.
James is not feeling well. Therefore, he will not be here today.
The committee voted against the proposal. Thus, we must consider another idea.
I forgot that the cake was in the oven. As a consequence, it burned.
Tina lost her keys. Consequently, she could not drive home.
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Establishing Time Relation or
Sequence
first
second
finally
in conclusion
in summary
meanwhile
Examples
First, I think that she is studying hard.
Second, I believe that she is a bright student.
Finally, I know that she has great potential.
In conclusion, I feel that she deserves to win the scholarship.
In summary, we should offer her some financial help.
Jeff was working hard to clean the house. Meanwhile, his brother was watching television.
Showing a Condition
or
whether . . . or
if . . . (then)
Examples
I must study hard, or I will fail my exam.
Whether you are coming or not, I am still going to Amy's party.
If you want to get good grades, then you must do your homework.
Explaining or Emphasizing
in fact
actually
in other words
namely (more formal)
Examples
The bookstore sells cards. In fact, they have the best cards around.
James is actually the first person I have known who has been to Africa.
He was late to class again. In other words, he didn't wake up on time.
The plan needed only two things to succeed—namely, time and money.
Giving an Alternative
or
either . . . or
neither . . . nor (more formal)
Examples
We can go to the beach, or we can go to the mountains.
You can either ride the bus or walk to my apartment.
I like neither that person nor his brother.
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Rule 04: Use present tense
In writing about literature the present tense must be used.
Ex: The three bears see Goldilocks and they run away.
NOT: The three bears saw Goldilocks and ran away.
□ DO: When Andy tries to speak to the drunk man in the alley, he feels pain
in his stomach.
□ DON’T: When Andy had tried to speak to the drunk man, he felt pain in his
stomach.
In English, the present simple tense is used to describe habitual actions and
events, and those that are usually
true. It is said that the present simple is used to say that something happens all
the time or repeatedly, or that
something is true in general. As shown in the following examples:
- I takemy breakfast every morning at 7 o’clock.
- Nurseslookafter patients in hospitals.
Moreover,it is used to express facts. For example, the planets go round the
sun. In the present simple, the
verb does not take an ending with the following pronouns: I, you, they, and
we. However, in the third person
singular (he, she, and it), the verb ends with “s” or “es”, as in the following
examples:
- I usually goaway at weekends.
- Sarah catchesthe early train.
More precisely, in academic writing, the use of the present simple is often
conventionalized and
predominantly used. For example, in linguisticsessays, it is used to explain
aspecific linguistic phenomenon which
is always true.
- A child acquires language during the critical period.
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- Language is a set of signals by which we communicate.
- Code switching occurs in bilingual societies.
Tense-shifting: ─ NEVER switch tenses when answering questions on tests
or when writing essays. Although the
past tense is acceptable, (as long as there is no switching to other tenses), try
to always use the present tense.
Even though the novel/short story/play/poem, etc. obviously has been written
in the "past," writing/discussion of
texts should be in present tense.
Rule 05: Avoid using colloquialisms (slang).
For example: kids, dude, gal, guy, homies, etc…
Don't use slang. This is the time to show off the best English you know. Find
the correct way to express
your thoughts and convey your ideas, without resorting to slang. Be aware
that certain expressions, such as "kids"
instead of "children" and "guys" or "gals" instead of "men" or "women", also
fall into the category of slang and
should be avoided.
Rule 06: Use gender neutral language (replace he, she with they, the
character, or by name)
Although in the past it was acceptable to use "he" when referring to both men
and women, it is no longer
acceptable to do so now. Why? Because linguists found that language use
actually does have an impact on the way
people think and act. If pronouns are always "he," and certain professions are
always fireman, policeman, chairman,
congressmen, etc, then it is more likely that men -- by simple virtue of the
privileged masculine pronoun and noun
use -- will fill those positions, and that women will feel that they do not
belong in them. Avoiding sexist pronouns
will help you find liberation from these restricting gender roles.
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Even if you disagree with the above theory, using "he" only pronouns is a
practice that is no longer tolerated
in MLA style. You should instead choose to pluralize your subject and use
"they" or "their" when referring back to
that subject. Or you can choose "he or she," but if you need to write "he or
she" more than twice in the sentence,
you might give your reader a headache. Try to avoid "s/he" or "he/she"
simply because it is unsightly. Really the
best solution is pluralization. (When implementing the plural solution,
remember the principle of agreement.
"Everyone needs their umbrella" is not grammatical, because "everyone" is a
singular subject.)
o Sexist: If a medical student wants to succeed, he has to learn to budget his
time wisely.
o Liberated: If medical students want to succeed, they have to learn to budget
his time wisely.
o Sexist: If one wants to become a DJ, he has to be familiar with the current
music styles and have a
strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow.
o Liberated: If one wants to become a DJ, he or she has to be familiar with the
current music styles and
have a strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow.
o Sexist: A good computer programmer has to root his knowledge in practical
experience.
