1.

INTRODUCTION

A machine providing gas at high pressure is called a compressor and work

must be done upon the gas by external agency.

Since the process of compressing the gas requires that work should be done
upon it, it will be clear that compressor must be driven by some form of prime mover.

Fig 1.1: General Arrangement of a Compressor Set

Fig. shows schematically the general arrangement of compressor set of the

energy received by the compressor from the prime mover, some will be absorbed in
work done against friction and some will be last to radiation and any coolant employed
to cool the compressor and the rest will be maintained within the deliver gas, at high
pressure.

The prime mover converts only a fraction of the heat it receives from the
source into work, and so far as a compressor alone is concerned, the energy which
it receives is that which is available at the shaft of the prime mover.

1
1.1 MAIN COMPONENTS OF COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS

Compressed air systems consist of following major components:

Intake air filters, inter-stage coolers, after-coolers, air-dryers, moisture drain

traps, receivers, piping network, filters, regulators and lubricators (see Figure 1.2).

 Intake Air Filters: Prevent dust from entering a compressor; Dust causes
sticking valves, scoured cylinders, excessive wear etc.

 Inter-stage Coolers: Reduce the temperature of the air before it enters the
next stage to reduce the work of compression and increase efficiency. They
are normally water-cooled.

 After-Coolers: The objective is to remove the moisture in the air

by reducing the temperature in a water-cooled heat exchanger.

 Air-dryers: The remaining traces of moisture after after-cooler are removed

using air dryers, as air for instrument and pneumatic equipment has to be
relatively free of any moisture. The moisture is removed by using
adsorbents like silica gel /activated carbon, or refrigerant dryers, or heat
of compression dryers.

2
 Figure 1.2: Types of Compressor Components

 Moisture Drain Trap s: Moisture drain traps are used for removal of
moisture in the compressed air. These traps resemble steam traps. Various
types of traps used are manual drain cocks, timer based / automatic drain
valves etc.

 Receivers: Air receivers are provided as storage and smoothening

pulsating air output - reducing pressure variations from the compressor

3
1.2 TYPES OF COMPRESSORS

As shown in Figure 1.3, there are two basic compressor types: positive-
displacement and dynamic. In the positive-displacement type, a given quantity of
air or gas is trapped in a compression chamber and the volume it occupies is
mechanically reduced, causing a corresponding rise in pressure prior to discharge.
At constant speed, the air flow remains essentially constant with variations in
discharge pressure.

Dynamic compressors impart velocity energy to continuously flowing air or

gas by means of impellers rotating at very high speeds. The velocity energy is
changed into pressure energy both by the impellers and the discharge volutes or
diffusers. In the centrifugal-type dynamic compressors, the shape of the impeller
blades determines the relationship between air flow and the pressure (or head)
generated.

Figure 1.3: Types of Compressors

4
 A. Positive Displacement Compressor

These compressors are available in two types: reciprocating and rotary.

a) Reciprocating compressor

In industry, reciprocating compressors are the most widely used type for both
air and refrigerant compression (see Figure 4). They work on the principles of a
bicycle pump and are characterized by a flow output that remains nearly constant
over a range of discharge pressures. Also, the compressor capacity is directly
proportional to the speed. The output, however, is a pulsating one.

Figure 1.4: A Cross-Sectional View of a Reciprocating Compressor

Reciprocating compressors are available in many configurations, the four

most widely used are horizontal, vertical, and horizontal balance-opposed and
tandem. Vertical type reciprocating compressors are used in the capacity range of
50–150cfm. Horizontal balance opposed compressors are used in the capacity range
of 200– 5000cfm in multi-stage design and up to 10,000cfm in single stage designs
(National Productivity Council, 1993).

The reciprocating air compressor is considered single acting when the

compressing is accomplished using only one side of the piston. A compressor using
both sides of the piston is considered double acting.A compressor is considered to be

5
single stage when the entire compression is accomplished with a single cylinder or a
group of cylinders in parallel. Too great a compression ratio (absolute discharge
pressure/absolute intake pressure) may cause excessive discharge temperature or other
design problems. Two stage machines are used for high pressures and are
characterized by lower discharge temperature (140 to 160o C) compared to single-
stage machines (205 to 240oC).

For practical purposes most plant air reciprocating air compressors over 100
horsepower are built as multi-stage units in which two or more steps of compression
are grouped in series. The air is normally cooled between the stages to reduce the
temperature and volume entering the following stage. (National Productivity Council,
1993).

Reciprocating air compressors are available either as air-cooled or water-

cooled in lubricated and non- lubricated configurations, may be packaged, and
provide a wide range of pressure and capacity selections.

b) Rotary compressor

Rotary compressors have rotors in place of pistons and give a continuous pulsation
free discharge. They operate at high speed and generally provide higher throughput
than reciprocating compressors. Their capital costs are low, they are compact in size,
have low weight, and are easy to maintain. For this reason they have gained
popularity with industry. They are most commonly used in sizes from about 30 to
200hp or 22 to 150 kW.

ig 1.5: View of Screw compressor

6
Types of rotary compressors include:

 Lobe compressor (roots blower)

 Screw compressor (rotary screw of helical-lobe, where male and female screw
rotors moving in opposite directions and trap air, which is compressed as it
moves forward, see Figure 6)
 Rotary vane / sliding- vane, liquid-ring, and scroll-type

Rotary screw compressors may be air or water-cooled. Since the cooling takes
place right inside the compressor, the working parts never experience extreme
operating temperatures. The rotary compressor, therefore, is a continuous duty, air
cooled or water cooled compressor package.

Because of the simple design and few wearing parts, rotary screw air compressors
are easy to maintain, operate and provide great installation flexibility. Rotary air
compressors can be installed on any surface that will support the static weight.

B. Dynamic Compressors

The centrifugal air compressor (see Figure 1.6 ) is a dynamic compressor,

which depends on transfer of energy from a rotating impeller to the air. The rotor
accomplishes this by changing the momentum and pressure of the air. This
momentum is converted to useful pressure by slowing the air down in a stationary
diffuser. The centrifugal air compressor is an oil free compressor by design. The oil
lubricated running gear is separated from the air by shaft seals and atmospheric vents.

The centrifugal is a continuous duty compressor, with few moving parts,

that is particularly suited to high volume applications -especially where oil free air
is required.

Centrifugal air compressors are water-cooled and may be packaged;

typically the package includes the after-cooler and all controls. These compressors
have appreciably different characteristics as compared to reciprocating machines.

