Design and Construction of High Skew Super-T

Bridges

Andrew Deck1, Rohitha Silva2 and Joseph Canceri3

1 Abigroup Contractors Pty Ltd

2 SMEC Australia Pty Ltd
3 Roads and Traffic Authority of NSW

Abstract The use of precast prestressed Super-T girders for the construction of
new bridges is a common technique in Australia today with the majority of new
bridges constructed this way. A precast Super-T girder bridge has significant
savings over a ‘cast-in-situ’ alternative in terms of cost, time, safety, community
impact and traffic to name just a few. Currently, the RTA of NSW requires
Super-T girder bridges to be designed with a maximum skew of 35 degrees. In
exceptional cases, the RTA has allowed these types of bridges to be designed with
larger skews. This paper describes such a case with the design and construction of
twin bridges on the Pacific Highway Upgrade at Banora Point. The bridges
consist of Type 5 Super-T girders, approximately 40 metres long on a 40 degree
skew. Following the construction of the northbound bridge, cracking of the bridge
deck was observed predominantly in the vicinity of the acute corners of the bridge.
The staging of the construction of the bridges allowed a review of bridge
performance to be monitored and assessed, and design and construction processes
to be challenged and improved prior to the construction of the southbound bridge.
This paper presents the findings from a detailed investigation into the cracking,
resulting in recommendations for best practice design and construction of long
span, high skew Super-T girder bridges.

Introduction

As part of the Banora Point Upgrade Alliance project, two new bridges over the
northbound off ramp to Minjungbal Drive were constructed. The northbound
bridge is designated Infra 7A and the southbound bridge is designated Infra 7B.

Infra 7A was the first of the pair to be constructed; completed and open to traffic
on the 2nd February 2011 as a part of the Stage 2 southbound traffic switch. Infra
7B is currently under construction.
V. Ponnampalam, H. Madrio and E. Ancich 241
Sustainable Bridges: The Thread of Society
AP-G90/11_010© ABC 2011
242 Andrew Deck, Rohitha Silva and Joseph Canceri

During the construction of Infra 7A, cracking of the concrete deck was observed.
This paper documents and discusses the cracking with a view to identifying
potential contributing factors and recommending changes to both the design and
construction of high skew Super-T bridges to reduce the likelihood of deck
cracking.

Bridge Description

Infra 7A and 7B are high skew single span Super-T bridges. The northbound
bridge (Infra 7A) has a maximum span of 37.800m (centre to centre of bearings)
and an overall length of 39.887m. The southbound bridge (Infra 7B) has a
maximum span of 36.250m (centre to centre of bearings) and an overall length of
38.805m. The abutment orientation is such that the bridge superstructures are
skewed at 40 degrees relative to the substructure.
The northbound bridge (Infra 7a) comprises a 2.5m shoulder, 3 x 3.5m lanes and a
1.0m shoulder adjacent the fast lane (total width 14m between parapets). The
southbound bridge (Infra 7b) comprises a 2.5m shoulder, 3 x 3.5m lanes and a
2.5m shoulder adjacent the fast lane (total width 15.5m between parapets).

The bridge foundations consist of 3 x 1200mm diameter bored cast-in-place

reinforced concrete piles at each abutment. The piles extend approx 60m down to
R4 bed rock. Pile extensions extend up through the reinforced soil wall
embankment with oversize casings to isolate the bridge pile loads from the
retaining wall.

The substructure consists of a reinforced concrete abutment headstock and curtain

wall.

Each bridge superstructure consists of 7 x 1800mm deep precast, prestressed

concrete Super-T girders. The girders weigh approximately 90 tonnes, have
skewed ends to match the bridge layout and have full height end blocks with cast-
in conduits to provide continuity of reinforcement through the diaphragm cross
beams.

The beams sit on epoxy compensator plates and circular elastomeric bearings (530
mm diameter, 119 mm thick) at each end. The bearings are designed to support the
vertical loads (due to self weight of superstructure, superimposed dead load and
live load) and longitudinal forces (due to creep, shrinkage, temperature expansion
and contraction and braking forces). These bearings have been designed to
accommodate the horizontal movements and rotation of a bridge superstructure
due to creep and shrinkage of concrete, temperature variations and movements due
Design and Construction of High Skew Super-T Bridges 243

to vehicular braking. Transverse restraint blocks are provided at each abutment to

control the lateral movement of the bridge.

