IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 20, NO.

3, JULY 2005 2063

Parameter Determination for Modeling System

Transients—Part IV: Rotating Machines
IEEE PES Task Force on Data for Modeling System Transients of IEEE PES Working Group on Modeling and Analysis
of System Transients Using Digital Simulation (General Systems Subcommittee)

J. A. Martinez, B. Johnson, and C. Grande-Moran

Abstract—The identification of electrical parameters of rotating

machines for simulation of slow (i.e., electromechanical, transients)
is not an easy task. Not only have several levels of complexity been
proposed for representing the electrical part of a rotating machine,
but several data sources can be considered. This paper deals with
the calculation of electrical parameters of large synchronous and
induction machines. Given the quantity of work produced to date
on this subject, the procedures selected are those closely related to
what is proposed in current standards or implemented in widely
used transients programs. Interested readers are referred to other
approaches included in the list of references.
Index Terms—Induction machines, modeling, power system
transients, simulation, synchronous machines.

I. INTRODUCTION

A ROTATING machine is a very complex component whose

behavior is the result of the interaction of electrical and
mechanical systems. When a machine runs as a generator, a con-
Fig. 1. Block diagram of a synchronous machine.

trol system is usually present. Fig. 1 shows a schematic diagram

of the systems involved in a synchronous machine running as a
generator connected to a power system.
As with other power components, the detail with which the
mathematical model of a rotating machine is to be specified de-
pends on the frequency range of the transients to be reproduced.
Table I presents a summary of the modeling guidelines pro-
posed by the CIGRE WG 33.02 for representing synchronous
machines [1]. Although these guidelines are related to a spe-
cific type of machine, they can also be applied to other types of
rotating machines.
This paper deals with the determination of electric parame-
ters needed to represent large three-phase (synchronous and in-
duction) machines connected to systems running at power fre-
quency during low-frequency transients. It is obvious that the
mechanical part and the control systems of a machine play an
important role during low-frequency transients; neither the de-
termination of mechanical parameters nor the estimation of con-
trol system parameters are covered in this document.
A significant effort has been made to derive the electrical pa-
rameters needed to represent rotating machines during system
Manuscript received April 14, 2004; revised August 23, 2004. Paper no.
TPWRD-00190-2004.
Task Force Members: J. A. Martinez (Chairman), D. Durbak, B. Gustavsen,
B. Johnson, J. Mahseredjian, B. Mork, R. Walling.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TPWRD.2005.848725
0885-8977/$20.00 © 2005 IEEE
transients. This effort is reflected in standards, which are regu-
larly updated. However, it is important to make a clear distinc-
tion between:
• test procedures (short-circuit, open-circuit, standstill fre-
quency response, load rejection, and partial-load rejection
tests);
• determination of characteristic parameters (short/open-
circuit reactances and time constants), usually supplied
by manufacturers;
• determination of parameters to be specified in equivalent
network models.
Test setups and testing conditions, as well as procedures
for the determination of characteristic electrical parameters,
are well described and justified in standards [2], [3]. This
document is aimed at conversion procedures for passing from
the manufacturer’s data to network model parameters, needed
by digital programs to construct internal equations.
Procedures for the determination of equivalent circuit param-
eters are not clearly established in standards. In addition, stan-
dards only cover the so-called offline tests. However, online tests
are becoming very common to either determine or improve the
knowledge of rotating machine parameters. A short review of
online tests is also included.
Another important aspect, not covered in this document, is
the determination of parameters needed to obtain the steady-
state conditions of a machine, those with which the machine is
operating prior to a transient.
2064 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 20, NO. 3, JULY 2005

TABLE I
MODELING GUIDELINES FOR ROTATING MACHINES [1]

Fig. 2. Diagram of the electrical part of a synchronous machine.

The paper has been organized into two main sections covering
synchronous and induction machines, respectively.

II. SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

A. Mathematical Model
Fig. 3. Synchronous machine equivalent circuits. (a) d-axis circuit. (b) q-axis
The electrical part of a synchronous machine can be described circuit.
by the following equations: [4]
generator representation in dynamic and transients simulations
(1a) [6].
(1b) Although some approaches have been proposed to solve these
equations in phase quantities [5], they are usually solved after
where transforming stator quantities into rotor-axis quantities, using
vector of voltages; the Park’s transformation. Fig. 3 shows the equivalent circuits
vector of currents; that result for the synchronous machine depicted in Fig. 2. The
vector of fluxes; zero-sequence circuit, to be used in the simulation of unbalanced
diagonal matrix of winding resistances; transients, is not shown. This representation has been widely
matrix of self and mutual inductances. used in many transient studies. However, equivalent circuits of
Fig. 2 depicts three stator windings plus two windings on each a higher degree of complexity have been applied. Table II shows
rotor axis. One of the windings on the direct axis corresponds the matrix of equivalent circuits with those model structures pro-
to the field circuit, the other windings represent induced current posed in IEEE Standard 1110 [6]. Note that up to 12 combina-
paths and damper bars, in both round and salient-pole rotors. tions are possible, but only seven are considered. The selection
The diagram shows the convention used in IEEE standards for of a model is usually based on the type of machine, the study
MARTINEZ et al.: PARAMETER DETERMINATION FOR MODELING SYSTEM TRANSIENTS—PART IV
TABLE II
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE MODELS FOR TRANSIENT STUDIES
TABLE III
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE PARAMETERS
to be performed, the user’s experience, and the available infor-
mation. Depending on the characteristic parameter source, the
most complex models very often cannot be used due to a lack
of data.
As mentioned in the introduction, these representations are
suitable for simulation of low-frequency transients, such as tran-
sient stability studies, subsynchronous resonance, load rejec-
tion, short circuits, generator tripping, generator synchroniza-
tion, and inadverted energization.
The conversion procedures that have been proposed for de-
termination of the parameters for these models are discussed
in the subsequent sections. Two sources of data are considered:
short-circuit and standstill frequency-response (SSFR) tests.
B. Determination of Electrical Parameters
1) Short-Circuit Test: Table III shows the parameters to be
specified in equivalent circuits of Fig. 3, while those supplied by
2065
the manufacturer (short-circuit test data) are listed below; this
list corresponds to Model 2.2 (i.e., a model with two circuits on
each rotor axis, as shown in Fig. 2). This model is usually the
most complex model that can be derived from short-circuit test
data. However, the same procedure can be applied to machines
with any number of rotor circuits on each axis, as presented in
[7], if the required information is available.
Short-circuit tests can be only used for the determination of
d-axis values; that is, q-axis characteristic values can be calcu-
lated but cannot be directly derived from short-circuit test data.
The sections that describe the calculation of q-axis quantities
are titled “unconfirmed” in IEC 34-4 [8] and “informative” in
IEEE Standard 115 [2].
Several procedures have been proposed for the determination
of the internal parameters from short-circuit test data. For in-
stance, an informative Appendix is included in IEEE Standard
1110 with relationships between manufacturer data and equiva-
lent circuit parameters. The procedure summarized in this sec-
tion was presented in [9]. Table IV shows the relationships upon
which the procedure is based and the steps to be performed to
obtain the parameters of each circuit rotor. A procedure appli-
cable to any type of ac machine with any number of circuits on
any rotor axis was presented in [7].
2) Standstill Frequency Response (SSFR) Tests: An accu-
rate identification of synchronous machine parameters can be
performed from low-voltage frequency-response tests at stand-
still. These tests are becoming a widely used alternative to short-
circuit tests due to these advantages.
• They can be performed either in the factory or in site at a
relatively low cost.
• Equivalent circuits of an order higher than Model 2.2 (
Table II) can be derived.
• Identification of field responses is possible. According to
IEEE Standard 115, measurable parameters are:
• The d-axis operational impedance .
• The q-axis operational impedance .
• The standstill armature to field transfer function .
• The standstill armature to field transfer impedance
.
where is the alternative to the third measurement .
In addition, the measurement of field to armature transfer
impedance is occasionally required.
Table V shows the test setups for each of the measurable pa-
rameters and the main relationships derived from each test.
The procedure for the identification of d-axis parameters from
SSFR can be summarized as follows [2].
1) Use the best available estimate for the armature leakage
inductance ; it could be the value supplied by the man-
ufacturer.
2) Obtain , which is the low-frequency limit of ,
then determine
(2)
3) Find the field to armature turns ratio using the
armature to field transfer impedance
(3)
2066 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 20, NO. 3, JULY 2005

TABLE IV
RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN CHARACTERISTIC VALUES AND EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT PARAMETERS

For a discussion on the factors to be used for adjusting this 2) Obtain , which is the low-frequency limit of ,
value, see [2]. then determine
4) Calculate the field resistance referred to the armature
winding (6)