7
 Fig 1.6: Centrifugal Compressor

A small change in compression ratio produces a marked change in

compressor output and efficiency. Centrifugal machines are better suited for
applications requiring very high capacities, typically above 12,000cfm. Application
wise selection criteria of different types of compressors are given in the following
table.

8
 Table 1.1: General Selection Criteria of Compressors

Item Reciprocating Rotary Vane Rotary Screw Centrifugal

Efficiency at full High Medium - high High High

load
Efficiency at part High due to to Poor: below Poor: below 60% Poor: below
load staging 60% of full of full load 60% of full
load load
Efficiency at no load High (10% - Medium (30% High-Poor (25% - High-Medium
(power as % of full 25%) - 40%) 60%) (20% - 30%)
load)
Noise level Noisy Quiet Quiet-if enclosed Quiet

Size Large Compact Compact Compact

Oil carry over Moderate Low- medium Low Low

Vibration High Almost none Almost none Almost none

Maintenance Many wearing Few wearing Very few wearing Sensitive to

Parts parts parts dust in air

Capacity Low - high Low - medium Low - medium Medium - high

Pressure Medium - very Low - medium Medium - high Medium - high

High
ow - high

Table 1.2. A High-level Comparison of important Compressor Types

9
 2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 THEORY

A. Gas Laws

By definition, compressors are intended to compress a substance in a gaseous

state. In predicting compressor performance and calculating the loads on the various
components, we need methods to predict the properties of the gas. Process
compressors are used to compress a wide range of gases over a wide range of
conditions. There is no single equation of state (an equation that allows the density of
a gas to be calculated if the pressure and temperature are known) that will be accurate
for all gases under all conditions. Some of the commonly used ones, starting with the
most simple, are discussed below. The simplest equation of state is the perfect gas
law:

This equation applies accurately only to gases when the temperature is much
higher than the critical temperature or the pressure much lower than the critical
pressure. Air at atmospheric conditions obeys this law well. To predict the properties
of real gases more accurately, the perfect gas law is often modified by the addition of
an empirical value ‘‘Z’’, called the compressibility, or sometimes the super
compressibility, of the gas. The value of Z is a function of the gas composition and
the pressure and temperature of the gas. The modified equation is:

This equation is accurate if, and only if, Z is known accurately. Z can be
estimated with reasonable accuracy in many cases using the Law of Corresponding
10
States which states that the value of Z as a function of the reduced pressure and
temperature is approximately the same for all gases.

B. Thermodynamic Laws

For calculating compressor cycles, the energy equation, relationships applying to an

isentropic change of state, and the law for fluid flow through a restriction are needed.
The Energy equation for a fixed mass of gas states simply that the increase of
energy of the gas equals the work done on the gas minus the heat transferred from

the gas to the surroundings. For the conditions in a compressor, we can ignore
changes in potential and chemical energy. In applications where the energy equation
for a fixed mass of gas is used, we can usually also ignore changes in kinetic energy.
The energy equation then reduces to:

C. Compression Cycles

The work supplied to a compressor goes to increasing the pressure of the gas,
to increasing the temperature of the gas and to any heat transferred out of the
compressor. In most cases, the requirement is to increase the pressure of the gas using
the least possible power. If the compression process is adiabatic, that is, there is no
heat transfer between the compressor and the outside, then the least work will be done
if the process is isentropic. This implies that there are no losses in the compressor and
which is an unachievable goal, but one that can be used as a base for the compression
efficiency. The isentropic efficiency of a compressor is defined as the work required
to compress the gas in an isentropic process divided by the actual work used to
compress the gas. The efficiency of a compressor is most often given as the isentropic
efficiency.

However, it is possible to construct a compressor with an isentropic efficiency

greater than 100%. The work done in a reversible isothermal process is less than that

11
done in an isentropic process. In a reversible isothermal process, the temperature of
the gas is maintained at the suction temperature by reversible heat transfer as the
compression proceeds. There must, of course, be no losses in this process. Many
compressors have a final discharge temperature that is much lower than the isentropic
discharge temperature, and the power required is reduced by this. However, the power
required is almost always still greater than the isentropic power and so the isentropic
efficiency is universally used to rank compressors.

D. Ideal Positive Displacement Compressor Cycle

As an example of a positive displacement compressor, consider a reciprocating

compressor cylinder
compressing gas from a suction
pressure PS to a discharge
pressure PD. In compressor
𝑷𝒅
terminology, the ratio is
𝑷𝒔

known as the compression

ratio. This can be contrasted to
reciprocating engine
terminology where the
compression ratio is a ratio of
volumes. For a reciprocating
compressor, the ideal
compression cycle is as shown
on Fig. 1.2. The cycle is shown
on pressure against crank angle
and pressure against cylinder Fig 2.1: Ideal Compressor Cycle

volume coordinates. The cycle can be explained starting at point 1. This represents the
point when the piston is at the dead center position that gives the maximum cylinder
volume. The gas in the cylinder is at the suction pressure Ps.

12
 As the piston moves to decrease the cylinder volume, the mass of gas trapped
in the cylinder is compressed and its pressure and temperature rise. In the ideal case,
there is no friction and no heat transfer and so the change is isentropic and the change
of pressure and temperature can be calculated from the known change of volume
using the above equations for isentropic change of state. At point 2, the pressure has
increased to equal the discharge pressure. In the ideal compressor, the discharge valve
will open at this point and there will be no pressure loss across the valve. As the
piston moves to further decrease the cylinder volume, the gas in the cylinder is
displaced into the discharge line and the pressure in the cylinder remains constant.

At point 3, the piston has reached the end of its travel, the cylinder is at its
minimum volume and the discharge valve closes. As the piston reverses and moves to
increase the cylinder volume, the gas that was trapped in the clearance volume
(sometimes called the fixed clearance) at point 3, expands and its pressure and
temperature decrease. Again there are no losses or heat transfer and the change of
pressure and temperature can be calculated using the expressions for isentropic
change of state. At point 4, the pressure has decreased to again equal the suction
pressure. The suction valve opens at this point. As the piston moves to further increase
the cylinder volume, gas is drawn into the cylinder through the suction valve.

When the piston again reaches the dead center, point 1, the cylinder volume is
at its maximum, the suction valve closes, and the cycle repeats. The work required
per cycle and hence the horsepower required to drive the compressor can easily be
calculated from the pressure against volume diagram or from the temperature rise
across the compressor. The work done on the gas during a small time interval during
which the cylinder volume changes by dV is equal to P dV and the work done during
one compressor cycle is the integral of this for the cycle. That is, the work done equals
the area of the cycle diagram on pressure against volume axes (Fig. 8).