oLiberated: Good computer programmers have to root their knowledge in
practical experience.
Use non-sexist language: Avoid the word "man" and "he/his/him" when
referring to general phenomena.
When writing sentences, there are two ways to do this:
A) Make it plural.
Sexist Language
Good Alternative
Give each student his paper
Give students their papers
as soon as he is finished.
as soon as they are finished.
The average student is
The average student is
worried about his grade.
worried about grades.
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B) If necessary, use ONE, HE/SHE.
Sexist Language
Good Alternative
If a student got an A, he did not
Anyone who got an A, did not
have to do the extra work.
have to do the extra work.
Anyone who wants to go to the
If a student wants to go to the
game tomorrow should bring
game tomorrow, she/he
his money.
should bring money.
C) Also, see this table:
Usually Inappropriate
Good Alternatives
mankind
humanity, people, human beings
man•fs achievements
human achievements
man-made
synthetic, manufactured, machine-made
the common man
the average person, ordinary people
man the ship
staff the ship
six man-hours
six staff-hours
chairman
coordinator (of a committee or department), moderator (of a meeting), presiding officer,
head, chair
businessman
business executive
fireman
firefighter
mailman
mailcarrier
steward and stewardess
flight attendant
policeman and policewoman
police officer
congressman
congressional representative
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Rule 07: Avoid repetition.
Do not use the same word or the same sentence structure too frequently.
Repetition means that the same lexical item in several sentences subsequent
to its first occurrence is repeated.
For example, in this section, the phrase “lexical cohesion” is repeated more
than twice. In addition, repetition helps
to reinforce key ideas and new terms. However, the overuse of repetition in
academic writing results in a text
which sounds monotonous, i.e., it does not invite the reader to read it since it
contains a lot of repetitions. This
problem can be overcome by shifting the position of the repeated items in the
sentence.
Use rich vocabulary: You have learned English for many years and this is the
time to use what you know.
Stay away from over-used adjectives such as "good" or "bad". Instead, use
more dramatic, expressive words, such
as excellent, wonderful, superb, or adverse, horrible, terrible, etc. Choose the
more precise word over the more
general one. This will make your language come alive, in speech or in
writing, and earn you higher marks.
Rule 08: Avoid using imperative language.
Use imperative voice sparingly in a scientific paper, because it comes across
as rude (as do many of the
sentences in what you are reading right now!). E.g. do not say "Recall that
...". Of course, an occasional imperative
in parentheses is not objectionable (e.g. "(see Walker 1996 for more
details).").
Rule 09: Be sure to use but and however correctly
(See examples of correct usage below)
- I do not like homework, but I understand it’s important.
- I wish I studied more; however, I still did well on the test
- I am sick today and will miss the test, however, this will give me more time
to study.
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"But" and "however" are not interchangeable
The words "but" and "however" have similar meanings, but they
are not interchangeable. If you take a
grammatically correct sentence containing "but" and replace it with
"however", or vice versa, the result will almost
always be incorrect, mainly because of comma punctuation.
Correct examples:
"I like oranges, but I do not like tangerines."
"I like oranges. However, I do not like tangerines."
"I like oranges; however, I do not like tangerines."
"I, however, do not like grapefruits."
"I like oranges however they have been prepared."
If you exchange any of these "but"s and "however"s, then the sentences
would become incorrect, and in
some cases meaningless.
Rule 10: Avoid using ‘it’ and ‘this’ at the start of a sentence.
If necessary, however, join the two sentences using a comma or semi-colon.
See examples below. Use 'It' as
a subject; e.g. 'It is impossible to...'
Incorrect: I love the snow. It is fun to play in.
Correct: I love the snow; it is fun to play in.
(A comma can also be used in place of the semi-colon)
Notes: It is aceptable to use ‘it’ as a preparatory subject. (See more at Rule
28)
It is advisable to memorise the following useful phrases:
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1. It goes without saying that …/ Of course, …
2. It is quite clear that …/ Obviously, …
3. It is worth pointing out that …/ Another point is …
4. It does not seem unreasonable to suggest that …/ In my opinion, …
5. It is often argued that …/ People say that …
6. It is sometimes suggested that/ People say that …
7. It is particularly significant that … / Importantly, …
8. It could be argued that …? Perhaps,….
9. It is likely that …/ Probably, ….
Rule 11: Avoid very strong language
E.g. I know. I am sure…
Avoid using words that express your opinion too strongly
Low certainty
Medium certainty/Hedging
High certainty
seldom, rarely, never,
improbable, impossible,
unattainable ...
probably, perhaps, likely, occasionally, sometimes,
generally, may, might, can, could, appears to be,
seems to be, tends to be, suggests, considers ...
undoubtedly, absolutely, certainly, definitely,
incredible, amazing, unbelievable, particularly,
very, vitally, totally, wholly, often, must, would,
should ...
In addition to a formal voice, you should also maintain a cool-headed,
objective tone. Tone usually becomes an
issue when you are writing about hot topics you feel strongly about --
religion, for example, or cultural values.
Even when you strongly disagree with an idea, avoid getting "emotional" in
your expression. Avoid seeming angry,
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or condescending, or rude. Keep your calm and remain scholarly, and try to
portray yourself as one who is
objectively assessing the situation.