(4)
3) Define an equivalent circuit structure for the q-axis.
4) Use the available parameters and a fitting technique to find
5) Define an equivalent circuit structure for the direct axis. values for the unknown parameters that produce the best
6) Use the available parameters and a fitting technique to find fit for .
values for the unknown parameters that produce the best 5) Adjust to its unsaturated value .
fit for and sG(s). As with the d-axis, these equivalent circuit parameters can be
7) Adjust to its unsaturated value , see normalized to per-unit values.
Section II-B4. The most complex step in the above procedures is the appli-
8) Measure the field winding resistance, convert it to the de- cation of a fitting technique to derive those parameters of the
sired operating temperature, and refer it to the stator equivalent circuits that match the obtained frequency response.
Many techniques have been proposed for this purpose; some of
(5) the techniques presented during the last years were based on
• maximum-likelihood estimation [10];
where is the operating temperature in C, is the mea-
• noniterative parameter identification procedure [11];
sured field resistance in ohms, and is the average field
• network synthesis technique [12];
winding temperature in C during the measurement.
• vector fitting [13].
Note that and substitute the parameters used to find
unknown values during the fitting procedure. Once the param- The experience gained with SSFR testing and analysis of
eters have been determined, they can be normalized to per-unit salient pole machines was presented at a panel session held at
values. the 1997 IEEE PES WM and summarized in [14]; see also [15]
The procedure for identification of q-axis parameters could and [16]. However, SSFR tests have also disadvantages, as dis-
be as follows [2]. cussed below [17], [18].
1) Use the best available estimate for the stator leakage in- • The effect of eddy current losses on the armature resis-
ductance . tance during the SSFR is not accounted for when the
MARTINEZ et al.: PARAMETER DETERMINATION FOR MODELING SYSTEM TRANSIENTS—PART IV
TABLE V
STANDSTILL FREQUENCY-RESPONSE TESTS
operating reactances are deduced using the following
expression:
(7)
where is the dc armature resistance;
• Test equipment requires very linear, very high power
amplifiers.
• Standstill measurements are made at low currents; how-
ever, and can vary up to 20% in the range
from no load to rated current.
• Tests are conducted at unsaturated conditions.
• Centrifugal forces on damper windings are not accounted
for, becoming difficult to assess the error introduced by
them.
• The resistance in the contact points of damper windings
can be higher at standstill than it is during running.
3) Online Testing: To avoid some of the drawbacks and lim-
itations of offline tests, the so-called online tests have been de-
veloped. They can be either time-domain or frequency-domain
tests. Some of these tests are described below as follows.
1) Online frequency response test: It is carried out with the
machine running at rated speed and loaded below full
load. The frequency response is obtained by applying si-
nusoidal signals to the voltage regulator reference and
measuring the steady-state changes in field voltage and
current, the rotor speed, the terminal voltage, and active
and reactive power outputs [17], [19].
2) Load rejection test: It is performed with the machine
running at synchronous speed, with power injected to
2067
the system as near to zero as possible and the excitation
system on manual control [17], [20]. The generator cir-
cuit breaker is opened, and the transient in the terminal
voltage, field voltage, and current are recorded. To obtain
unsaturated and saturated values, the test is carried out
under both under and overexcited conditions.
3) Time-domain small disturbance test: The linear parame-
ters of the machine are identified from lightly loaded, un-
derexcited conditions, while saturation characteristics are
identified from a wide range of operating conditions [21].
4) Time-domain large disturbance test: A large disturbance
is abruptly introduced in the excitation reference voltage
with the machine under normal operating conditions [22].
The recorded variables are terminal and field voltages,
armature and field currents, as well as rotor speed.
As with any other data conversion procedure, steps involved
when online measurements are provided are similar to offline
procedures:
• select the order of every rotor circuit;
• assume initial parameter values;
• use an estimation or a fitting technique to adjust their