Diaphragm cross-beams, 1400mm deep by 800mm wide are provided at each

abutment to link together each of the Super-T girders and accommodate the force
from jacking up the superstructure for bearing replacement.

A cast in-situ reinforced concrete deck slab is constructed over the Super-T girders
with a minimum thickness of 200mm. The deck reinforcement comprises
N16@150mm transverse with N12@150mm longitudinal. The transverse bars are
aligned perpendicular to the control line of the bridge (direction of traffic) with a
very slight fan of the reinforcement for the last 2m approx measured back from the
end of each acute corner.

To accommodate loads and movements in the superstructure due to creep,

shrinkage, temperature and braking forces; strip seal type expansion joints are
located at each bridge abutment.

Medium performance level traffic barriers are provided on the outside and inside
edges of each bridge carriageway and comprise of truncated cast-in-situ type F
concrete parapets with a height of 1100mm above the asphalt wearing course. The
outside parapets also have a precast panel on the outer side of the barrier.
All cast-in-situ concrete elements are constructed using 40MPa concrete except
for the piles which are 50MPa.

Fig. 1. Plan Layout of Bridges (Infra 7a – Northbound, Infra 7b – Southbound)

244 Andrew Deck, Rohitha Silva and Joseph Canceri

Fig. 2. Typical Cross Section through Bridges

Infra 7a Deck Cracking

The concrete deck for Infra 7A was poured on 26 November 2010. The deck was
inspected after the curing period (7 days) when the hessian and plastic were
removed but no cracks were visible at the time. Following the Christmas break,
the deck was again inspected on the 4 January 2011 and cracks were identified as
per the Deck Crack Map in Figure 3.

- Approximate location of core

Fig. 3. Infra 7A Deck Crack Plan
Design and Construction of High Skew Super-T Bridges 245

Following the identification of the cracks, they were documented in plan view,
measured for width at the concrete surface and a core taken to check the crack
depth. The majority of the cracks were between 0.05 and 0.10mm width at the
deck surface with only a small number greater than 0.10mm. Crack widths were
typically measured at 9am in the morning using a manual eye-piece measuring
device. The cracks were generally perpendicular to the line drawn between the
two acute corners of the deck (ie. perpendicular to the longest length of the deck
where the most shrinkage will occur). The cracks were roughly parallel to each
other and at a regular spacing (between 0.5m and 2.0m).

The cracks were not found to develop along either the transverse or longitudinal
reinforcement in the deck slab, but rather run diagonally to both.

A single core was taken through one of the larger cracks near the northern
(abutment B) end of the deck. The core was approx 70mm deep and showed that
the crack, although very fine, continued for the full depth of the core. It is
expected that the cracking continued for the full depth of the concrete deck,
although this was not confirmed during the investigation.

RTA B80 Specification Clause 7.2 states: ‘At 28 days after placement or later the
concrete must have no cracks of width greater than 0.1mm measured at the
concrete surface. Where such cranes exist, they must be identified as a non
conformity.’

Whilst the cracking in the deck generally complied with this requirement, there
were some cracks greater than 0.10mm width and this triggered a Non
Conformance Report with subsequent investigation. In addition the extent, angle,
spacing and consistency of the cracking were something that the project team had
not seen before. Given that the project required an identical bridge to be
constructed at a later stage in the construction, the project team saw this as an
opportunity to review all aspects of the design and construction of the bridge deck
in an attempt to continuously improve the quality of the final product.

Review of Possible Factors Contributing To Deck Cracking

This section presents a review of some of the factors that may have contributed to
the deck cracking at Infra 7A.
246 Andrew Deck, Rohitha Silva and Joseph Canceri

Deck Slab Design

AS5100 Requirements

The following relevant clause requirements from AS5100.5-2004 relate to

reinforcement in bridge deck slabs:

Cl 2.8 Cracking:

Requires members greater than 150mm thick to have 500mm2 (min.) each face.
Current design (N12-150) equates to 754mm2 resulting in compliance with this
requirement.