Emotional: We must do everything we can to legalize gay marriage. For the
sake of equality, the rights of
liberty and freedom that our forefathers fought for--it is essential!!! Don't let
conservatives take over your
government and impose their puritanical moral values on everyone. This is
only going to lead to dozens of
more restrictions that those white-haired conservatives will impose in their
cozy congress seats!

Objective: Keeping gay marriage illegal poses significant questions about the
constitutionality of such laws.
The forefathers who wrote the Constitution believed an individual's freedom
was vitally important, and that
as long as the actions did not cause directly harm to society, the actions
should not be decriminalized.
Rule 12: Do not use a series of short sentences or simple sentences.
E.g. Many people think so. They are wrong.
Rule 13: You should NOT:
- use brackets and dashes to add information
- use exclamation marks (!!!) in your essay
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Rule 14: Avoid very emotional language
e.g. I absolutely detest people who…
Rule 15: Do not express personal opinions too strongly
e.g. I know…; instead, use milder expressions (e.g. It seems to me that…
Express your opinion in a non-emotional
way (e.g. It seems that, I therefore feel, etc.)
Rule 16: Do not use over-generalisation (e.g. All politicians are…)
Avoid:
∎ Everyone knows that…
∎ What goes around comes around…
Rule 17: Do not refer blindly to statistics without accurate
reference to their source.
e.g. "A recent study showed…" - which study?)
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Rule 18: Do not use cliches
e.g. Rome was not built in a day.
Clichés are words and phrases that tend to be overused and do not make for
good writing. They should be
avoided in professional and academic writing.
Examples: Don’t count your chickens before they have hatched.
Let sleeping dogs lie.
These phrases can add colour and life to informal speech; however, in
writing, they appear to be substitutes for clear thought.

We cannot build a new school at this point in time.

Who would have thought that slavery could exist in this day and age?