Note that the equivalence of work done per cycle and diagram area holds for
real as well as ideal cycles. That is, the magnitude of losses that cause a horsepower
requirement increase can be measured off the indicator card as the pressure vs.

13
volume plot is often called. (If the pressure on the indicator card is in psi and the
volume in cubic inches, the work done as given by the card area will be in inch lb. and
must be divided by 12 to give the work done in ft. lb.) Once the work done per cycle
is known, the horsepower can be calculated. If the work done is in ft. lb., and the
speed in rpm:

E. Ideal Dynamic Compressor Cycle

In a dynamic compressor, the moving part increases the velocity of the gas and
the resulting kinetic energy is converted into pressure energy. Typically, both
processes occur simultaneously in the rotating element and the gas leaves the rotor at
higher pressure and with a higher velocity than it entered. Some of the kinetic energy
is then converted into pressure energy in the stator by means of a diffusion process,
that is, flow through a diverging channel.

If we ignore the effects of heat transfer, the steady flow energy equation states
that the increase in stagnation enthalpy for flow in the rotor equals the work done. As
there is no work done on the gas in the stator, the stagnation enthalpy remains
constant. These relationships are true regardless of the efficiency of the process. In a
completely inefficient process, the temperature of the gas will be increased, but the
pressure will not. In an efficient process, the pressure of the gas will be increased as
well as the temperature.

For a compressor with no losses and no heat transfer, the process will be
isentropic. The increase in enthalpy for compression from a given initial pressure and
temperature to a given final pressure can be obtained from a Mollier chart, or from an
equation of state. For an ideal gas, it can be calculated as follows.

14
The isentropic efficiency which is the work required for an isentropic compression
divided by the actual work can be calculated as:

It is sometimes considered that any excess kinetic energy in the discharge gas over
that of the inlet gas is also a useful output of the compressor. It can, after all, be
recovered in a diffuser. In this case, the actual stagnation enthalpies should be used
and:

3. PROCEDURE ADOPTED

3.1 RECIPROCATING PISTON COMPRESSOR COMPONENTS

A reciprocating piston compressor can come in two basic configurations.

The simplest is a piston in a cylinder, directly driven from a crankshaft by a
connecting rod attached to the piston by a wrist pin. This single acting (trunk type)
piston can only compress gas on one face, and any leakage past the rings will vent
into the crankcase. This can be hazardous with explosive, corrosive or poisonous
gases, so this type of compressor is limited to applications where costs or simplicity
are primary, such as shop air compressors.

The illustration below shows a double acting compressor cylinder. In this

case, the crankshaft drives a connecting rod which transmits force through a
crosshead pin to a crosshead (similar to a trunk piston), moving in a slide. This
converts the eccentric motion of the connecting rod to a pure linear force. A
compressor rod connected to the crosshead transmits force to the compressor piston.

15
 Fig 3.1: Engine Driven Double Acting Compressor Cylinder

In this case, the cylinder can be sealed on both ends, with the rod passing
through a packing case to seal gas from leaking. This cylinder then can compress
gas on both faces. By adding a vented space between the cylinder and crosshead, any
leakage from the cylinder can be vented to a safe location, allowing handling of
hazardous gases.

16
 Fig 3.2: Air Compressor Lexicon

3.1.1 Cylinder and Ends

The compressor cylinder is a casting or forging designed to safely contain

some maximum working pressure. It is machined to hold compressor valves and to
direct gas flow to and from the cylinder cavity. In combination with the cylinder

17
ends, it must contain the gas pressure, while having sufficiently large gas flow
passages so there are minimal pressure drops due to gas flow.

Fig 3.3: Cylinder Head

The cylinder and ends may also have water passages to stabilize temperature
and dimensional changes. All these requirements involve compromises between size,
strength, and flow passage size (efficiency). Compressor cylinders are designed for
some operating range and service.

If conditions change, they may not perform reliably or efficiently. As an

example, a cylinder for gas transmission has large flow passages and valve areas for
efficiency at high gas volumes and low pressure ratios, and will not function at high
ratios.

Similarly, a process cylinder may be a forging with small passages, giving

higher strength but low efficiency.

18
3.1.2 Piston/Rings

Fig 3.4: Variations of Piston in Mechanical Devices

The compressor piston converts the energy/work supplied by the engine,

applying it to the gas to raise its pressure. The piston must be strong enough to
withstand the pressures and forces applied, but still be as light as possible, to
minimize reciprocating weights and the resulting shaking forces.

Fig 3.5: Compressor Piston

The compressor rings seal gas pressure to avoid leaking from one side of the
piston to the other. The piston may also be fitted with a rider band, which is a low
friction material to keep the metal piston from contacting the bore of the cylinder and
causing scuffing and wear. Material for the rings and rider bands is selected to give
long life and minimal wear with the typical pressures and gas composition of the
compressor.

19
 Fig 3.6: Piston Rings

Special Aluminum alloy pistons for non-lubricated air compressor and

graded cast iron pistons are for lubricated models. Piston Rings are used for sealing
to cylinder. Alloy Steel piston rods fitted with wear resistant packing rings of
antifriction type to prevent any possibility of compressed air leakage.

While this is generally a low friction thermoplastic type material, rings may
be made of bronze or other materials when temperatures are a problem.

3.1.3 Valves

Compressor valves are simply fast acting check valves with a low pressure
drop. They must be optimized to balance the opposing demands for long operating
life and minimal pressure drop/flow losses. They may also have special features
such as center ports to allow cylinder unloading.

Fig 3.7: Valve Detail – Reciprocating Air Compressor

20
 The compressor valve is possibly the most critical component when
determining the requirements for a compressor service. The flow area is sensitive, as
too small an area will give low efficiency, but too large an area can result in valve
flutter and early failure. Similarly, valve components must be designed for the
expected pressure and temperature conditions.

Valves have been designed with many configurations, particularly in the

sealing elements. These have progressed through steel, Bakelite, glass filled Teflon
or Nylon, and high strength plastics. The most popular designs for sealing elements
are ring shaped strips, mushroom shaped poppets, and straight channel strips.

Plate Type Valves/Single Deck Poppet Type Valve/Double Deck

Fig 3.8: Typical Compressor Valve Configurations - Cross Sections

The design of compressor valves includes a number of variations to

accommodate cylinder flow and unloading requirements. The simplest is a single
deck valve, shown on the left above, where gas flows into passages in one face,
across the sealing elements, and out through passages in the back face of the valve.

