Assignment on

Research methodology
Paper I

PHD COURSE WORK IN HOME SCIENCE

Lakshmy A S

Research Scholar

Morning Star Homescience College, Angamali

Affiliated to Mahatma Gandhi University

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The aim of a literature review is to show particular reader that researcher have read,
and have a good grasp of, the main published work concerning a particular topic or question
in specific field. This work may be in any format, including online sources. It may be a
separate assignment, or one of the introductory sections of a report, dissertation or thesis. In
the latter cases in particular, the review will be guided by research objective or by the issue
or thesis researcher are arguing and will provide the framework for researchers’ further work.
It is very important to note that review should not be simply a description of what others have
published in the form of a set of summaries, but should take the form of a : 20 : critical
discussion, showing insight and an awareness of differing arguments, theories and
approaches. It should be a synthesis and analysis of the relevant published work, linked at
all times to your own purpose and rationale.

WRITING OF LITERATURE REVIEW

Researcher first need to decide what he/she need to read. In many cases researcher
will be given a booklist or directed towards areas of useful published work. Make sure to use
this help. With dissertations, and particularly thesis, it will be more down to researcher to
decide. It is important, therefore, to try and decide on the parameters of research. What
exactly are objectives and what do researcher need to find out? In literature review, are
researcher looking at issues of theory, methodology, policy, quantitive research, or what?
Before researcher start reading it may be useful to compile a list of the main areas and
questions involved, and then read with the purpose of finding out about or answering these.
Unless something comes up which is particularly important, stick to this list, as it is very easy
to get sidetracked, particularly on the internet. A good literature review needs a clear line of
argument. Therefore need to use the critical notes and comments researcher made while
doing reading, to express an academic opinion. Make sure that:  Researcher include a
clear, short introduction which gives an outline of the review, including the main topics
covered and the order of the arguments, with a brief rationale for this.  There is always a
clear link between researcher own arguments and the evidence uncovered in reading.
Include a short summary at the end of each section. Use quotations if appropriate. 
Researcher always acknowledge opinions which do not agree with thesis. If researcher
ignore opposing viewpoints, argument will in fact be weaker. : 21 : Literature review must be
written in a formal, academic style. Keep writing clear and concise, avoiding colloquialisms
and personal language. Researcher should always aim to be objective and respectful of
others' opinions; this is not the place for emotive language or strong personal opinions. If
one thought something was rubbish, use words such as "inconsistent", "lacking in certain
areas" or "based on false assumptions". When introducing someone's opinion, don't use
"says", but instead an appropriate verb which more accurately reflects this viewpoint, such
as "argues", "claims" or "states". Use the present tense for general opinions and theories, or
the past when referring to specific research or experiments 2.2.3

IMPORTANCE OF LITERATURE REVIEW:

• To define and limit of the research

• To place your study in an historical perspective

• To avoid unnecessary duplication

• To evaluate promising research methods

• To relate your findings to previous knowledge and suggest further research

A good literature review, therefore, is critical of what has been written, identifies areas of
controversy, raises questions and identifies areas which need further research.

TYPES OF SOURCES FOR REVIEW

1) Primary review: Usually a report by the original researchers of a study (unfiltered

sources). Letters/correspondence, diaries, memoirs, autobiographies, official or research
reports, patents and designs, and empirical research articles.

2) Secondary review: Description or summary by somebody other than the original

researcher, e.g. a review article (filtered sources) academic journal articles (other than
empirical research articles or reports), conference proceedings, books (monographs or
chapters’ books), documentaries.

3) Conceptual/theoretical review: Papers concerned with description or analysis of theories

or concepts associated with the Secondary review.

Critical review of literature

A critical review is the summarization and evaluation of the ideas and information in
an article. It expresses the writer’s point of view in the light of what you already know on the
subject and what is acquired from related texts. Reviewing critically means thinking carefully
and clearly and taking into consideration both the strengths and weaknesses in the material
under review.
 Two skills to employ when asked to write a review is Seeking information and
Scanning the literature efficiently to become well-informed on the subject.