The Prime Minister believed that at the end of the day her policies would be
vindicated.
Some more examples of clichés are:
Raining like cats and dogs.
Like a pig in mud.
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Over the hill.
In the dog house.
Back against the wall.
Under the gun.
My two cents.
Stubborn as a mule.
Bite your tongue.
Dyed in the wool.
Wrong side of the bed.
The calm before the storm.
Hair of the dog,
On thin ice.
Eye for an eye.
Tongue-in-cheek.
The third time is the charm.
Rule 19: Do not use personal examples

e.g. In my school…
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Rule 20: Do not use colloquial language
Casual conversational language that has a wider general acceptance than
slang.
Examples: - Let’s do lunch.
- I’m going to get back at him.
Colloquial language is generally acceptable in casual spoken English, but it is
unacceptable in formal speaking
situations, and in written English.
Rule 21: Do not use metaphor
A metaphor takes a name or descriptive term and applies it to a person or
object in a non-literal sense - for
example, 'a glaring error', 'the heart of the matter', 'pillar of the
community', 'wave of terrorism', and so on.
Rule 22: Do not use similes
A simile compares a person, action or object with something else - for
example, 'fly like an eagle', 'solid as
a rock', 'as happy as Larry', 'pleased as Punch', and so on.
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Well-chosen metaphors and similes can give your writing immense
expressive power. Once a metaphor or
simile has become a cliché, it no longer provides a vivid image for the reader.
Consequently, instead of impressing
your readers with your writing style, you leave them with the impression that
you have nothing of substance to say.
Rule 23: Do not use figures of speech
Figures of speech are closely related to clichés. Like metaphors and similes,
figures of speech provide a
writer with a colourful or forceful means to draw attention to a particular
point but should be avoided in academic
writing.

The cleaners were advised to lift their game or else.

Management has been on a steep learning curve.