A modification of this design is to have a large opening in the center of the

valve. This allows adding a cylinder deactivator or clearance volume to the cylinder.
This added feature comes at the expense of reduced flow area and efficiency. To
compensate for this, two valves may be assembled together with a flow passage
21
through the center. This double deck valve design has improved flow area and
efficiency. This type of valve can only be used in a cylinder designed to accept its
increased height.

3.1.4 Packing

The compressor packing is a series of pressure containing rings located in

the crank end of a double acting compressor cylinder. These seal against the piston
rod and prevent leakage, so that the cylinder can compress gas on both sides of the
piston. Again, as with compressor rings, the packing material is selected to provide
best life and sealing with expected conditions.

Fig 3.9: Cylinder Pressure Packing

The packing is generally pressure lubricated, and may have coolant flow to
remove friction heat. There are also various specialty types to reduce gas leakage
around the rod. This may be important when compressing highly flammable or
toxic gases. It is also becoming more important in reducing gas leakage and
emission of “greenhouse gases”.

3.1.5 Clearance Unloaders

In many applications, the volume of gas to be delivered may change based on

22
either gas supply or process demands. Also, varying pressure conditions can change
the load on the driver, requiring load control. This may be accomplished by speed
variation, deactivating cylinders or cylinder ends, or by varying cylinder clearance.
This last option is highly preferred, as speed control may have a limited range, and
deactivating cylinders or ends can cause mechanical shaking or acoustic pulsations.

Fig 3.10: Pressure Unloader

Clearance unloaders allow varying throughput and load with minimal loss of
efficiency. Unloaders are not actually a part of a compressor, but are included on
many installations, to give load and throughput control. This may be done by
volumes cast into the cylinder or heads, with a valve to close the passageway. Other
options are valve cap pockets and head end variable pockets. Added clearance may
have a simple hand wheel to control its operation, or may have pneumatic actuators,
which allow automatic operation.

3.1.6 Distance Piece Compartment(s)

A distance piece section may be placed between the crosshead and cylinder
to prevent leakage of gas from the compressor packing entering the compressor
crankcase. At the crosshead end, an oil seal around the compressor rod prevents oil
from migrating to the cylinder, and gas from entering the crankcase. This distance
piece is normally vented to remove any gas which leaks from the packing. In cases
of explosive or toxic gases there may be two distance pieces in series, to assure
containment of the gases.

23
3.1.7 Frame/Crankcase

Totally enclosed, rigid cast iron body in square or rectangle shape. Bearing
housing is fitted on crank case with accurately bored to fit Main Bearings so,
misalignment or eccentricity is avoided. It gives better support to the crank shaft.

3.1.8 Crank Shaft

High grade S.G. Iron crank shaft in one piece in design, dynamically
balanced with counter weights, avoid any twisting. Crank pin & Journals duly
ground & polished, ensure long life of bearings. A Flywheel is fitted on crank shaft.

3.1.9 Connecting Rod

Forged alloy steel connecting rod is duly normalized and are designed to
provide minimum thrust on cross head bearing surface.

Fig 3.11: Connecting Rod

3.1.10 Main Bearings & Big End Bearings

Copper lead alloy designed for long life. It gives perfect rigidity to running
gear.

24
3.1.11 Cross Slide & Cross Head

Manufactured from High grade S.G. Iron material. Its low inertia along with
low friction cross slide ensure perfect running of cross head.

3.1.12 Suction & Discharge Valves

The performance of air compressor is mostly depend upon the condition of

suction and discharge valves. These valves are very important part in any
reciprocating air compressor. Every valve requires a periodic inspection and
maintenance.

3.1.16 Oil Pump

Air-compressor oil is usually a synthetic oil that does not contain detergents
commonly found in motor oil. Air-compressor oil is manufactured specifically for use
in lubricating the ball bearings inside a compressor and is generally the recommended
choice by manufacturers of air compressors. A synthetic oil also helps reduce carbon
deposits within the compressor.

Motor oil comes in organic and synthetic varieties and is used in vehicle
engines to provide lubrication between metal parts. Unlike air-compressor oil, motor
oil often contains additives that help protect engines by preventing the oil from
deteriorating under high operating temperatures.

25
 Fig 3.13: 2T Oil Preferred

Interchangeability

While it's possible to use a motor oil in some air compressors, it is not
generally recommended that air-compressor oil be used in motor vehicles.

It feeds oil to main bearings, connecting rod bearings & to cross slides. The
oil pump regulates the oil pressure by pressure regulating screw.

3.2 COMPRESSOR TANK

Air receiver tanks are designed to provide a supply buffer to meet short-term
demand spikes that can exceed the compressor capacity. They also serve to dampen
reciprocating compressor pulsations, separate out particles and liquids, and make the
compressed air system easier to control

Photo 3.1: SS Sheet undergoing Rolling

Air receivers in compressed air systems serves the important purposes of:

26
 Equalizing the pressure variation from the start/stop and modulating

sequence of the compressor

Photo 3.2: Scrap Tank used for Tank Side Caps

 Storage of air volume equalizing the variation in consumption and demand

from the system

 Collecting condensate and water in the air after the compressor

27
 4. RESULTS AND GUIDELINES

4.1 CAPACITY OF A COMPRESSOR

The capacity of a compressor is the full rated volume of flow of gas

compressed and delivered under conditions of total temperature, total pressure,
and composition prevailing at the compressor inlet. It sometimes means actual
flow rate, rather than rated volume of flow. This is also called free air delivery
(FAD) i.e. air at atmospheric conditions at any specific location. This term does not
mean air delivered under identical or standard conditions because the altitude,
barometer, and temperature may vary at different localities and at different times.

4.1.1 Assessment of capacity of a Compressor

Due to ageing of the compressors and inherent inefficiencies in the internal

components, the free air delivered may be less than the design value, despite good
maintenance practices. Sometimes, other factors such as poor maintenance, fouled
heat exchanger and effects of altitude also tend to reduce free air delivery. In order to
meet the air demand, the inefficient compressor may have to run for more time, thus
consuming more power than actually required.

The power wastage depends on the percentage deviation of FAD capacity.

For example, a worn out compressor valve can reduce the compressor capacity by
as much as 20 percent. A periodic assessment of the FAD capacity of each
compressor has to be carried out to check its actual capacity. If the deviations are
more than 10 percent, corrective measures should be taken to rectify the same.