values.
Approaches presented to estimate machine parameters have
been based, among others, on the Newton–Raphson method
[19], the weighted least-square method, and the maximum-like-
lihood method [10], [21].
4) Saturation: Saturation effects can significantly affect
some transients (e.g., transient stability). In addition, an ac-
2068
Fig. 4. Saturation characteristic.
curate representation of saturation is not only important for
transient simulations; it can be also important for exciter design
and sizing [6].
According to IEEE Standard 1110–1991, the main concerns
for saturation representation can be summarized as follows.
• Saturation is assumed to affect only direct axis parameters
in salient pole machines, while in solid rotor machines, its
effect can be significant in both direct and quadrature axis
parameters.
• Saturation correction can be limited to adjustment of the
magnetizing inductances and during the simula-
tion of large disturbances (i.e., disturbances that vary sig-
nifycantly from steady-state values).
• During small disturbances, generally related to oscillation
modes in the 0.1-to-10-Hz range, the - path in a solid
iron rotor is different from the path followed during steady
state; therefore, circuit constants are different also; the
analysis can be done by replacing the steady-state perme-
ability by the corresponding incremental permeability in
every region of the rotor.
The open-circuit saturation curve can be obtained with the
machine running offline at synchronous speed. First, set the
field current to zero. Then give the excitation a small step in-
crease and measure the steady-state field current and terminal
voltage. Increase the excitation a number of times until 105%
of the rated voltage is reached. The set of measured field cur-
rents and terminal voltages can be plotted to show the saturation
characteristic.
The usual practice in many EMTP-like tools has been to de-
termine saturated parameters from the open-circuit saturation
curve. The representation of saturation effects has been based
on the following simplifying assumptions [4], [23].
• The flux linkage of both direct and quadrature axis is
the sum of a mutual flux and leakage flux; saturation
affects only mutual fluxes, its effects on leakage fluxes
are ignored.
• The rotor is isotropic (i.e., hysteresis effects are
neglected).
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 20, NO. 3, JULY 2005
• Only one flux is subjected to saturation, and the degree of
saturation is a function of the total air-gap flux linkage
(8)
where subscripts and refer to mutual and unsaturated,
respectively.
• The saturated mutual fluxes are derived from the unsatu-
rated values by using the same ratio
(9)
• Since an ideal machine is assumed, saturation does not af-
fect the sinusoidal space distribution of the magnetic field
or the sinusoidal waveform of the induced voltage.
If the saturation curve is represented as a two-slope piece-
wise linear curve, see Fig. 4, the saturation effects can be im-
plemented by using the following coefficient:
(10)
where and are the slopes of the unsaturated and satu-
rated region, respectively.
The coefficient is set to 1.0 in the unsaturated region, but
whenever the solution moves to the saturated region, it is used
to obtain the saturated values of the mutual inductances
(11)
Much attention has been paid during the last years to the
cross-magnetizing phenomenon: a magnetic coupling exists be-
tween the direct and the quadrature axis when the machine is
saturated [24]–[30].
The cross-magnetizing effect was illustrated in [31] using a
flux phasor diagram. Fig. 5(a) shows the different saturation
curves. Assume that is a point of the d-axis satura-
tion curve, is a point of the q-axis saturation curve, and
is a point of the air-gap saturation curve that is the satura-
tion characteristic deduced when the machine is simultaneously
excited from both axes. Resolving into its components, it can
be found that and are not equal to and [Fig. 5(b)].
The differences are due to the cross-magnetizing effect.
The determination of the saturated reactances including the
cross-magnetizing phenomenon has been studied by many au-
thors, see, for instance, [31], [32] and [33]; the procedure de-
scribed below was presented in [34]. This paper includes also
a method for calculation of the q-axis saturation characteristic
from the d-axis characteristic.
If the total magnetizing current is split into its components
(12)
MARTINEZ et al.: PARAMETER DETERMINATION FOR MODELING SYSTEM TRANSIENTS—PART IV 2069

