SOURCE OF ENERGY AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS

A source of energy is that which is capable of providing enough useful energy at a steady
rate over a long period of time.

A good source of energy should be :

(i) Safe and convenient to use, e.g., nuclear energy can be used only by highly
trained engineers with the help of nuclear power plants. It can notusedfor our
household purpose.
(ii) Easy to transport, e.g., coal, petrol, diesel, LPG etc. have to be transported from
the places of their production to the consumers.
(iii) Easy to store, e.g., huge storage tanks are required to store petrol, diesel, LPG etc.

The energy of different sources is transformed into fuels and electricity with the help of
technology.

CLASSIFICATION OF SOURCES OF ENERGY

The sources of energy are usually classified either as:

1. Renewable and Non-renewable source of energy or

2. Conventional and Non-conventional Sources of energy.
3. Commercial Energy And Non-Commercial Energy
4. Primary sources of Energy and Secondary sources of energy
1. RENEWABLE AND NON-RENEWABLE SOURCES OF ENERGY
(a) Renewable Sources of Energy.
Renewable Sources of energy are those which are inexhaustible, i.e., which can be
replaced as we use them and can be used to produce energy again and again.
These are available in an unlimited amount in nature and develop within a relatively
short period of time.
(i) Solar energy, (ii) wind energy, (iii) water energy (hydro-energy), (iv)
geothermal energy, (v) ocean energy, (vi) biomass energy (firewood, animal
dund and biodegradable waste from cities and crop residues constitute
biomass.)
It is estimated that all these sources will provide at the most 10% of the World
energy requirement by 2020. But with good management and technological
development, this contribution can substantially be increased.

(b) Non-renewable Sources of energy:

Non-renewable Sources of energy Are those which are exhaustible and cannot be
replaced once they have been used.

These sources have been accumulated in nature over a very long period of million of
years.
 (i) Coal (ii) oil and (iii) natural gas.All these fuels are called fossil fuels.

2. CONVENTIONAL AND NON-CONVENTIONAL SOURCES OF ENERGY

(a) Conventional Sources of Energy.

Conventional Sources of energy are those which are used extensively and meet a
major portion of our energy requirement.
Examples
(a) Fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas) and
(b) Hydro energy (energy of water flowing in rivers).
(c) Biomass energyand wind energy also fall in this category as these are being used
since ancient times.

(b)Non-conventional Sources of Energy

Non –conventional sources of energy are those which are not used as extensively as
the conventional ones and meet our energy requirement only on a limited scale.
Examples
Solar energy, ocean energy (tidal energy, wave energy, ocean thermal energy, OTE),
Geothermal energy and nuclear energy belong to this category. These sources of
energy which have been tapped with the aid of advances in technology to meet our
growing energy needs are also called alternative sources of energy.

3. .COMMERCIAL ENERGY AND NON-COMMERCIAL ENERGY

(a) Commercial Energy:

The energy sources that are available in the market for a definite price are known as
commercial energy. By far the most important forms of commercial energy are
electricity, coal and refined petroleum products. Commercial energy forms the basis
of industrial, agricultural, transport and commercial development in the modern
world. In the industrialized countries, commercialized fuels are predominant source
not only for economic production, but also for many household tasks of general
population.
Examples: Electricity, lignite, coal, oil, natural gas etc.

(b) Non-commercial Energy:

The energy sources that are not available in the commercial market for a price are
classified as non-commercial energy. Non-commercial energy sources include fuels
such as firewood, cattle dung and agricultural wastes, which are traditionally
gathered, and not bought at a price used especially in rural households. These are also
called traditional fuels. Non-commercial energy is often ignored in energy
accounting.
Example: Firewood, agro waste in rural areas; solar energy for water heating,
electricity generation, for drying grain, fish and fruits; animal power for transport,
 threshing, lifting water for irrigation, crushing sugarcane; wind energy for lifting
water and electricity generation.

Advantages of Classifying Sources of Energy

(i) The Classification of sources of energy helps us to decide which of the non-
renewable sources of energy need to be conserved for future generation.
(ii) The facts that certain sources are non-renewable have compelled us to look for
alternative sources of energy which in turn has accelerated the pace of
technologies suitable for harnessing new sources of energy.

4. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY ENERGY

(a) Primary sources of energy

Electrical energy is produced from energy available in various forms in nature. The
sources of energy are:

I. The Sun:

The Sun is the primary source of energy. The Sun radiates energy uniformly in all directions in
the form of electromagnetic waves. It is a clean and inexhaustible. Solar energy technologies
include solar heating, solar photovoltaics, solar thermal electricity, solar architecture and
artificial photosynthesis, which can make considerable contributions to solving some of the most
urgent energy problems the world now faces. The heat energy radiated by the sun can be
focussed over a small area by means of reflectors. Solar energy can be harnessed at different
levels around the world, mostly depending on distance from the equator. Solar technologies are
broadly characterized as either passive solar or active solar depending on the way they capture,
convert and distribute solar energy.

II. The Wind:

Wind is the movement of air across the surface of the Earth, affected by areas of high pressure
and of low pressure. Wind power is the conversion of wind energy into a useful form of energy
using wind turbines . Large wind farms consist of hundreds of individual wind turbines which
are connected to the electric power transmission network. Offshore wind is steadier and stronger
than on land, and offshore farms have less visual impact, but construction and maintenance costs
are considerably higher. Small onshore wind farms provide electricity to isolated locations. In
order to obtain the electrical energy from a wind mill continuously, the generator is arranged to
charge the batteries.

III. Water:
 Hydropower or water power is power derived from the energy of falling water and running
water, which may be harnessed for useful purposes. The generation of energy through water is
usually carried out in large water power plants, with a number of process steps and the use of
several devices, such as turbines and generators. The energy in water can be used to produce
electricity.

IV. Fuels:

Fuel is any material that stores potential energy in a form that can be practicably released and
used as heat energy. The main sources of energy are fuels i.e. solid fuel as coal, liquid fuel as oil
and gas fuel as natural gas. It is the chief source for generation of electrical energy, yet their
reserves are diminishing day by day.

V. Nuclear energy:

Changes can occur in the structure of the nuclei of atoms. These changes are called nuclear
reactions. Energy created in a nuclear reaction is called nuclear energy, or atomic energy.
Nuclear power is the use of sustained nuclear fission to generate heat and electricity. Nuclear
power plants provided about 5.7% of the world's energy and 13% of the world's electricity.
Nuclear power is the fourth-largest source of electricity in India. Nuclear energy is produced
naturally and in man-made operations under human control. Some nuclear energy is produced
naturally. For example, the Sun and other stars make heat and light by nuclear reactions. Nuclear
energy can be man-made too. Machines called nuclear reactors, parts of nuclear power plants,
provide electricity for many cities. Man-made nuclear reactions also occur in the explosion of
atomic and hydrogen bombs. Nuclear energy is produced in two different ways one is nuclear
fusion and nuclear fission.

VI. Biomass energy:

Biomass is biological material from living, or recently living organisms, most often referring to
plants or plant-derived materials. Biomass is all biologically-produced matter based in carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen. As a renewable energy source, biomass can either be used directly, or
indirectly—once or converted into another type of energy product such as biofuel. Biomass can
be converted to energy in three ways: thermal conversion, chemical conversion, and biochemical
conversion.

(b)Secondary sources of energy

Primary energy sources are mostly converted in industrial utilities into secondary energy sources;
for example coal, oil or gas converted into steam and electricity. Primary energy can also be used
directly. Some energy sources have non-energy uses, for example coal or natural gas can be used
as a feedstock in fertilizer plants.

TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF GENERATING STATION

The electricity sector in India had an installed capacity of 223.343 GW as of March 2013, the
world's fifth largest. Captive power plants generate an additional 34.444 GW. Non Renewable
Power Plants constitute 87.55% of the installed capacity and 12.45% of Renewable Capacity.

Bulk electric power is produced by special plants known as generating stations or power plants.
The generating stations are classified according to the form of energy conversion into electrical
energy.

1. Steam Power Station (Thermal Station):

A generating station which converts heat energy of coal combustion into electrical energy is
known as steam power station. A thermal power station is a power plant in which the prime
mover is steam driven. Water is heated, turns into steam and spins a steam turbine which drives
an electrical generator. After it passes through the turbine, the steam is condensed in a condenser
and recycled to where it was heated; this is known as a Rankine cycle. The greatest variation in
the design of thermal power stations is due to the different fuel sources. Some prefer to use the
term energy center because such facilities convert forms of heat energy into electricity. Some
thermal power plants also deliver heat energy for industrial purposes, for district heating, or for
desalination of water as well as delivering electrical power. A large part of human CO2 emissions
comes from fossil fueled thermal power plants; efforts to reduce these outputs are various and
widespread.