The ideal method of compressor capacity assessment is through a nozzle

test wherein a calibrated nozzle is used as a load, to vent out the generated
compressed air. Flow is assessed, based on the air temperature, stabilization,
pressure, orifice constant, etc.

28
4.1.2 Simple method of capacity assessment at the shop floor

 
Isolate the compressor along with its individual receiver that are to be taken
for a test from the main compressed air system by tightly closing the
isolation valve or blanking it, thus closing the receiver outlet.
 Open the water drain valve and drain out water fully and empty the receiver
and the pipeline.

Make sure that the water trap line is tightly closed once again to start the test.

 Start the compressor and activate the stopwatch.

 Note the time taken to attain the normal operational pressure P2 (in the
receiver) from initial pressure P1.
 Calculate the capacity as per the formulae given below (Confederation of
Indian Industries):

The above equation is relevant where the compressed air temperature is the
same as the ambient air temperature, i.e., perfect isothermal compression. In case
o
the actual compressed air temperature at discharge, say t 2 C is higher than
ambient air temperature say t1 0 C (as is usual case), the FAD is to be corrected by a
factor (273 + t1 ) / (273 + t2 ).

29
 Through pragmatic calculation, Q is noted to be CFM/4.6min = 15.13Nm3 per
min

4.2 COMPRESSOR EFFICIENCY

Several different measures of compressor efficiency are commonly used:

volumetric efficiency, adiabatic efficiency, isothermal efficiency and mechanical
efficiency.

Adiabatic and isothermal efficiencies are computed as the isothermal or adiabatic

power divided by the actual power consumption. The figure obtained indicates the
overall efficiency of a compressor and drive motor.

4.2.1 Thickness Calculation

Thickness calculation for cylinder from the concept of the thin cylinders

𝑝𝑑
σt =
2𝑡
where,
σt= shear stress

p= pressure inside

d= diameter of the cylinder

t = thickness of cylinder

𝑝𝑑
t=
2σt
we know,

p= 0.68N/mm2

d= 300 mm

σt = 24.28 N/mm2

30
 0.68 × 300
t= 2 × 24.28

Thickness of Sheet used to make the cylinder, t= 4.2mm

4.2.2 Isothermal efficiency

Actual Measured Input Power

Isothermal Efficiency =
IsothermalPower

Isothermal power (kW) = P1 x Q1 x loge(r/36.7)

where, P1 = Absolute intake pressure kg/ cm2

Q1 = Free air delivered m3 /hr.

r = Pressure ratio P2 /P 1

The calculation of isothermal power does not include power needed to

overcome friction and generally gives an efficiency that is lower than adiabatic
efficiency. The reported value of efficiency is normally the isothermal efficiency.
This is an important consideration when selecting compressors based on reported
values of efficiency.

Isothermal Efficiency is found to be 0.695.

4.2.3 Volumetric Efficiency

Compressor Displacement = π x D2 /4 x L x S x k x n

Where D = Cylinder bore, meter = 0.057m

L = Cylinder stroke, meter = 0.13m

S = Compressor speed rpm = 650rpm

31
 k = 1 for single acting and

2 for double acting cylinders

n = No. of cylinders =1

For practical purposes, the most effective guide in comparing compressor

efficiencies is the specific power consumption, i.e. kW/volume flow rate, for
different compressors that would provide identical duty.

Therefore, Volumetric Efficiency, through the above values is found to be 0.68

4.3 PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT OF DISTRIBUTION LOSSES

4.3.1 Leak Can Set and Consequences

A system of distribution pipes and regulators convey compressed air from the
central compressor plant to process areas. This system includes various isolation
valves, fluid traps, intermediate storage vessels, and even heat trace on pipes to
prevent condensation or freezing in lines exposed to the outdoors. Pressure losses in
distribution typically are compensated for by higher pressure at the compressor
discharge.

At the intended point of use, a feeder pipe with a final isolation valve, filter,
and regulator carries the compressed air to hoses that supply processes or pneumatic
tools. Leaks can be a significant source of wasted energy in an industrial
compressed air system, sometimes wasting 20 to 30 percent of a compressor’s
output. On the other hand, proactive leak detection and repair can reduce leaks to
less than 10 percent of compressor output.

In addition to being a source of wasted energy, leaks can also contribute to

other operating losses. Increased running time can also lead to additional
maintenance requirements and increased unscheduled downtime. Finally, leaks can
lead to adding unnecessary compressor capacity.

While leakage can come from any part of the system, the most common problem
areas are:
32
  Couplings, hoses, tubes, and fittings
 Pressure regulators
 Open condensate traps and shut-off valves
 Pipe joints, disconnects, and thread sealants.

Leakage rates are a function of the supply pressure in an uncontrolled system and increase
with higher system pressures. Leakage rates identified in cubic feet per minute
(cfm) are also proportional to the square of the orifice diameter. See table below.

Leakage Rates* (cfm)

Pressure Orifice Diameter (inches)

(psig)
1/64 1/32 1/16 1/8 1/4 3/8
70 0.29 1.16 4.66 18.62 74.40 167.80

80 0.32 1.26 5.24 20.76 83.10 187.20

90 0.36 1.46 5.72 23.10 92.00 206.60
100 0.40 1.55 6.31 25.22 100.90 227.00
125 0.48 1.94 7.66 30.65 122.20 275.50
* For well-rounded orifices, values should be multiplied by 0.97 and by 0.611 for sharp ones
Table 4.1: Leakage Rates for different supply pressure and orifice sizes

3.2.2 Leak Quantification

For compressors that have start/stop or load/unload controls, there is an easy

way to estimate the amount of leakage in the system. This method involves starting
the compressor when there are no demands on the system (when all the air -
operated, end-use equipment is turned off). The compressor will load and
unload because the air leaks will cause the compressor to cycle on and off as
the pressure drops from air escaping through the leaks. Total leakage (percentage) can
be calculated as follows:

33
Leakage will be expressed in terms of the percentage of compressor capacity
lost. The percentage lost to leakage should be less than 10 percent in a well-
maintained s ystem. Poorly maintained systems can have losses as high as 20 to 30
percent of air capacity and power.

4.4 SAFETY GUIDELINES

I. Instructions

1. Air Compressor

Prior to installation and usage, thoroughly inspect air compressor for damages.