Cl 9.4.4 Reinforcement for fully restrained slabs:

Requires the minimum reinforcement in slabs in the restrained direction shall not
be less than:
0.006 x bD (250mm) = 1500mm2 (min.) or 750mm2 per face.
Current design provides:
754mm2 (N12-150 longitudinal direction – compliant)
1340mm2 (N16-150 transverse direction – compliant)

Clause 9.1.2: Distribution reinforcement for slabs

This clause provides recommendations for longitudinal reinforcement

requirements to distribute wheel loads on the bridge deck. The percentage of
reinforcement provided depends on the orientation of main reinforcement with
respect to the direction of traffic. In Infra 7A and 7B bridges main reinforcement
is provided perpendicular to traffic directions. According to the bridge geometry,
percentage area of distribution steel required for the design is 67% of the
transverse reinforcement area.
The bridge deck is a one way slab element spanning between super T webs. The
minimum amount of main reinforcement for positive moment required in the
200mm thick deck element has been calculated to be less than 900mm2/m for
strength.

The minimum percentage of the main reinforcement required for distribution

reinforcement according to Cl.9.1.2 (b) is 67% resulting in 603mm2/m and the
N12-150 reinforcement (754mm2/m) currently detailed as the bridge deck
longitudinal reinforcement is compliant.
Design and Construction of High Skew Super-T Bridges 247

Additional Investigation

Whilst the deck slab reinforcement design of Infra 7A complies with AS5100
requirements, it would seem that for skewed Super-T girder bridges, the design of
the deck reinforcement may require special attention. The deck reinforcement
design is currently being reviewed in detail by the Alliance design team to
determine if there are any opportunities to modify the design to provide better
crack control. In particular, the longitudinal reinforcement in the top mat of the
deck (N12@150 vs N16@150) and the requirement for reinforcement in the acute
corners of the deck are being reviewed.

A possible alternative to the current design is for the transverse bars to be placed
orthogonal (parallel to the skew) which would provide a greater quantity of
reinforcement in the direction perpendicular to the cracking. However, for all but
small skewed bridges, placing the bottom layer of the transverse reinforcement on
the skew often results in clashes with the shear ligatures protruding above the top
of the Super-T girders which for practical reasons the ligatures are orientated
perpendicular to the centreline of the girders and not parallel to the skew line.
Another possibility is the placement of additional reinforcement (mesh SL81 or
similar) in the acute corners which is possible since the deck is usually thicker at
the ends of the spans compared with the midspan due the hog of the girders.

Literature suggests that closer spaced, smaller bars provide better crack control
than large bars with large spacing. A maximum spacing of 150mm is
recommended by some studies. Out of interest: N12-150 = 754mm2, N12-100 =
1130mm2, N16-150 = 1340mm2, N16-225 = 894mm2.

The attached sketch shows the proportion of longitudinal and transverse

reinforcement perpendicular to the observed cracking (ie. in the direction of the
longest length of the bridge deck, from acute corner to acute corner). The
combination of N12-150 longitudinal and N16-150 transverse provides approx
1,112mm2 of reinforcement in this direction based on the geometry of the bridge.
248 Andrew Deck, Rohitha Silva and Joseph Canceri

Fig. 4. Infra 7A Reinforcement Geometry

Reinforcement Cover

Reinforcement cover is an important factor in crack control of concrete structures.

The cover for the deck top mat was designed at 40mm. Post pour checks using the
cover meter confirmed actual cover of between 40-50mm. Literature suggests that
increased cover depth reduces risk of shrinkage cracking, however excessive
cover increases probability of settlement cracks over reinforcement. It is
considered that the current nominal cover of 40mm is current best practice.
Design and Construction of High Skew Super-T Bridges 249

Size, Shape, Thickness

Size and shape of the concrete member influences the degree of shrinkage
cracking. For example, large, thick concrete members dry out more slowly than
small, thin ones. As a result, for the same drying period, shrinkage of large size
members is lower that the smaller size members, which can dry out to their cores
more quickly. The Infra 7A deck is currently designed as a thin concrete member
of minimum 200mm thick and has a large exposed area of approximately 580m2.
It is possible that an increase in deck thickness may assist in reducing deck
cracking. Some overseas literature suggests that decks with thickness greater than
250mm are statistically less susceptible to transverse cracking, however it is not
known how well all the other contributing factors were controlled for each of
these studies. It is noted that many 200mm thick decks have been poured without
noticeable cracking, and at this stage we do not believe deck thickness is a
significant contributing factor.