Reviewing effectively: Questioning the information in the text and presenting an evaluation,
or judgement, of it. Efficient reviewing, or evaluating, requires an awareness of the gist
(central idea), the purpose and the intended audience of the text. The text is looked at from a
variety of perspectives (from related sources) and evaluated in relation to the theories,
approaches and frameworks of the expected task. This evaluation involves analyzing the
content and concepts of the text, separating them into their main components, and then
understanding how these interrelate, connect and influence each other.

Hypothesis

Formulation of Hypothesis

The word hypothesis consists of two words –Hypo+Thesis. ‘Hypo’ means tentative or
subject to the verification. ‘Thesis’ means statement about solution of the problem. Thus the
literal meaning of the term hypothesis is a tentative statement about the solution of the
problem. Hypothesis offers a solution of the problem that is to be verified empirically and
based on some rationale. Again, ’hypo’ means the composition of two or more variables
which are to be verified and ‘thesis’ means position of these variables in the specific frame of
reference.

Definitions of Hypothesis:

“Any supposition which we make in order to endeavor to deduce conclusions in

accordance with facts which are known to be real under the idea that if the conclusions to
which the hypothesis leads are known truths, the hypothesis itself either must be or at least
likely to be true.”

J.S. Mill

“A hypothesis is a tentative generalization the validity of which remains to be tested.

In its most elementary stage the hypothesis may be any hunch, guess, imaginative idea
which becomes basis for further investigation.” Lundberg

“It is a shrewd guess or inference that is formulated and provisionally adopted to

explain observed facts or conditions and to guide in further investigation.” John W. Best

“A hypothesis is a statement temporarily accepted as true in the light of what is, at

the time, known about a phenomenon, and it is employed as a basis for action in the search
for new, truth, when the hypothesis is fully established, it may take the form of facts,
principles and theories.”

Barr and Scates

“Hypothesis is an assumption whose testability is to be tested on the basis of the

compatibility of its implications with empirical evidence and previous knowledge.”

Gorge J. Mouly

Nature of Hypothesis:

(i) Conceptual: Some kind of conceptual elements in the framework are involved in a
hypothesis.

(ii) Verbal statement in a declarative form: It is a verbal expression of ideas and concepts. It
is not merely mental idea but in the verbal form, the idea is ready enough for empirical
verification.

(iii) It represents the tentative relationship between two or more variables.

(iv) Forward or future oriented: A hypothesis is future-oriented. It relates to the future

verification not the past facts and information.

(v) Pivot of a scientific research: All research activities are designed for verification of
hypothesis.

Functions of Hypothesis:

Functions of hypothesis;

(i) It is a temporary solution of a problem concerning with some truth which enables an
investigator to start his research works.

(ii) It offers a basis in establishing the specifics what to study for and may provide possible
solutions to the problem.

(iii) It may lead to formulate another hypothesis.

(iv) A preliminary hypothesis may take the shape of final hypothesis.

(v) Each hypothesis provides the investigator with definite statement which may be
objectively tested and accepted or rejected and leads for interpreting results and drawing
conclusions that is related to original purpose.
(vi) It delimits field of the investigation.

(vii) It sensitizes the researcher so that he should work selectively, and have very realistic
approach to the problem.

(viii) It offers the simple means for collecting evidences for verification.

Importance of a Hypothesis:

(i) Investigator’s eyes: Carter V. Good thinks that by guiding the investigator in further
investigation hypothesis serves as the investigator’s eyes in seeking answers to tentatively
adopted generalization.

(ii) Focuses research: Without hypothesis, a research is unfocussed research and remains
like a random empirical wandering. Hypothesis serves as necessary link between theory and
the investigation.

(iii) Clear and specific goals: A well thought out set of hypothesis places clear and specific
goals before the research worker and provides him with a basis for selecting sample and
research procedure to meet these goals.