where and are the static magnetizing in-

ductances, while and are the dynamic
magnetizing inductances. Under unsaturated conditions
and become and , respectively, while and
become zero.
The values of the unsaturated mutual inductances and
, derived from the SSFR test, are also affected by the iron
nonlinearities. Since SSFR tests are done using very low cur-
rents, compared to rated armature current, the values of the in-
ductances derived from SSFR will be lower than the unsaturated
values [35]. The adjustment to obtain unsaturated values will
depend on the test current and can be based on the following
expression:

(15)

where and define a point on the air-gap line; is the

peak voltage, line-to-neutral; is a dc value; and is the
rated rotor speed, in electrical radians.
The unsaturated value of the quadrature axis inductance is
determined using a similar approach.

III. INDUCTION MACHINES

A. Introduction
A treatment similar to that for synchronous machines can be
considered for induction machines. According to a recent work
in this field [36], methods for estimation of induction motor pa-
rameters can be classified into five categories.
1) Calculation from construction data: It is based on a field
calculation method (e.g., the finite-element method, and
requires geometry and material data. It can be very accu-
rate, but it is also costly.
Fig. 5. Illustrating the cross-magnetizing effect by means of the flux phasor
diagram [31]. (a) Saturation curves. (b) Flux phasor diagram. 2) Estimation based on steady-state models: It is the most
common approach since input data (i.e., nameplate data),
is usually available [36]–[38].
the cross-magnetizing effect can be illustrated by means of 3) Estimation based on frequency-domain tests: Similarly as
the time derivatives of the fluxes, which can be expressed as for synchronous machines, induction machine parameters
follows: can be derived from SSFR tests [39].
4) Estimation based on time-domain tests: It is a costly ap-
proach and data are usually not available [40]–[42].
(13) 5) Online testing: It is based on a simplified model and gen-
erally used to tune the controllers of a drive system [43],
where and are the magnetizing inductances including [44].
cross saturation, is the -axis mutual inductance for the
-axis flux, and is the -axis mutual inductance for the B. Equivalent Circuit
-axis flux. Equivalent circuits of an induction machine are the same for
The inductances, when this effect is included, can be obtained both axes, and it is generally accepted that a third-order equiv-
from the following equations: alent circuit model, as shown in Fig. 6, is accurate enough to
represent the dynamic behavior of the electrical part of an in-
duction machine. In fact, it is suitable for representing deep bar
or double-cage machines, but it can also be adopted for more
conventional machines. The model is the same for both d- and
q-axis equivalent circuits due to the rotor symmetry.
The performance of an induction machine is dominated by
the stator and rotor total leakage reactances and the rotor re-
sistance [37]. These quantities are not constant but vary with
(14)
slip; rotor resistance variation is caused by eddy currents, while
2070 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 20, NO. 3, JULY 2005

Fig. 8. Induction machine-modified equivalent circuit.

Fig. 6. Induction machine equivalent circuit—deep-bar or double-cage rotor
winding.
TABLE VII
RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN STANDARD SPECIFICATION DATA AND
INDUCTION MACHINE PARAMETERS

Fig. 7. Induction machine-simplified equivalent circuit.

TABLE VI
INDUCTION MACHINE PARAMETERS

leakage inductance variation is caused by eddy currents and by

the magnetic saturation of the leakage flux path. The equivalent
circuit of the induction machine must therefore include the ef-
fect of eddy currents in rotor bars and the saturation of leakage
inductance.

C. Parameter Estimation Procedure
As mentioned above, it is common to estimate the electrical
parameters from standard specification data [3]. Among the pro-
cedures based on standard data, that presented in [37] has be-
come very popular. It was originally developed for implemen-
tation in the universal machine module of the Electromagnetic
Tranisents Program (EMTP) [4].
This algorithm ignores the core losses and the leakage reac-
tance of the outer cage represented in Fig. 6 by and , re-
spectively. Therefore, the simplified circuit of an induction ma-
chine will be that shown in Fig. 7.
The standard specifications are split into two parts:
• those which define the normal operating conditions at full
load: efficiency, power factor, slip;
MARTINEZ et al.: PARAMETER DETERMINATION FOR MODELING SYSTEM TRANSIENTS—PART IV 2071

and in Table VII are the reduced starting voltage and

current, respectively. is the saturation threshold current.
The value of derived from the formula shown in
Table VII is usually too small and can lead to incorrect predic-
tion of full-load performance.
An iterative procedure is usually required for parameter im-
provement and to provide an accurate prediction of full-load
performance since the saturation threshold current used in
this algorithm is not usually known. Fig. 9 depicts the flowchart
of the procedure suggested in [37].
The results of an example of parameter determination were
presented in [37].

IV. CONCLUSION
A significant effort has been made during the last 30 years to
determine rotating machine parameters from test measurements.
Only machine models for low-frequency and switching tran-
sients have been analyzed, in all cases considering a terminal
machine model (i.e., models can be used to simulate the inter-
action between electrical machines and the power system).
Although many reliable conversion procedures aimed at
obtaining electrical machine parameters for the most adequate
model have been developed to date, very few of these proce-
dures are presently implemented in EMTP-like tools.

Fig. 9. Procedure for induction machine parameter estimation.
• those which define the starting performance: starting cur-
rent and starting torque.
Two additional values are used: the breakdown torque, which
is used to determine the saturation threshold current, and the
design ratio, which is defined as
(16)
The value of this ratio can be approximated to unity for
double-cage machines, and between 0.5 and 0.6 for deep-bar
rotor machines.
The parameter estimation procedure will be then aimed at
translating standard specification data to the parameters of the
equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 7 (Table VI).
If the unsaturable and saturable parts of the total leakage in-
ductance are equally divided between the stator and the rotor,
the equivalent circuit will be that shown in Fig. 8.
Table VII shows the relationships to be used for determining
induction machine parameters from standard specifications as
defined above.
To determine the parameters shown in Table VII, the fol-
lowing facts were taken into account.
• The efficiency was modified to account for core, friction,
and windage losses.
• Both stator and rotor leakage paths are saturated during
start up.
• Unsaturable and saturable parts of the leakage reactances
were divided equally between stator and rotor.
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