2. Hydroelectric Power Station:

Hydroelectricity is the term referring to electricity generated by hydropower; the production of

electrical power through the use of the gravitational force of falling or flowing water. It is the
most widely used form of renewable energy, accounting for 16 percent of global electricity
generation – 3,427 terawatt-hours of electricity production in 2010 and is expected to increase
about 3.1% each year for the next 25 years.
Hydropower is produced in 150 countries, with the Asia-Pacific region generating 32 percent of
global hydropower in 2010. China is the largest hydroelectricity producer, with 721 terawatt-
hours of production in 2010, representing around 17 percent of domestic electricity use. There
are now three hydroelectricity plants larger than 10 GW: the Three Gorges Dam in China, Itaipu
Dam across the Brazil/Paraguay border, and Guri Dam in Venezuela.
The cost of hydroelectricity is relatively low, making it a competitive source of renewable
electricity. The average cost of electricity from a hydro plant larger than 10 megawatts is 3 to 5
U.S. cents per kilowatt-hour. Hydro is also a flexible source of electricity since plants can be
ramped up and down very quickly to adapt to changing energy demands. However, damming
interrupts the flow of rivers and can harm local ecosystems, and building large dams and
reservoirs often involves displacing people and wildlife. Once a hydroelectric complex is
constructed, the project produces no direct waste, and has a considerably lower output level of
the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide (CO2) than fossil fuel powered energy plants.
3. Solar power plant:
Solar power is the conversion of sunlight into electricity, either directlyusing photovoltaics (PV),
or indirectly using concentrated solar power (CSP). Concentrated solar power systems use lenses
or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam. Photovoltaics
convert light into electric current using the photoelectric effect.
Commercial concentrated solar power plants were first developed in the 1980s. The 354
MW SEGS CSP installation is the largest solar power plant in the world, located in the Mojave
Desert of California. Other large CSP plants include the Solnova Solar Power Station (150 MW)
and the Andasol solar power station (150 MW), both in Spain. The over 250 MW Agua Caliente
Solar Project in the United States, and the 214 MW Charanka Solar Park in India, are the world’s
largest photovoltaic power stations.

4. Nuclear Power Station:

A nuclear power plant is a thermal power station in which the heat source is a nuclear reactor.
As is typical in all conventional thermalpower stations the heat is used to generate steam which
drives a steam turbine connected to a generator which produces electricity. As of
16 January 2013, the IAEA report there are 437 nuclear power reactors in operation operating in
31 countries. Nuclear power plants are usually considered to be base load stations, since fuel is a
small part of the cost of production.

Electric Power Systems and its components

Electrical energy is generated in large hydro-electric, thermal and nuclear power station. The
production and transmission of electricity is relatively efficient and inexpensive, although unlike
other forms of energy, electricity is not easily stored and thus must generally be used as it is
being produced.

Components of an Electric Power System

A modern electric power system consists of six main components:

1. The power station

2. A set of transformers to raise the generated power to the high voltages used on the
transmission lines
3. The transmission lines
4. The substations at which the power is stepped down to the voltage on the distribution
lines
5. The distribution lines
6. The transformers that lower the distribution voltage to the level used by the consumer's
equipment.

Power Station
The power station of a power system consists of a prime mover, such as a turbine driven by
water, steam, or combustion gases that operate a system of electric motors and generators. Most
of the world's electric power is generated in steam plants driven by coal, oil, nuclear energy, or
gas. A smaller percentage of the world’s electric power is generated by hydroelectric
(waterpower), diesel, and internal-combustion plants.

Transformers
Modern electric power systems use transformers to convert electricity into different voltages.
With transformers, each stage of the system can be operated at an appropriate voltage. In a
typical system, the generators at the power station deliver a voltage of from 1,000 to 26,000 volts
(V). Transformers step this voltage up to values ranging from 138,000 to 765,000 V for the long-
distance primary transmission line because higher voltages can be transmitted more efficiently
over long distances. At the substation the voltage may be transformed down to levels of 69,000
to 138,000 V for further transfer on the distribution system. Another set of transformers step the
voltage down again to a distribution level such as 2,400 or 4,160 V or 15, 27, or 33 kilovolts
(kV). Finally the voltage is transformed once again at the distribution transformer near the point
of use to 240 or 120 V.