• Check tank, compressor, compressor motor, and pump for any signs of
damage or corrosion.
• Check all screws, bolts, nuts and fasteners, confirm that they are secure.
• Confirm that all fittings, tank petcock, hardware and paint, are free from rust
and corrosion.
• Confirm that all compressor settings are correct prior to start up and usage.
2. Air Tool Inspection

Prior to connecting and using compressor, thoroughly inspect each air tool for
damage.

• Check entire tool assembly for any signs of damage or corrosion.

• Check all assembly screws, bolts and nuts and fasteners, confirm that they are
secure.
• Confirm that all fittings, bits and hardware are in good condition.
• Confirm that tool settings are correct prior to connection and usage.

34
 II. Contingencies

A. RISK OF DUST

Dust from power sanding, sawing, grinding, drilling, and other construction
activities contain chemicals which can cause cancer, birth defects or other
reproductive harm.

These chemicals may include (but are not limited to) the following:

• Lead from lead-based paints

• Crystalline silica from bricks and cement and other masonry products
• Arsenic and chromium from chemically-treated lumber

The risk from these exposures very, depending on how often you do this type of
work. To reduce your exposure to these chemicals: Work in a well-ventilated area,
and work with approved safety equipment. Always wear MAHA/MIOSH approved,
properly fitting face masks or respirators when using such tools. Always follow basic
safety precautions when using air tools to reduce the risk of personal injury.

B. Risk of Bursting
• Rust can weaken the tank. Drain the condensed water from the tank after each
use to reduce rusting.
• If a leak is detected in the tank, replace the tank immediately.
• Do not weld, drill or modify the air tank of the compressor.
• Welding or modifications on the air compressor tank can severely impair tank
strength and cause an extremely hazardous condition.
• Welding or modifying the tank in any manner will void the warranty. Check
the manufacturer’s maximum pressure rating for air tools and accessories.
• Compressor outlet pressure must be regulated so as to never exceed the
maximum pressure rating of the tool. Relieve all pressure in the hose before
attaching or removing accessories.
• Do not tamper with the pressure switch or relief valve for any reason. Doing
so voids all warranties. They have been preset at the factory for the maximum
pressure of this unit.
35
• Personal injury and /or property damage may result if the pressure switch or
the relief valve are tampered with. Do not use plastic or PVC pipe for
compressor air. Use only galvanized steel pipe & fittings for compressed air
distribution lines.
C. Risk of Eye or Head Injury
a. What could happen
• Air powered equipment and power tools are capable of propelling materials
such as fasteners, metal chips, saw dust, and other debris at high speed, which
could result in serious eye injury.
• Compressed air can be hazardous .The air stream can cause injury to soft
tissue areas such as eyes, ears, etc. Particles or objects propelled by the stream
can cause injury.
• Tool attachments can be become loose or break and fly apart propelling
particles at the operator and others in the work area.
b. How to prevent it
• Always wear ANSI approved Z87.1 safety glasses with glasses with side
shields.
• Never leave operating tool unattended. Disconnect air hose when tool is not in
use.
• For additional protection, use an approved face shield in addition to safety
glasses.
• Make sure that any attachments are securely assembled.
• Never point any nozzle or sprayer toward a person or any part of the body.
• Equipment can cause serious injury if the spray penetrates the skin.

D. Risk of Fire or Explosion

a. What could happen
• Abrasive tools such as sanders and grinders, rotating tools such as drills, and
impact tools such as nailers, staples, wrenches, hammers, and reciprocating

36
 saws are capable of generating sparks which could result in ignition of
flammable materials.
• It is normal for the compressor motor and pressure switch to produce sparks
while operating. If sparks come into contract with vapors from gasoline or
other solvents, they may ignite, causing a fire or explosion.
• Exceeding the maximum pressure rating of tools or accessories could cause an
explosion resulting in serious injury.
b. How to prevent it
• Never operate tools near flammable substances such as gasoline, cleaning
solvents, etc.
• Work in a clean, well-ventilated area free of combustible materials.
• Never use oxygen, carbon dioxide or other bottled gases as power source for
air tools.
• Use compressed air regulated to maximum pressure at or below the rated
pressure of any attachments.
• Never connect to an air source that is capable of exceeding 90 psi.
• Always verify prior to using the tool that the air source has been adjusted to
the rated air pressure range.
• Never spray flammable liquids in a confined area. Do not spray where sparks
or flame are present.
• Do not smoke while spraying.
• Keep compressor as far from spray area as possible.

E. Risk of Hearing Loss

a. What could happen

 Long term exposure to noise produced from the operation of air tools can lead
to permanent hearing loss
b. How to prevent:
 Always wear ANSI S3.19 hearing protection when using a compressor.

37
F. Risk to Breathing/Inhalation Hazard

a. What could happen

 Abrasive tools such as grinders, sanders and cut-off tools generate dust and
abrasive materials which can be harmful to human lungs and respiratory
system.
 Some materials such as adhesives and tar contain chemicals whose vapors
could cause respiratory damage. Read all instructions to be sure that your
respirator mask will protect you.
 Always work in a clean, dry, well-ventilated area.
 Never directly inhale the compressed air produced by a compressor .It is not
suitable for breathing purposes.
 Be certain to read all labels when you are spraying paints or toxic materials,
and follow the safety instructions.

G. Risk of Injury

a. What could happen

 Tools left unattended, or with the air hose attached can be activated by
unauthorized persons leading to their injury and/or injury to others.
 Air tools can propel fasteners or other materials throughout the work area.
 A wrench or key that is left attached to a rotating part of the tool increases the
risk of personal injury.
 Using inflator nozzles for duster applications can cause serious injury.
 Air tools can become activated by accident during maintenance or tool
changes.
 Air tools can cause the work-piece to move upon contact leading to injury.
 Loss of control of the tool can lead to injury to self or others.
 Poor quality, improper, or damaged tools such as grinding wheels, chisels,
sockets, drills, nailers, staples, etc., can fly apart during operation, propelling
particles throughout the work area causing serious injury.
38
 Fasteners could ricochet or be propelled causing serious injury or property
damage.
 Improperly maintained tools and accessories can cause serious injury.
 There is a risk of bursting if the tool is damaged.
 The compressor unit starts automatically. Serious injury could occur from
contact with moving parts.
b. How to prevent it
 Remove air hose when tool is not in use and store tool in secure location away
from reach of children and or untrained users.
 Use only parts, fasteners, and accessories recommended by the manufacture.
 Keep work area clean and free of clutter. Keep children and others away from
area during operation of the tool.
 Keep work area well lit.
 Remove adjusting keys and wrenches before turning the tool on.
 DO NOT use inflator nozzles for duster applications.
 Remove air hose to lubricate or add grinding attachments, sanding discs, drills,
etc. to the tool.
 Never carry the tool by the hose.
 Avoid unintentional starting.
 Repair servicing should be done only by an authorized service representative.
 Never operate tool while under the influence of drugs or alcohol.
 Don’t overreach .Keep proper footing and balance of all times.
 Keep handles dry, clean and free from oil and grease.
 Stay alert. Watch what you are doing .Use common sense. Do not operate tool
when you are tried.
 Always use tool attachments rated for the aped of the power tool.
 Never use tools which have been dropped, impacted or damaged by use.
 Use only impact grade sockets on an impact wrench.
 Do not apply excessive force to the tool. Let the tool perform the work.