It would be like looking for a needle in a haystack.
Rule 24: Do not use euphemisms
Expressions that soften orobscure the meaning that you wish to convey.
Examples: - a guest of the government (in jail)
- pre-owned (used)
- passed away (died)
- tactical omission (lie)
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Euphemisms are good if they spare someone’s feelings, but they are bad if
they obscure meaning, or give a
positive connotation to something illegal, immoral, or otherwise
unacceptable.
Rule 25: Do not talk about parts of the paragraph.
□ Do not write:
∎ this paragraph shows…
∎ The topic sentence is…
∎ A quote that proves this is…
Rule 26: Do not begin a sentence with numerals.
For example, instead of writing: "400 people..." write: "Four hundred
people..."
Spell out all numbers less than 10. Ex: 6 = six Never start a sentence with a
number unless you spell it out.
Ex: 15 students…. = Fifteen students …
Use numerals 10 or above. Instead of writing: "There were 9 people...", write:
"There were nine people..."
Rule 27: Do not use non-specific words.
For example: stuff, things, lots, etc…
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Rule 28: Do not use ambiguous words.
For example: this, these, his, it, they, there is, there are, etc…
These words have no meaning in themselves, but in conversation the meaning
is usually clear from the context.
In written text, however, the intended meaning is quite often not evident to
the reader, because there are many
possible interpretations of "it" and "this".
Notes:
1. It is aceptable to use ‘this’, ‘that’, ‘these’, and ‘those’ when a noun
directly afterward clarifies the meaning of
the pronoun.
Eg: “This character traits …”
2. It is aceptable to use ‘it’ as a preparatory subject. (See more at Rule 10)
If you want to indicate that an opinion or belief is widely held, you can use
the passive form of a reporting
verb with it as its impersonal subject.
It is widely believed that the standard of spoken English has declined in
recent years.
The following reporting verbs are often used in this way:
accept acknowledge argue claim estimate predict
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You should use tentative language when discussing findings or views in your
reports and presentations.
When you want to avoid expressing strong claims or opinions you can use the
verbs appear and seem. In the
sentences overleaf, the subject of appear and seem is it. As you can see, they
are followed by that-clauses.
It appears that interest in Putonghua has increased since the handover.
It would seem that students in Hong Kong are less motivated to learn
English than their counterparts in Shanghai.
3. It is aceptable to use ‘there is’ as a preparatory subject. (See Rule 44)
Rule 29: Do not ask rhetorical questions.
Readers want answers! So, instead of: "Do you know where the origin of tea
is?" Write: "Tea originated in
southern China near the border with India."
A rhetorical question is a question for which no answer is expected. A
rhetorical question is one in a written
text where the writer assumes the reader knows the answer, or where the
writer goes on to answer the question in
the text. Such questions are inappropriate for academic writing: readers might
not know the answer and the point
being made could be more strongly and clearly expressed as a statement. You
should not risk your point being
misunderstood: make your point clear and 'up front'; for example:
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Informal (includes rhetorical question)
Formal
Industrial sites cause vast amounts of environmental
pollution, so why do we still use them?
The question surrounding the continued use of industrial sites, given
their vast pollution production, still remains.
What is a team? A team can be one person but will
usually end up including many more.
A team can include one person but usually involves many more.
The question is, however, does the "Design School
Model" provide a practical solution to the problem
of how to formulate strategy?
It is questionable whether the "Design School Model" provides a
practical solution to the problem of strategy formulation.
Rule 30: Write "most people”, instead of the incorrect "most of
people"
Likewise, "most women", "most animals", etc. But "most of the people" is
OK.
Rule 31: Do not use the expressions and so on or etc.
Instead use such as.
The expression and so on is too unclear for formal writing. Thus, instead of
the informal "Japan imports
potatoes, corn, wheat, and so on," write "Japan imports food such as potatoes,
corn and wheat."
Run on expressions include phrases such as 'and so forth', 'and so on' or 'etc'.
Try to complete the sentence
properly; do not use these if you can avoid them; for example:
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Informal (includes run on)
Formal Alternative
Nurses must take into
consideration patients' dietary
needs resulting from allergies,
medication, medical conditions
and so on.
Nurses must take into
consideration patients' dietary
needs resulting from allergies,
medication and medical
conditions.
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use on the roads,
airways, waterways etc.
Public transport includes vehicles
for public use, such as buses,
trains and aeroplanes.
Rule 32: Place adverbs within the verb
Adverbs should be placed within the verb group rather than in the initial or
final positions. In informal English,
adverbs often occur as clauses at the beginning or end of sentences; for
example:
Informal
Formal Alternative
Then the solution can be
discarded.
The solution can then be
discarded.
The blood is withdrawn slowly. The blood is slowly withdrawn.
Rule 33: Avoid phrases such as "I believe," "I feel," and "I
think."
Even worse are phrases that add an adverb, such as "I strongly believe." Your
tone will be much more
confident if you just make the statement without preface.
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Rule 34: Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the
sentence.
Unnecessary words like "Actually", "Really" or "Basically" can be omitted. 8
Rule 35: Do not use dialogues (conversations) in a formal essay.
For example, instead of writing: "Will you come?" You should write: He
asked me if I would come.
Rule 36: Do not use informal language
- In formal English one would use the word “whom” instead of the word
“who” in certain situations.
Formal: Whom did they elect?
Informal: Who did they elect?
Formal - Use 'whom' as an object: Whom have they chosen for the position?
Informal - Use 'who' as an object: Who have they chosen for the position?
Formal : With whom did you study?
Informal : Who did you study with?
In informal language prepositions often come at the end of certain structures.
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Formal: To which nation does he belong?