Transmission Lines

The lines of high-voltage transmission systems are usually composed of wires of copper,
aluminum, or copper-clad or aluminum-clad steel, which are suspended from tall latticework
towers of steel by strings of porcelain insulators. By the use of clad steel wires and high towers,
the distance between towers can be increased, and the cost of the transmission line thus reduced.
In modern installations with essentially straight paths, high-voltage lines may be built with as
few as six towers to the kilometer. In some areas high-voltage lines are suspended from tall
wooden poles spaced more closely together. For lower voltage distribution lines, wooden poles
are generally used rather than steel towers. In cities and other areas where open lines create a
safety hazard or are considered unattractive, insulated underground cables are used for
distribution. Some of these cables have a hollow core through which oil circulates under low
pressure. The oil provides temporary protection from water damage to the enclosed wires should
the cable develop a leak. Pipe-type cables in which three cables are enclosed in a pipe filled with
oil under high pressure (14 kg per sq cm/200 psi) are frequently used. These cables are used for
transmission of current at voltages as high as 345,000 V (or 345 kV).

Supplementary Equipment

Any electric-distribution system involves a large amount of supplementary equipment to protect

the generators, transformers, and the transmission lines themselves. The system often includes
devices designed to regulate the voltage or other characteristics of power delivered to consumers.
To protect all elements of a power system from short circuits and overloads, and for normal
switching operations, circuit breakers are employed. These breakers are large switches that are
activated automatically in the event of a short circuit or other condition that produces a sudden
rise of current. Because a current forms across the terminals of the circuit breaker at the moment
when the current is interrupted, some large breakers (such as those used to protect a generator or
a section of primary transmission line) are immersed in a liquid that is a poor conductor of
electricity, such as oil, to quench the current. In large air-type circuit breakers, as well as in oil
breakers, magnetic fields are used to break up the current. Small air-circuit breakers are used for
protection in shops, factories, and in modern home installations. In residential electric wiring,
fuses were once commonly employed for the same purpose. A fuse consists of a piece of alloy
with a low melting point, inserted in the circuit, which melts, breaking the circuit if the current
rises above a certain value. Most residences now use air-circuit breakers.

General lay out of Power System

Fig.1. General lay out of Power System

Comparison of the various power plants

Sl Item Steam power station Hydro-electric power Nuclear power plant

no. plant

1 Site Such power plants are located
at a place where ample supply
of water and coal is available,
transportation facilities are
adequate.
Such plants are located These plants are located away
where large reservoirs can from the thickly populated areas
be obtained by constructing to avoid radioactive pollution.
a dam e.g. in hilly areas.

2 Initial cost Initial cost is lower than those Initial cost is very high Initial cost is highest because of
of hydroelectric and nuclear because of dam construction huge investment on building a
power plants. and excavation work. nuclear reactor.

3 Running Higher than hydroelectric and
cost nuclear plant because of the
requirement of huge amount of
coal.
Practically nil because no
fuel is required.
Except the hydroelectric plant, it
has the minimum running cost
because small amount of fuel
can produce relatively large
amount of power.

4 Limit of Coal is the source of power Water is the source of The source of power is the
source of which has limited reserves all power which is not nuclear fuel which is available in
power over the world. dependable because of wide sufficient quantity. It is because
variations in the rainfall small amount of fuel can
every year. produce huge power.

5 Cost of fuel Maximum because huge Practically nil. Minimum because small
transportati amount of coal is transported to quantity of fuel is required.
on the plant site.

6 Cleanliness Least clean as atmosphere is Most simple and clean. Less cleaner than hydroelectric
and polluted due to smoke. and diesel power plants.
simplicity

ELECTRICAL WIRING

TYPES AND USE OF ELECTRICAL WIRING

Electrical energy is supplied to consumers from the distribution network, by the supplier(State
Electricity Board), through a service feeder. The service feeder could be an overhead line or an
underground cable. The service feeder terminates at the consumers premises, via an energy
meter, at a main switch called the main distribution board. The main distribution board is
provided with a fuse for protection. These days miniature circuit breaker (MCB) are used in
place of fuse. An MCB is an accurate and efficient electromechanical device that provides
protection against short circuits and overload currents.
In order to utilize the electrical energy, the consumer has to appropriately design his wiring
system which connects various electrical fixtures such as bulbs, fluorescent tube lights, water
heaters, refrigerators and other electrical appliances in a building.