(iv) Links together: According to Barr and Scates, “It serves the important function of linking
together related facts and information and organizing them into wholes.”

(v) Prevents blind research: In the words of P.V. Young, ”The use of hypothesis prevents a
blind search and indiscriminate gathering of masses of data which may later prove irrelevant
to the problem under study."

(vi) Guiding Light: ”A hypothesis serves as powerful beacon that lights the way for the
research work.”

(vii) It provides direction to research and prevent the review of irrelevant literature and the
collection of useful or excess data.

(viii) It sensitizes the investigator certain aspects of situation which are irrelevant from the
standpoint of problem at hand.

(ix) It enables the investigator to understand with greater clarity his problem and its
ramification.

(x) It is an indispensible research instrument, for it builds a bridge between the problem and
the location of empirical evidence that may solve the problem.
(xi) It provides the investigator with the most efficient instrument for exploring and explaining
the unknown facts.

(xii) It provides a frame work for drawing conclusion.

(xiii) It stimulates the investigator for further research.

Forms of Hypothesis:

According to Bruce W. Tuckman following are the forms of hypothesis;

(i) Question form:

A hypothesis stated as a question represents the simplest level of empirical

observation. It fails to fit most definitions of hypothesis. It frequently appears in the list. There
are cases of simple investigation which can be adequately implemented by raising a
question, rather than dichotomizing the hypothesis forms into acceptable / reject able
categories.

(ii) Declarative Statement :

A hypothesis developed as a declarative statement provides an anticipated

relationship or difference between variables. Such a hypothesis developer has examined
existing evidence which led him to believe that a difference may be anticipated as additional
evidence. It is merely a declaration of the independent variables effect on the criterion
variable.

(iii) Directional Hypothesis :

A directional hypothesis connotes an expected direction in the relationship or

difference between variables. This type of hypothesis developer appears more certain of
anticipated evidence. If seeking a tenable hypothesis is the general interest of the
researcher, this hypothesis is less safe than the others because it reveals two possible
conditions. First that the problem of seeking relationship between variables is so obvious
that additional evidence is scarcely needed. Secondly, researcher has examined the
variables very thoroughly and the available evidence supports the statement of a particular
anticipated outcome.

(iv) Non –Directional Hypothesis or Null Hypothesis:

This hypothesis is stated in the null form which is an assertion that no relationship or
no difference exists between or among the variables.
 Null hypothesis is a statistical hypothesis testable within the framework of probability
theory. It is a non-directional form of hypothesis. There is a trend to employ or develop null
hypothesis in research in most of the disciplines. A null hypothesis tentatively states that on
the basis of evidence tested there is no difference. If the null hypothesis is rejected, there is
a difference but we do not know the alternative or the differences. In this the researcher has
not to anticipate or give the rational for the declaration or directional form. It does not make
researcher biased or prejudiced. He may be objective about the expected outcomes of the
research or findings.

Actually this is a statistical hypothesis which is self- explanatory. Null hypothesis

means zero hypotheses. A researcher has not to do anything in developing it. While
research hypothesis is second step in the process of reflective thinking.

A null hypothesis in an appropriate form is order to accommodate the object of

inquiry for extracting this information. It does not necessarily reflect the expectations of the
researcher so much as the utility of the null form as the best fitted to the logic of chance in
statistical knowledge or science. It is the no difference form, i.e. there is no difference or
relationship between or among variables under certain conditions. Statistical tests of
significance are used to accept and reject the null hypothesis. If it is rejected, the general
hypothesis is accepted. Non-directional hypothesis is known as null hypothesis because it
‘nullifies’ the positive argument of the findings or non-directional statement of the
generalization. It is also termed as statistical or zero hypothesis because it denies the
existence of any systematic principles apart from the effect of chance. It assumes that none
or zero difference exists between the two population means or the treatments.