Informal: Which nation does he belong to?
Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language.
In informal language we often leave out some words.
Formal: She said that she would come.
Informal: She said she would come.
Formal: Have you seen Annie?
Informal: Seen Annie?
Rule 37: Avoid using unnecessary words
Wordy phrases
Using better English
1. it would appear that ...
1. apparently ...
2. with the exception of ...
2. except ...
3. in connection with ...
3. about ...
4. are found to be in agreement with ...
4. agree ...
5. a large majority of ...
5. most ...
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6. in the event that ...
6. if ...
7. a disproportionate number ...
7. few ...
8. arrive at a decision ...
8. decide ...
9. for a further period of ten years ...
9. for another ten years ...
10. such is by no means the case ...
10. this is not so ...
11. in the field of education ...
11. in education ...
12. they are without legal representation whatsoever ...
12. they have no legal representation ...
13. in the case of the third question ...
13. in the third question ...
14. at the present time, overseas companies are ...
14. overseas companies are now ...
15. there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health ... 15. the
Department of Health is obliged ...
Rule 38: Use singular determiners with plural verbs
Determiners like each, every, either and neither are singular. They should be
followed by singular verbs. Of
course, in an informal style, you can put plural verbs after them, but if you do
that in your IELTS essay, the
examiner will not be too happy with you.
Non-academic: Neither of us like him.
Academic: Neither of us likes him.
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Rule 39: Avoid idiomatic language
English is highly idiomatic, but idiomatic expressions are not always
considered appropriate in academic
writing. Of course, it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary
either. You can use some idioms, but
you must avoid the more ‘colourful’ ones like ‘raining cats and dogs’, ‘hit the
nail on the head’ or ‘throw the baby
out with the bathwater’. Some idioms, on the other hand, are perfectly
acceptable in all kinds of writing.
Rule 40: Do not start sentences with ‘And’, ‘Also’, ‘So’, ‘Or’,
‘Even so’, and ‘But’
Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate. A few
decades ago it was considered
totally unacceptable. Even today you can find several grammar books that
advise against starting sentences with
these conjunctions. However, the truth is that more and more academic
writers now begin sentences with them.
You must, however, make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the
safe side.
Instead of these, use `In addition', `However', `Hence', `Consequently',
`Alternatively', `Nevertheless' at the
beginninge of the sentence.
Rule 41: Do not use informal phrasal verbs
You cannot avoid all of them in your writing. It is not necessary either. Just
make sure that you do not use a
large number of phrasal verbs in your essay. (See Table 01, p2)
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Rule 42: Use passives
Passives without ‘agents’ are common in academic and scientific writing. By
using passive structures we
will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns. Passive structures are also
preferred when we want to talk about
an action, but are not interested in saying who or what did / does it.
The passive voice is one of the two voices in English. It is contrasting with
active voice. In the passive, the
object of the active voice becomes the subject, and the subject becomes the
agent or object of the passive action.
The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as
shown in the following examples.
- In recent years, researchers have published several analyses of survey data
(activesentence).
- In recent years, several analyses of survey data have been published.
Furthermore, the passive voice is used much more in academic language than
in everyday language. Certain
grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are
dominant and used frequently in academic
writing than in general English. So, passive constructions have been
identified as one of the prominent features of
academic language. Moreover, the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of
language intends to create an
indirect style and showsthe writer’s objectivity. This can be achieved by
using another form of passive which is
frequently used in academic writing (it is said that…... he is said to) as shown
in the following examples:
- The child acquires the language in short period of time.
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- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time.
Similarly, using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable
than activeconstructions and is
considered the most used in written genres
Rule 43: Employ tentative rather than assertive language.
- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases; e.g. 'This is
possibly caused by...' or 'This is
probably the most important factor.'
- using the modal verbs may and might; e.g. 'This may be the most important
factor.'
- using appears to + V and seems to + V; e.g. 'This appears to be the most
important factor.'
- avoiding always and every, and replacing them with often and many/much.
- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be
condescending to your reader.
Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language.
To express an idea or finding
in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers. To
avoid making strong claims and
expressing subjective opinions, academic writers use tentative rather then
assertive language. Compare the
tentative and assertive language in the table below.
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Tentative expression
Assertive expression
One could argue that the overall
standard of English in Hong Kong
has improved
The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved.
Modal verbs such as could, may and might are common in academic writing
because they help writers
express uncertainty or tentativeness. Also common are the verbs appear to
and seem to, as well as adverbs of
probability: perhaps, possibly, probably, likely, unlikely.
Of course, depending on viewpoint and the available evidence, a writer can
express greater or lesser degrees
of certainty. Look at the examples in the table below.
1. Positive and assertive:
Clearly, then, Hong Kong student’s standard of written Chinese is declining.
2. Suggesting likelihood:
The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong student’s standard of written
Chinese is declining.
3. Expressing less likelihood:
It may/might/could be the case that Hong Kong student’s standard of written
Chinese is declining.
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4. Negative:
It is unlikely that Hong Kong student’s standard of written Chinese is
declining.
Rule 44: Use 'One' and ‘There’ as a subject
e.g. 'One may ask whether...' ('One' is a formal version of 'You' [plural] in
general) and Use 'There' as a subject;
e.g. 'There is a serious risk of...'
Some more phrases and their alternatives
- One could say that … / Perhaps, …
- One could draw the conclusion that …/ In conclusion, …
- As one might expect … / Naturally …
- There is not a shadow of doubt that … / Certainly, …
There is the possibility that …. / Possibly, …
There can be no doubt that …/ I am sure …
There are those who maintain that … / Some people say ….
There is a school of thoughts that … / Some people say ….
There is a strong likelihood that … / Probably, …
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Rule 45: Use It is because and This is because correctly.
Language Analysis:
It is because is used in the following situations:
1. To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because:
It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place.
(like= similar to)
It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the
good that it does.
It is because the body is a machine that education is possible.
It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we
have a higher standard of living.
Structure:
It is because + cause + ‘that’ + effect.
Grammar:
It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + ‘that’+ effect (clause).
e.g. It is because of your smile that I feel happy.
It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + ‘that’ + effect
(clause).
e.g. It is because you smiled that I feel happy.
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2. To refer back to a cause, then give an effect, use it is because of this:
These countries’ economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that
pollution creates a huge problem.
I know you. I understand you, and it is because of this that I love you.
A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual
light that fall on it and no light is
reflected into the eye from that object. It is because of this that black clothes
become hotter on a sunny day than
white ones.
Structures:
Cause + ‘and’ + ‘it is because of this that’ + effect
Cause + ‘.’ + ‘It is because of this that’ + effect
3. To give an effect first, then explain the cause, use this is because:
Examples:
- Out in space, the sky looks black, instead of blue. This is because there is no
atmosphere.
- As the sun begins to set, the light must travel farther through the atmosphere
before it gets to you. More of
the light is reflected and scattered. As less reaches you directly, the sun
appears less bright. The colour of the sun
itself appears to change, first to orange and then to red. This is because even
more of the short wavelength blues
and greens are now scattered. Only the longer wavelengths are left in the
direct beam that reaches your eyes.
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- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week. They must often work in the
evenings or on weekends. This
is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times.
4. To answer questions, use it is because, this is because, or because:
- How can it be that an “awesome” God knows me by name and loves me
without reservation? It is because He
created me.
- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration? I believe it is
because he sees the consequences for
all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy.
- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear, as evidenced by the popularity
of shocker, gross-out, supernatural
and altogether scary books. Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to
tell apart? Or maybe it is because
those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that
make puberty feel like a bump in the road?
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye? This is
because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye, is just too much for the
eye to stand.
- “Why are you doing that?” “Because I like it.”
- To answer questions, use it is because, this is because, or because
- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye? This is
because the amount of radiation
required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye, is just too much for the
eye to stand.
- “Why are you doing that?” “Because I like it.”
5, In 'if ' and 'when' sentences use it is because:
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- If I look confused it is because I am thinking.
- If we have no peace, it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each
other.
- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they
are.
Rule 46: Use Relative Structures
Formal - Use relative structures: The woman thought that it was important to
be on time.
Informal - Drop certain relative structures: The woman thought it was
important to be on time.
Rule 47: Use use nominalisation
Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones.
For example, instead of
Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned.
Write:
The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police.
In general, academic writing tends to be fairly dense, with relatively long
sentences and wide use of
subordinate clauses. Remember, however, that your main aim is clarity, so
don’t be too ambitious, particularly
when you’re starting to write.
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Rule 48: Use some sort of “hedging” language and to qualify statements
that you make.
HEDGING/AVOIDING COMMITMENT
In order to put some distance between what you’re writing and yourself as
writer, to be cautious rather than
assertive, you should:
- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine, suggest, claim, suppose
- use ‘attitudinal signals’ such as apparently, arguably, ideally, strangely,
unexpectedly.
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using
personal language.
- use verbs such as would, could, may, might which ‘soften’ what you’re
saying.
- use qualifying adverbs such as some, several, a minority of, a few, many to
avoid making overgeneralisations.
Rule 49: Do not start a sentence with ‘Therefore’.
Instead, write, for example, ‘They, therefore, ...’.
Rule 50: Use full names when citing.
The first time you mention the author’s or someone’s name, use his/her entire
name. For the rest of the essay,
use only his/her last name.
Thanh Hoa City 12/2012

##Queen Letter Formal English

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##Queen Letter Formal English

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Collected and shared by Tran Manh Trung – Hong Duc University – Thanh Hoa

THE BEST GUIDES

FORMAL AND INFORMAL WORD

THE RULES SHOULD BE

Rule 19: Do not use personal examples

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