Restraint

Restraint is a mechanism which causes concrete to crack as it shrinks. A deck slab

is restrained by the diaphragm cross beams at the abutments and by the underlying
Super-T girders and cast-in-situ barriers along its length. The design of these
elements may contribute to the deck cracking however, there is no guidance in any
literature on how to best design for these restraints. It is significant to note
however, that the vector sum of the restraining force in the diaphragm cross beams
and in the Super-T girders is a force that is perpendicular to the cracks observed in
the deck of Infra 7A. The diaphragms are 800mm wide with a 300mm wide hob
for the expansion joint cast as a separate pour, resulting in a 500mm wide heavily
reinforced contact area between the deck and the diaphragms along the length of
each abutment.
250 Andrew Deck, Rohitha Silva and Joseph Canceri

Fig. 5. Typical Detail for Infra 7a Diaphragm and Expansion Joint

An alternative to the above detail would be to move the vertical construction joint
in the deck back (500mm) to line up with the inside face of the diaphragm. The
section of deck over the diaphragm would then get poured as one section with the
expansion joint. This arrangement is being considered for Infra 7b.

Theoretical Shrinkage

An interesting calculation is the anticipated theoretical shrinkage along the longest

length of the deck slab provided below:
7 day concrete shrinkage (T7) = 370 microstrain (370 x 10^-6 mm/mm)
14 day concrete shrinkage (T14) = 440 microstrain
56 day concrete shrinkage (T56) = 630 microstrain
Length of deck from acute corner to acute corner = 53m (53,000mm)
Total shrinkage (upper bound value) = 53,000 x 630 x 10^-6 = 33mm
Residual shrinkage following 7 day wet curing (T56-T7) = 53,000 x (630-370) x
10^-6 = 13.8mm
Residual shrinkage following 14 day wet curing (T56-T14) = 53,000 x (630-440)
x 10^-6 = 10mm

The long span and high skew of the bridge at Infra 7A results in a concrete deck
slab with a ‘longest length’ of 53m. The upper bound limit of the total theoretical
shrinkage expected for this length of concrete slab is considerable (33mm). The
actual shrinkage is likely to be somewhere between the residual shrinkage
following the curing period and the upper bound shrinkage value, although
determination of this value is beyond the scope of this paper. It is logical that
increasing the curing period will reduce the residual shrinkage and this may assist
in control of the deck cracking.
Design and Construction of High Skew Super-T Bridges 251

Whatever the actual shrinkage is, the role of the deck reinforcement is to control
this concrete shrinkage cracking and produce many ‘fine’ cracks along this length
to maintain the durability of the structure.

Finite Element Analysis

Non Linear Finite Element Analysis (FEA) has been carried out using Strand 7
Software. Bridge superstructure elements were modeled using brick elements.
FEA models were developed with and without barriers and the age of each
concrete element was incorporated into the model in accordance with the
construction program and sequence. Shrinkage was modeled as a temperature
differential in deck elements.

At the time of writing this report the results of FEA were inconclusive and it is
anticipated that further results will be available for presentation at the conference.

Concrete Mix Design

The mix design complies with the specification shrinkage requirements and all
other performance requirements, however it does have non-complying grading at
the low end (300,150,75um sieves) and a high proportion of unwashed
manufactured sand.

It is considered that whilst these factors may make the mix prone to plastic
shrinkage cracking, it does not explain the drying shrinkage cracking as
experienced at the Infra 7A deck (there were no plastic shrinkage cracks in the
deck).

Increased strength, which is usually accompanied by an increase in cement

content, increases the paste volume and hydration temperatures, hence may also
contribute to the cracking extent in concrete. Note that the average 28 day
concrete strength of the cylinders taken for the deck is 49.3MPa. It is considered
that there is a balance between the conflicting requirements of compressive
strength and heat of hydration / shrinkage. Some literature recommends 28 day
target strengths of 32MPa (as opposed to 40MPa) such as was trialled on the
Woomargooma project recently.

Concrete constituents can affect the drying shrinkage of a concrete member as

discussed below.
252 Andrew Deck, Rohitha Silva and Joseph Canceri

Cement

Many studies have observed more cracking with higher amount of cement in the
concrete mix. The adverse effect of higher cement content is related to higher
drying shrinkage and higher temperature rise during hydration.

Aggregate

Type, size, volume and properties of aggregate have pronounced effects on

concrete properties. It has been found that there is a direct relationship between
the shrinkage of an aggregate and its absorption capacity. Generally, concrete
mixes with good quality, clean, low shrinkage aggregate with high aggregate to
paste ratio have been observed to perform better.