39
 Never point discharge of tool at self or others.
 Do not pull trigger unless tool contact safety device is against work surface.
 Never attempt to drive fasteners into hard surfaces such as steel, concrete, or
tile when using air tools.
 Use only accessories identified by the manufacturer to be used with specific
tools.
 Maintain the tool with care.
 Keep a cutting tool sharp and clean .A properly maintained tool, with sharp
cutting edges reduces the risk of binding and is easier to control.
 Check for misalignment of binding or moving parts, breakage of parts, and any
other condition that affects the tool’s operation. If damaged, have the tool
serviced before using.
 Use of an accessory not intended for use with the specific tools increases the
risk of injury to persons.
 Always shut off the compressor, remove the plug from the outlet, and bleed all
pressure from the system before servicing the compressor, and when the
compressor is not in use.
 Do not operate the unit with the shroud removed.

H. Risk of Electric Shock

a. What could happen

 Using air tools to attach electrical wiring can result in electrocution, or death.

 Improper electrical connections can result in fires, electrocution, or death.

 If the tool is not provided with an insulated gripping surface. Contact with a
“live” wire makes exposed metal tool parts “live”, resulting in possible
electrocution or death.

 Fasteners coming in contact with hidden electrical wiring could cause

electrocution or death.

40
b. How to prevent it:

 Never attach electrical wiring with energized tools.

 Avoid body contact with grounded surfaces such as pipes, radiators, ranges,
and refrigerators. There is an increased risk of electric shock if your body is
grounded.

 Thoroughly investigate the work piece for possible hidden wiring before
performing work.

 A licensed electrician in accordance with all local and national codes must
install all wiring.

 Never use an electric air compressor outdoors when it is raining or on a wet

surface, as it may cause an electric shock.

I. Risk of Entanglement

a. What could happen

 Tools containing moving elements or driving other moving tools (grinding

wheels, sockets, sanding discs, etc.) can become entangled in hair, clothing,
jewelry, and other loose objects, resulting in injury.
b. How to prevent it
 Never wear loose fitting clothes or apparel that contains loose straps or ties,
etc. which could become entangled in moving parts.
 Remove any jewelry, watches, identifications, necklaces, etc., which might
become caught by the tool.
 Keep hands away from moving parts .Tie up or cover long hair.

J. Risk of Cut or Burns

a. What could happen

 Tools which cut, shear, drill, staple punch, chisel, etc., are capable of causing
serious injury.

41
 The pump and manifold generate high temperatures.
b. How to prevent it:
 Keep the working part of the tool away from hands and body.
 Do not touch the pump, manifold or transfer tube while the pump is running.
Allow them to cool before handing or servicing.
 Keep children away from the compressor at all times.
III. Precautions
 Drain the moisture from the tank daily to help prevent corrosion.
 Pull the pressure relief valve ring daily to ensure proper function and clear
possible obstructions
 To provide proper ventilation for cooling, the compressor must be kept at least
12 inches (31cm) from the nearest wall, in a well-ventilated area.
 Fasten the compressor securely and release tank pressure before transporting.
 Protect the air hose and electronic cord from damage and puncture. Inspect
them weekly for weak or worn spots, and replace if necessary.
 To reduce the risk of electric shock, do not expose to rain. Store indoors.
 Never operate the compressor if the power cord or plug are damaged. Take the
equipment to nearest authorized service center and a specialist technician will
replace it.
 Ensure air intake to compressor is not warm and humid by locating
compressors in well-ventilated area or by drawing cold air from outside. Every
0
4 C rise in air inlet temperature will increase power consumption by 1 percent.
 Clean air-inlet filters regularly. Compressor efficiency will be reduced by 2
percent for every 250 mm WC pressure drop across the filter.
 Keep compressor valves in good condition by removing and inspecting once
every six months. Worn-out valves can reduce compressor efficiency by as
much as 50 percent.
 Install manometers across the filter and monitor the pressure drop as a guide to
replacement of element.

42
 Minimize low-load compressor operation; if air demand is less than 50 percent
of compressor capacity, consider change over to a smaller compressor or
reduce compressor speed appropriately (by reducing motor pulley size) in case
of belt driven compressors.
 Consider the use of regenerative air dryers, which uses the heat of compressed
air to remove moisture.
 Fouled inter-coolers reduce compressor efficiency and cause more water
condensation in air receivers and distribution lines resulting in increased
corrosion. Periodic cleaning of inter-coolers must be ensured.
 Compressor free air delivery test (FAD) must be done periodically to check
the present operating capacity against its design capacity and corrective steps
must be taken if required.

43
 5. CONCLUSIONS

5.1 CONCLUSIONS

In India, reciprocating and screw air compressors are manufactured by most of

the manufacturers. Few of them also manufacture reciprocating gas compressors. The
total capacity range manufactured in India is limited as compared to manufacturers
worldwide. Though this could be termed as a technology gap, this is not a gap in the
true sense, because it is 'market-related'. In India, the demand for these ranges of
reciprocating and screw compressors is not enough to provide the necessary
economies of scale for domestic manufacture.

In terms of compressor design, technology gaps exist in the following types of

compressors.

 Integral gear type centrifugal compressors.

 Oil-free screw compressors (the core unit is imported and assembled in India).

Only one manufacturer, BHEL - a public sector unit, has the manufacturing
base for centrifugal air/gas compressors. Atlas Copco (I) and Ingersoll-Rand (I) are
the other two companies in India which sell Centrifugal Air compressors. However,
neither of these companies has the facility to manufacture these compressors. They
import the core units of the centrifugal air compressors from their parent companies
and assemble them with features according to the users' requirements and sell them in
the country.

More than 50 % of the value of the compressors imported are centrifugal gas
compressors. The reasons for imports are as follow:

* Only BHEL manufactures heavy duty centrifugal gas compressors in India.