Formulation of Testable Hypothesis:

A hypothesis is a tentative assumption drawn from knowledge and theory. It is used

as a guide in the investigation of other facts and theory that are as yet unknown. Its
formulation is one of the most difficult and most crucial step in the entire scientific process. A
poorly chosen or poorly worded hypothesis can prevent the following:

(i) The obtaining of enough pertinent data,

(ii) The drawing of conclusions and generalizations, and

(iii) The application of certain statistical measures in the analysis of the result.

Hypothesis is the central core of study that directs the selection of the data to be
gathered, the experimental design, the statistical analysis and the conclusions drawn from
the study. A study may be devoted to the testing of one major hypothesis, a number of
subsidiary hypothesis, or both major and subsidiary hypotheses. When several hypotheses
are used, each should be stated separately in order to anticipate the type of analysis
required and in order to definitely accept or reject each hypothesis on its own merit.
Irrespective of number or type used each hypothesis should be testable and based upon a
logical foundation.

Fundamental Basis of Hypothesis:

The researcher deals with reality on two levels;

1. The Operational Level:

On the operational level researcher must define events in observable terms in order
to operate with the reality necessary to do researches.

2. The Conceptual Level:

On the conceptual level the researcher must define events in terms of underlying
communality with other events. Defining at a conceptual level, the researcher can abstract
from single specific to general instance and begin to understand how phenomena operate
and variables interrelate. The formulation of a hypothesis very frequently requires going from
an operational or concrete level to the conceptual or abstract level. This movement to the
conceptual level enables the result to be generalized beyond the specific conditions of a
particular study and thus to be of wider applicability. Research requires the ability to move
from the operational to the conceptual level and vice–versa. This ability is required not only
in constructing experiments but in applying their findings as well. The process of making
conceptual contrasts between operational programme is called conceptualization or
dimensionalization.

Difficulties in the Formulation of Useful Hypothesis:

Moving from the operational to the conceptual level and vice –versa is a critical ingredient of
the research to demonstration process. The following are the difficulties in the formulation of
hypothesis:

1. Absence of knowledge of a clear theoretical framework.

2. Lack of ability to make use of the theoretical framework logically.

3. Lack of acquaintance with available research technique resulting in

failure to be able to phrase the hypothesis properly.

RESEARCH METHOD

Meaning Research is a scientific endeavour. It involves scientific method. “The

scientific method is a systematic step-by-step procedure following the logical processes of
reasoning.”Scientific method is a means for gaining knowledge of the universe. As Karl
Pearson emphasizes “the scientific method is one and same in all branches and that method
of all logically trained minds … the unity of all sciences consists alone in their method not in
their materials; the man who classifies facts of any kind whatever, who sees their mutual
relation describes their sequence is a man of science.”The facts may be related to any field.
“It is not the facts themselves which make science”14 but the method by which they are
dealt with. “Science is not wrapped up with any particular body of facts.” Science is
independent of any particular subject matter. “It deals with knowable universe for its subject.
It deals with physical as well as psychological processes, with man as much as with nature.
It has to do with everything to which its method can be applied. What makes a science is
not, of course, the nature of things with which it is concerned, but the method by which it
deals with these things.” Thus, the scientific method does not refer to a field of specific
subject of matter, but rather to a procedure or mode of investigation. It is “an objective,
logical and systematic method of analysis of phenomena, devised to permit the
accumulation of reliable knowledge. It is a systematized form of analysis. It is characterized
by an intellectual attitude.