Wiring circuits are designed for efficient distribution of electrical energy.

The requirements of a good wiring circuit design are the following:

a. equal voltage distribution

b. same load current in each circuit
c. ease of repair and maintenance of the circuits
d. safety and minimum inconvenience to the consumer

Therefore, the load (limited to 800 W) or number of points (should not exceed 10) connected is
more than that specified, it becomes necessary to have more than one wiring circuit. Each wiring
circuit is called a sub-circuit.

TYPES:

1. Cleat wiring

In this system V.I.R.(Vulcanized India Rubber) wires are used in porcelain cleats. The cleats are
of three types, having one, two or three groups so as to receive one, two or three wires. They are
made in two halves. One is grouped to receive the wire while the other is put over it and the hole
is fixed on the wall. The system of installation is cheap and is most suitable for temporary
wiring. It can be easily installed and also removed quickly when not required. This wiring is
done above 2meter from the floor. Spacing between the cleat under the bends should be reduced.

2. Casing capping

The system of wiring is recommended for residential building. The casing should be made of
well seasoned teak wood or any other suitable hard wood. It should be free from knots, shakes or
any other defect. The casing has usually two grooves to carry wires. At the top it is covered by a
strip, known as the capping. The width of the capping is same as that of casing. A double bed is
cut in the capping to show the position of wires so that the screws may not be driven through
position.

3. C.T.S. wiring

C.T.S. that is Cab Type Sheathed wires are available in single, twin or three cores with circular
or oval shape. The cable is free from the effects of moisture, acids, alkalis and climatic variation.
It can be exposed to sun. The cable can be burried under masonry work, but is usually laid over
wood battens. The system is given suitable for places where chemical fumes are present

4. Metal sheathed wiring

The wire consists of rubber insulated conductor over which a sheath of led-aluminum alloy is
provided externally. This covering provides protection to the cables from mechanical injury. In
residential buildings they are run over wooden battens. The sheath should be earthed, otherwise
electrolytic action may take place due to the leakage of current and thereby deteriorates the
covering. Moreover, earthing prevents the metal covering from becoming alive. These cables are
not suitable for places where chemical corrosion may occur. These cables are costlier than C.T.S.

5. Conduit wiring

This is the best and desirable system of wiring for workshops and public buildings. It provides
mechanical protection and safety against fire. It can be supported over the wall by saddles and
pipe hooks.

Wiring methods used for wiring various electrical fixtures in a building:

1. Loop in system

When an electrical fixture is to be connected, both the phase and neutral wires are brought
directly to the terminals of the appliance and then carried forward to the terminals of the next
appliance to be connected. Thus the phase and neutral wires are looped-in. This wiring is
normally employed for wiring electrical fixtures and appliances.

2. Joint box or Tee system

Joint boxes are provided along the run of the wires. Electrical fixtures and appliances are
connected either by making joints in the joint boxes or through suitable connectors. Due to large
number of joints, the system is likely to suffer if the joints are not properly made. The joint box
system is employed for temporary wiring, due to the low cost of wiring.

3. Staircase lighting

In this a single light point is controlled from two different locations, one near the bottom of the
stairs and the other near the top of the stairs.

EARTHING

Earthing or grounding means connecting the non-current carrying metallic parts of electrical
appliances or the neutral of a supply system to the earth. The connection to earth may be through
a conductor or other circuit elements.

Earthing can be divided into neutral earthing and equipment earthing. Neutral earthing deals with
the earthing of system neutral to ensure system security and protection. Equipment earthing deals
with earthing of non-current carrying parts of the equipment to ensure safety of personnel and
protection against lightning.
The various types of earthing are the following:

a. Earthing through the water mains

b. Strip or wire earthing
c. Rod earthing
d. Pipe earthing
e. Plate earthing

Using water mains for earthing is not normally advised since it requires an iron water pipe,
which ensure electrical continuity. Wire or strip earthing is employed in rocky soils. Rod
winding though cheap is suitable for sandy soils. Common methods for earthing are pipe and
plate methods.

Earthing is required for following reasons:

a. To ensure that the potential, with respect to the earth, of any current carrying
conductor does not rise above its designed insulation level.
b. To avoid shocks to a living body.
c. To provide safety to operating and maintenance personnel.
d. To avoid fire hazards due to earth leakage current.