Other aggregate properties such as grading, maximum size, shape and texture
affect drying shrinkage indirectly as variations in any of these can lead to a change
in the water demand and/or paste content and their effect on drying shrinkage.

In summary, hard, dense aggregates with low absorption and high modulus of
elasticity are important for the production of concrete of low drying shrinkage
hence cracking.

The aggregate used in the Boral S40 concrete has a dry density of 2.73t/m3 and an
average water absorption of 0.7%. The aggregate is thus considered to be suitable
for the production of low shrinkage concrete.

Water Content

The drying shrinkage of concrete increases with increasing water content.

Concrete of high water content and high water-cement ratio has lower strength and
lower modulus of elasticity and hence has a greater shrinkage.

The Boral S40 mix has a fairly low W/C ratio (approx 0.41) which is achieved via
the use of a water reducing admixture to maintain workability.

Alternative concrete mix designs are currently being investigated, however at this
stage it is not considered that the mix design was a significant contributing factor
to the cracking.
Design and Construction of High Skew Super-T Bridges 253

Deck Construction

Pour Sequence

The concrete deck was poured on the 26 November 2010 from 8.30am to 2.30pm
using the approved Boral S40/20/80 concrete supplied from the Chinderah dry
mix batch plant. The deck was poured from Abutment B (north) to Abutment A
(south), generally working in 3.2m wide runs from the low side (west) towards the
high side (east). See Figure 3 for Pour Sequence.

128m3 of concrete was supplied in 5 to 6m3 loads at approximately 15 to 20

minute intervals. Concrete was discharged and placed from a 42m concrete pump
at an average rate of 25m3/hour.

The deck surface was wet down prior to placing the concrete to reduce the loss of
water into the underlying elements.

Abut B

Abut A

N
Fig. 6. Infra 7A Deck Pour Sequence

Pour sequence and rate may affect deck cracking. Some literature suggests
pouring concrete at a rate faster than 0.6 span lengths per hour. For Infra 7A this
would require a pour rate of over 75m3/hr which is three times faster than was
achieved. Whilst this rate of pour would be difficult to achieve, it may be
beneficial to increase the pour rate for future bridge decks via the use of additional
resources (ie. two pumps).

The placement sequence of concrete could also be a factor contributing to the

cracking extent of the deck. Placement of concrete was undertaken in
approximately 3.2m wide runs, working from one abutment to the other, generally
parallel to the skew (as opposed to transverse to the control line). Given the high
254 Andrew Deck, Rohitha Silva and Joseph Canceri

skew of the bridges, placement of concrete transverse to the control line may
result in differential loading of adjacent girders resulting in differential timing of
the girder relaxation with loading. It is considered that this placement method
(parallel to the skew angle) is therefore best practice to ensure even loading of the
girders for high skew bridges.

The behaviour of the girders with time (gradual relaxation of hog) as the concrete
is placed is another factor that is affected by the pour sequence. The maximum
change in girder hog occurs when the girder is loaded in the centre of its span.
Based on the placement sequence adopted for Infra 7A, the first placed concrete
would have been approximately 2.5 to 3 hours old when fresh concrete was placed
at centre span. This may have induced stresses in the first placed concrete as its
girder support continues moving (relaxing) following initial set of the concrete. It
is noted that this proposal does not explain the cracking in the last placed concrete
at the southern corner.

Better practice may be placement from the centre of the bridge, working two
fronts orthogonal towards the abutments.

Abut A 5 3 1 2 4 Abut B

Fig. 7. Infra 7B Proposed Deck Pour Sequence

Weather Conditions

Whilst all ‘weather’ related aspects of the pour (air temp, conc temp, evap rate)
were within specification, it is acknowledged that concrete temperatures were at
the high end of acceptable and when combined with the heat of hydration, could
result in thermal stresses in the concrete.

Weather conditions are difficult to predict however the timing of the pour can be
controlled. Early morning or night pours may assist in reducing thermal effects
during the summer months.

It is noted that the diurnal temperature difference of max 9 degrees and the
relatively high humidity during the curing period provided almost ideal conditions
for the concrete.
Design and Construction of High Skew Super-T Bridges 255

Compaction, Finishing and Curing

The pour methodology included internal compaction, screeding with a hand held
vibrating screed, bull floating the surface, spraying of a fine mist (fogging),
transverse brooming, placement of hessian and continuous wetting of the surface
for 7 days.