Basis of Scientific Method

The scientific method is based on certain “articles of faith” these are:  reliance on
empirical evidence  use of relevant concepts  commitment to objectivity  ethical
neutrality generalization  verifiability  logical reasoning process. Reliance on evidence:
Truth is established on the basis of evidence. Conclusion is admitted, only when it is based
on evidence. Scientific method involves a systematic process. The answer to a question is
not decided by intuition or imagination. Relevant data are collected through observation or
experimentation. The validity and the reliability of data are checked carefully and the data
are analysed thoroughly, using appropriate methods of analysis. Conclusion is reached on
the basis of the result of analysis. Use of concepts: We experience a vast number of facts
through our senses. Facts are things, which actually exist. In order to deal with them, we use
concepts with specific meanings. Concepts are logical constructs or abstractions created
from sense impressions, percepts and experiences. They are symbols representing the
meaning that we hold. We use them in our thinking and communication. Otherwise clarity
and correct understanding cannot be achieved. Commitment to objectivity: Objectivity is the
hallmark of the scientific method. It means forming a judgement upon facts unbiased by
personal impressions. According to Green “Objectivity is the willingness and ability to
examine evidence dispassionately.” The conclusion should not vary from person to person. It
should be the same for all persons. A person of science must “above all thing strive at self-
elimination in his judgement and provide an argument which is as true for each individual
mind as his own.”Ethical neutrality: Science does not pass normative judgement on facts. It
does not say that they are good or bad. As schroedniger says, “science never imposes
anything, science states. Science aims at nothing but making true and adequate statements
about its objects.” Generalization: Scientists are not concerned with isolated events, but with
the commonality of a series of event. They aim at discovering “under the surface layer of
diversity the thread of uniformity. Around a discovered uniformity a logical class and its
observed pattern, a descriptive generalization is formulated. In formulating a generalization,
we should avoid the danger of committing the particularistic fallacy, which arises through an
inclination to generalize on insufficient or incomplete and unrelated data. This can be
avoided by the accumulation of a large body of data and by the employment of comparisons
and control groups. Verifiability: The conclusions arrived at by a scientist should be
verifiable. He must make known to others how he arrived at his conclusions. He should thus
expose his own methods and conclusions to critical scrutiny. When others test his
conclusion under the same conditions, then it is accepted as correct. Such verification
through replication may either confirm established conclusions or modify them or even
invalidate them. For example, originally an atom was considered to beindivisible, but
subsequent researches have proved that it is divisible and thus provided the basis for
developing atomic energy. Logical reasoning process: The scientific method involves the
logical process of reasoning. This reasoning process is used for drawing inference from the
finding of a study or for arriving at conclusion. For example, in a survey of the expenditure
pattern on basic necessaries forms a very high proportion of the total expenditure, it is
concluded that lower the household income, the higher is the proportion spent on basic
necessaries.

The logical reasoning process consists of induction and deduction.

Induction

Meaning: Induction is one of the methods of logical reasoning process. The inductive
method consists of studying several individual cases and drawing a generalization.
Therefore, induction involves two processes – observation and generalization. Conclusions
from induction are tentative inferences and they are subject to further confirmation based on
more evidence. When followed: This method is followed when new facts are studied, new
truths are uncovered and new generalizations are formulated from a research project. For
example, in a farm management study it is proposed to test the hypothesis: “The application
of recommended dosage of chemical fertilizers results in an increase in the yield per
hectare.” A sample of experimental farms and control farms is selected in an area. In the
experimental farms, chemical fertilizer is applied and in controlled farms it is not applied, but
other conditions — quality of seeds, irrigation, cultural practice, etc., are the same. After the
harvest the average yield per hectare is computed for experimental and control groups and
the hypothesis is tested. The inductive method of reasoning is used in the analysis.

Essential conditions: Four conditions are essential to satisfactory induction. They are:

1. Observation must be correctly performed and recorded, data collected should be

accurate. Mistakes in conducting experiments or interviews and faulty recordings of the
information can vitiate the value of any conclusions reached.

2. Observations must cover representative cases drawn from a specific universe. For
instance, in a survey of job-satisfaction of bank executives the universe from which a sample
has to be drawn should be defined exactly, say officers of public sector banks in a specific
geographical area and all cadres of officers should be included in the sample and an
appropriate sampling method like stratified random sampling has to be adopted.

3. Observations must cover an adequate number of cases. The size of the sample must be
large enough to make it representative and to get reliable result.

4. Conclusion must be confined to inferences drawn from the findings. Conclusions reached
after an analysis of data collected on a given study must be confined to the inferences drawn
from the findings only. They should not be generalized to apply to types of cases not
covered in the sample.