Relevant specifications are the following:

a. The minimum distance of the earthing electrode from the building whose
installation is being earthed shall be 1.5m.
b. The ECC(Earth Continuity Conductor) should not be less than 2.9m or half of
the installation conductor size.
c. The earth resistance should be sufficiently low to allow adequate flow of earth
leakage current to operate the protective relays or blow out the fuse.

ELECTRICAL SAFETY IN INDUSTRY

Supervisory Responsibilities:

1. Training and Education:

Supervisors should be trained to assist in discharging the electrical safety program

responsibilities for their specific areas. If employees under their supervision use, install, repair or
modify electrical equipment and/or appliances, the supervisor must ensure that they have
received the proper training. The supervisor should also monitor employees and assess their
performance against the established facility safety program policy.

2. Hazardous Condition Reporting:

A written procedure promoting the observation and reporting of electrical hazards should be
implemented. An employee recognition program should also be included in conjunction with the
hazard reporting program. That will recognize employees who help locate electrical hazards and
help ensure that hazards are eliminated in a timely manner. Work Practices The supervisor must
ensure that employees follow safe work practices. A sample of suggested work practices is
included in this section under Employee Responsibilities. Employees should be rated on their
performance in following safe work practices. The supervisor should also be familiar with
OSHA and OSHANC (Occupational Safety and Health Act of North Carolina) standards as they
apply to the workplace under his or her responsibility.

3. Housekeeping:

Floor area problems always present challenges to the supervisor. Areas around electrical
equipment, such as circuit breaker panels, disconnects and fixed power tools, should be kept free
from stored items, debris, and any liquids or material that would create slippery floors or obstruct
access to the equipment for maintenance or emergencies. When hazards of this nature are
reported to the supervisor, they should be recorded and necessary work orders should be issued
for corrective action.

Employee Responsibilities:

4. Training and Education:

Employees should be trained in electrical safety work practices and equipment operation. Any
changes in job duties will require additional safety training. Many accidents are caused when
employees lack knowledge of the equipment or its operation. Sometimes employees are blamed
for accidents when, in reality, specific training was not provided for the employees.

5. Hazardous Condition Reporting:

Employees should always report unsafe equipment, conditions or procedures. Repairing

equipment should receive top priority, even if that means rescheduling a process or project.
Under no condition should defective electrical equipment causing electrical shock be used. The
electrical safety policy should be followed, and deviations should be reported immediately.

6. Work Practices:

Employees are responsible for following their employer’s safe work practices, procedures and
policy. Each employee should also be familiar with OSHA regulations as they apply to
workplace safety.

7. Housekeeping:

In the process of performing their work, employees should remain observant and report
conditions that could cause any type of accident. Good housekeeping requires all employees to
observe activities that could cause electrical shock hazards. Using electrical equipment that is not
properly grounded in areas that have water on the floor can create shock hazards. Storing tools or
other materials around electrical panels or equipment disconnects can create hazards for others,
as well as prevent immediate access to electrical equipment for disconnection in an emergency.
Cleaning tools and electrical equipment with solvents can create health and physical safety
problems. Discarding rags containing solvents into trash receptacles can create fire hazards as
well.

Electrical Safety Policy:

Supervisors must know all facets of their employer’s electrical safety policy and ensure that their
employees also know and follow these policies. As a minimum, the following items should be
included in the electrical safety policy:

a. Power equipment should be plugged into wall receptacles with power switches in the off
position.
b. Electrical equipment should be unplugged by grasping the plug and pulling. Never pull or
jerk the cord to unplug the equipment.
c. Frayed, cracked or exposed wiring on equipment cords must be corrected. Also check for
defective cord clamps at locations where the power cord enters the equipment or the
attachment plug.
d. ―Cheater plugs,‖ extension cords with junction box receptacle ends or other jury-rigged
equipment should not be used.
e. Temporary or permanent storage of materials must not be allowed within 3 feet of an
electrical panel or electrical equipment.
f. Any electrical equipment causing shocks or which has high leakage potential must be
tagged with a DANGER— DO NOT USE label or equivalent.