* Usually the lead time/delivery period taken by BHEL is quite high compared
to foreign suppliers.

44
 * Integral gear type centrifugal compressors are not manufactured in India and
are totally imported.

Technology gaps exist in the following components of Air & Gas compressors.

* 3-D Impellers

* Oil-free screw rotors

* Mechanical seals

* Bearings

* High speed couplings

* Cartridge filter

* Heat exchangers

* Piston rings

* Valves

Some of the international manufacturers use Analog Study to study the

pressure pulsations produced in reciprocating compressors. But this study technique is
not available in India; instead, Digital study techniques are used for the purpose.

The thrust of research and development efforts of various Indian

manufacturers is not towards developing new types of compressors (basic research &
design) but more towards indigenization of the collaborator's design. The main
reasons for this state of affairs are:

 The low volume of turnover of business does not permit sizable investment in
research and design
 Globally India is not viewed as a source of basic research and design
 It is faster to update technology through collaboration than through indigenous
research

45
5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS

5.2.1 Given the present situation, it is unlikely that the subsidiaries of the
foreign companies in India would be in a position to invest in the latest technology;
namely, centrifugal technology as their parent companies have already built up the
manufacturing base elsewhere in the world.

Also it is unlikely that the other Indian companies (without foreign equity
participation) would be investing in the centrifugal technology in the coming years.
BHEL, which already has a manufacturing base for centrifugal air/gas compressors,
should explore possibilities for extending its product range (especially API 672 based
Integral gear type centrifugal compressors, compressors with 3-D Impellers etc.) by
entering into a technical/equity tie-up with one of the world leaders in these fields if
necessary. The demand in India for these type of compressors is low, yet it is
necessary to become globally competitive. BHEL would be in a position to do this
because of the following reasons:

 BHEL has been in this field since 1971

 BHEL has already supplied many compressors under international competitive
bidding

5.2.2 Research & Development in the field of materials science is necessary to

improve the efficiency and performance of compressors. Industry should work along
with the National Laboratories/Institutes in this direction.

The thrust areas are the following:

* Reducing internal losses

* Noise control

* Miniaturization of compressors

* Thermodynamics

* Fluid flow

46
 5.2.3 Indian manufacturers need to consider catering to the global market.
They should not feel restricted, by low domestic demand, in investing in new
technology. They should take necessary steps such that they possess state-of-the-art
technology.

5.2.4 One of the reasons for the existing technology gap in certain areas like
Oil-free screw compressors, Integral gear type centrifugal compressors etc., is low
domestic demand. Indian manufacturers should try to become globally competitive to
overcome this problem of low domestic demand. They may have to face foreign
competition in the domestic market itself. They should therefore take necessary
measures to meet the challenge.

5.2.5 The following export promotion measures need to be taken to facilitate

exports of compressors:

* Restrictions on delivery of spare parts to client’s abroad need to be

rationalized which would help manufacturers in their export efforts.

* As ISO 9000 certificate is fast becoming an essential export requirement in

some parts of the world, Indian manufacturers should work to get the ISO
9000 certificate.

5.2.6 The technology for making special bearings required by the compressor
manufacturers, should be procured/developed by them.

5.2.7 The technology for making suction and discharge valves used in the
compressors, should be procured/developed by them.

5.2.8 In order to facilitate availability of quality spares for all types of

compressors, manufacturers need take suitable action and cultivate such ancillaries as
are capable of manufacturing good quality spares.

47
 6. SCOPE FOR FUTURE STUDY

Industrial plants use compressed air throughout their production operations,

which is produced by compressed air units ranging from 5 horsepower(hp) to over
50,000hp. The US Department of Energy (2003) reports that 70 to 90 percent of
compressed air is lost in the form of unusable heat, friction, misuse and noise. For
this reason, compressors and compressed air systems are important areas to improve
energy efficiency at industrial plants.

Figure 6.1: Sankey Diagram for Compressed Air System

It is worth noting that the running cost of a compressed air system is far higher
than the cost of a compressor itself (see Figure).

Energy savings from system improvements can range from 20 to 50 percent or

more of electricity consumption, resulting in thousands to hundreds of thousands of
dollars.

A properly managed compressed air system can save energy, reduce

maintenance, decrease downtime, increase production throughput, and improve
product quality. A machine providing gas at high pressure is the compressor and
work must be done upon the gas by external agency.

48
 Improving and maintaining peak compressed air system performance requires
addressing both the supply and demand sides of the system and how the two interact.

Figure 6.2: Cost components in a typical compressed air system

Compressed air systems consist of a supply side, which includes

compressors and air treatment, and a demand side, which includes distribution and
storage systems and end -use equipment. A properly managed supply side will
result in clean, dry, stable air being delivered at the appropriate pressure in a
dependable, cost-effective manner. A properly managed demand side minimizes
wasted air and uses compressed air for appropriate applications. Improving and
maintaining peak compressed air system performance requires addressing both the
supply and demand sides of the system and how the two interact.

49
 8. REFERENCES

[1] Confederation of Indian Industries, Manual on Compressors and Compressed

Air Systems. http://greenbusinesscentre.com/documents/compressor.pdf

[2] ECompressedAir. Compressed Air Audits. King, Julie. MichiganTech,

Department of Chemical Engineering

http://ecompressedair.com/air.shtml
http://superiorsignal.com/usndacr.pdf

[3] McKane, A. and Medaris, B. The Compressed Air Challenge –Making a

difference for US

industry. 2003.

[4] MT University. Compressors.

www.chem.mtu.edu/chem_eng/current/new_ courses/CM4120/315,30,Reference

[5] National Productivity Council, India. Compressors. In: Technology Menu for
Efficient Energy Use, Motor Drive Systems (NPC). 1993, NPC Energy Audit
Reports

[6] Sustainable Energy Development Office, Government of Western Australia.

Compressed Air Systems. 2002. www1.sedo.energy.wa.gov.au/uploads

[7] Tashian, Paul. Successful Leak Detection Using Ultrasonics.

[8] US Department of Energy (US DOE), Energy Efficiency and Renewable

Energy. Improving Compressed Air System Performance. DEO/GO-102003-
1822. 2003. www.oit.doe.gov/bestpractices/compressed_air

[9] US Department of Energy, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy,

Industrial Technologies Program. Energy Tips –Compressed Air Tip Sheet 3.
2004. www.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices/pdfs/compressed_air.pdf

50
APPENDIX

51