It is noted that the hessian was dry when placed on the deck and was then wet
down using fogging from the gerni. This may result in the dry hessian soaking up
any moisture on the concrete surface during the time between placement of
hessian and soaking of the hessian. Whilst this time period was not long
(considered to be in the order of 1-2 minutes), placement of ‘pre-wetted’ hessian
would avoid this potential issue and would be an improvement to the curing
methodology. Given OH&S issues, manual handling of wet hessian would not be
possible and a workbridge with hessian role (similar to a T/C used by paving
crews) might be beneficial during periods of high evaporation rates.

Placement of black plastic over the wetted hessian is fairly common practice and
is intended to ensure moisture and humidity across the entire deck surface at all
times. It is likely that the black plastic would have retained heat inside the
concrete and may have resulted in higher peak concrete temperatures than if no
plastic was used. This is not expected to have had any detrimental effects on the
concrete although some literature recommends use of permeable covers over the
top of slabs. If black plastic is used in the future it would be beneficial to have
continuous temperature monitors in the slab to allow this aspect of the pour to be
analysed.

All other aspects of the compaction, finishing and curing are considered to be best
practice.

Construction of Barriers and Loading of Deck

Precast Installation

Precast parapets approx 150mm thick, 4m long and 1.9m high (approx 2.2T) were
installed onto the western edge of the deck using temporary support brackets. The
first 2 x parapet units were installed on 2 December 2010, 6 days after the deck
pour. The remaining parapets were installed on 8-9 December 2010, some 11
days after the deck pour. All parapets were installed using a slew crane from the
abutments (ie. No loading of deck with construction plant).
256 Andrew Deck, Rohitha Silva and Joseph Canceri

Cast-in-situ Barrier - Edge

Following installation of the precast parapets, 1100mm high cast-in-situ reinforced

concrete barriers were poured on the western edge of the deck. These barriers
were cast in lengths varying from 6m to 12m from 15 December 2010 (deck 19
days old) to 17 January 2011.

Cast-in-situ Barrier - Median

1100mm high cast-in-situ reinforced concrete barriers were poured on the eastern
(median) edge of the deck. These barriers were cast in 9m lengths from 11
December 2010 (deck 15 days old) to 17 January 2011.

Other Loading

The deck was not loaded in any other way (frannas, utes, trailers etc.) until 7 days
after both the expansion joints were poured (21 January 2011 – deck 56 days old).

Recommendations

Based on the above review, the following recommendations are made for future
concrete deck pours with high skew:
• Perform rigorous structural analysis including construction sequence and
evaluate stress at acute corners
• Higher rate of longitudinal reinforcement (N16@150mm) subject to further
design reviews
• Transverse reo to be orthogonal if possible
• Use of SL81 mesh over top mat of reo in acute corners (as a minimum)
• Adjust location of deck construction joint to reduce restraint from diaphragms
• Review alternate sand suppliers for concrete mix design and/or washing of
manufactured sand and/or alternate concrete supplier
• Pour sequence (start in middle, work two fronts orthogonal towards abutments)
• Pour rate (2 x pumps with a target of 25m3/hr to each pump)
• Pre-wet hessian during curing process OR ensure hessian is wet down as soon
as possible following placement
• Plan pours for an early morning start
• Use of temperature probes to monitor internal concrete temps
• Use of truss screed wherever possible to enable earlier finishing
• Consider use of 14 day wet curing period if possible
Design and Construction of High Skew Super-T Bridges 257

• Survey monitoring of girder hog during the pour to provide data on girder
movement with time as concrete is placed
• Survey pick up of cracks and detailed measurement of widths using electronic
gauges to show accurate information on development of cracks with time
• Wait a minimum of 7 days following deck pour, prior to loading

Summary

The cracking in the deck of Infra 7A bridge is considered to be drying shrinkage

cracking caused by the restraint of the end diaphragm cross beams and the Super-
T girders.

A number of recommendations have been identified from both a design and

construction perspective to assist in reducing the likelihood of cracking on future
high skew bridge decks. Where possible these will be implemented for the
construction of Infra 7b and reviewed following the deck pour.

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to express their thanks to the Roads and Traffic Authority of
NSW and the Alliance Team for permission to present this paper. We also would
like to thank all personnel who ensured the Twin bridges were designed and
constructed successfully, particularly Sushma Aggarwal, Da Huang, Chen Xu,
Wayne Milne, Brian Gilligan and Kristine Hawkins.