Types of induction: Theodorson and Theodorson have identified two basic types of
induction, viz., enumerative and analytic.

Enumerative induction is the most common form of induction used in social science
research. In general, this type of induction involves generalization from samples and the
generalizations are usually derived through the analysis of data. Analytic induction involves
case-by-case analysis of specific features. Cressy outlined the step-by-step procedure of
analytic induction:

1. Define the phenomenon to be explained.

2. Formulate hypothesis to explain the phenomenon.

3. Study a case to determine whether hypothesis fits in the case.

4. If the hypothesis does not fit the facts, either reformulate the hypothesis or redefine the
phenomenon so that the case is excluded. (This definition must be more precise than the
first one).

5. Examine a small number of cases to attain practical certainty; but whenever a negative
case disproving the explanation is discovered, reformulate the hypothesis.

6. Continue this procedure of examining cases, redefining the phenomenon and

reformulating the hypothesis, until a universal relationship is established.

7. For purposes of proof, examine cases outside the area circumscribed by the definition to
determine whether or not the final hypothesis applies to them.

Deduction

Meaning: Deduction is reasoning process of applying a general accepted principle to

a specific individual case falling under the general principle. It is regarded “as reasoning from
the general to the particular.”This reasoning establishes a “logical relationship between a
major premise, a minor premise and a conclusion.” A major premise is a previously
established generalization or assumption; a minor premise is a particular case related to the
major premise. The logical relationship of these premises lead to conclusion, e.g., Major
premise All men are mortal. Minor premise A is a man. Conclusion A is mortal. Use: This
deductive method of moving from the general assumption to the specific application is useful
for solving problems. But it is not useful in arriving at new truths. The inductive process
overcomes this limitation of deductive process.

Essential conditions: The conditions necessary for valid deduction are:

1. The general rule or assumption must be correct.

2. The general rule must be applied only to the cases, which properly fall under it. The
general rule or the major premise must be correct. If it is not correct, then the conclusion
cannot be correct. For example, consider the following deduction: Major premise: All regular
employees are insincere Minor premise: Mohan is a regular employee Conclusion: Mohan is
insincere. The conclusion is justified only if both the premises are acceptable as true. Since
the major premise is not true, the conclusion is therefore defective, even if Mohan turns out
to be insincere. Relevance of Induction and Deduction: The logical processes of both
induction and deduction are useful in research studies. Both are “inseparable parts of a
system of reasoning. In other words, distinct processes of inductive and deductive reasoning
do not exist.” Both processes are often used simultaneously. There is a sequencing of
induction-deduction processes, which is described by John Dewey as the “double movement
of reflective thought.” When a puzzling condition occurs, one seeks inductively to explain by
a hypothesis. In turn, the hypothesis is used in the deduction of further facts, which can
confirm or deny the truth of the hypothesis.

Requisites of a Good Scientific Method

The essentials of a good scientific method as summed up by the Advisory Committee on

Economic and Social Research of the Council of Social Science Research are:

1. Careful logical analysis of the problem, separating its elements and whenever possible,
formulating hypothesis;

2. Unequivocal definition of terms and concepts and statistical units and measures, so that
others will understand exactly and be able to repeat the analysis and test the
generalizations;

3. Collection of data pertinent to the problem under study;

4. Classification of data;

5. Expression of variables in quantitative terms whenever possible;

6. Rigorous and exacting experimental or statistical procedure in summarizing the data and
in isolating the attributes or variables and measuring their relationship and inter-effects;

7. Sound logical reasoning as to the testing of hypothesis and drawing generalizations;

8. Statement in unassailable terms of the exact conclusion arrived at from the findings;

9. Specific and clear statement of generalizations to facilitate checking and testing by others;

10. Complete elimination of personal equation and

11. Complete and careful reporting of the research process, definitions and the methods of
analysis so that others can check the analysis or test the generalizations with new sets of
data.