Questions
1) Give the advantages of transmitting power at high voltage.
2) What are the factors responsible for selection of site for thermal power plant?
3) What are the major drawbacks of Nuclear Power Plant?
4) What are the different Energy Sources are available?
5) What are the materials used for Control Rod in Nuclear Power Plant?
6) Compare the three Conventional energy sources: Hydro, Thermal and Nuclear.
7) What is the Total Power generation Capacity in India at present?
8) Why Power generation in India is at 50Hz while in America its 60Hz so is there any
advantage/Disadvantage of this?
9) Draw the single line diagram of typical A.C. supply scheme.
10) Compare Conventional and Non-Conventional Energy Sources.
11) What are the factors that must be considered to select the system of wiring for an
electrical installation
12) Briefly describe different type of cable wires used for internal wiring
13) Describe different method of house wiring
 14) Name the various type of wiring system commonly used and explain any one of the in
detail.
15) What is the purpose of using fuse( or MCB) in an electrical installation
16) What is earthing? Explain the need of earthing in an electrical installation.
17) In your domestic iron and mixer which part is earthed and why
18) What do you mean by electrical safety policy
19) In electrical safety point of view what is the role of a supervisor in industry?
20)

ILLUMINATION

Terminology:

1. Luminous flux: Luminous Flux is the rate of energy radiation in the form of light waves.It
is the energy per second.Unit is lumen.

2. Luminous Intensity: luminous intensity in a given direction is the luminous flux per unit
solid angle.

3. Lumen: It is defined candle power as the luminous flux emitted in a unit solid angle by a
source of one candle power. Lumen =candle power. solid angle .

4. Candle Power: Candle power of a source is the number of lumens emitted in a unit solid
angle in a given direction.

5. Illumination: It is the luminous flux received by a surface per unit area. Unit is Lux(meter-
candle).
Illumination =Flux/Area = Lumen/Area

6. Brightness: Brightness of a surface is defined as the luminous intensity per unit projected
area of the surface in the given direction.Unit of brightness is lambert.
Where Lambert = 1/pi(candle per sq.ft.)
TYPES OF LAMPS: Types of lamps are as follows.
1. INCADESCENT LAMP:
1. Outline of Glass bulb
2. Low pressure inert gas (argon, nitrogen, krypton, xenon)
3. Tungsten filament
4. Contact wire (goes out of stem)
5. Contact wire (goes into stem)
6. Support wires (one end embedded in stem; conduct no current)
7. Stem (glass mount)
8. Contact wire (goes out of stem)
9. Cap (sleeve)
10. Insulation (vitrite)
11. Electrical contact
 An incandescent light bulb, incandescent lamp or incandescent light globe is an electric
light which produces light with a filament wire heated to a high temperature by an electric
current passing through it, until it glows .The hot filament is protected from oxidation with a
glass bulb that is filled with inert gas .In a halogen lamp, filament evaporation is prevented by a
chemical process that redeposit metal vapor onto the filament, extending its life. The light bulb is
supplied with electrical current by feed-through terminals or wires embedded in the glass. Most
bulbs are used in a socket which provides mechanical support and electrical connections.
Incandescent bulbs are manufactured in a wide range of sizes, light output, and voltage ratings,
from 1.5 volts to about 300 volts. They require no external regulating equipment, have low
manufacturing costs, and work equally well on either alternating current or direct current. As a
result, the incandescent lamp is widely used in household and commercial lighting, for portable
lighting such as table lamps, car headlamps, and flashlights, and for decorative and advertising
lighting Incandescent bulbs are much less efficient than most other types of lighting; most
incandescent bulbs convert less than 5% of the energy they use into visible light(with the
remaining energy being converted into heat). The luminous efficacy of a typical incandescent
bulb is 16 lumens per watt, compared to the 60 lm/W of a compact fluorescent bulb. Some
applications of the incandescent bulb deliberately use the heat generated by the filament. Such
applications include incubators, brooding boxes for poultry, heat lights for reptile tanks, infrared
heating for industrial heating and drying processes, lava lamps, and the Easy-Bake Oven toy.
When used for lighting in houses and commercial buildings, the energy lost to heat can
significantly increase the energy required by a building's air conditioning system, although
during the heating season such heat is not wasted. Incandescent bulbs also have short lifetimes
compared with other types of lighting; around 1000 hours for home light bulbs versus 10,000
hours for compact fluorescents.Because of their inefficiency, incandescent light bulbs are
gradually being replaced in many applications by other types of electric lights, such as
fluorescent lamps, compact fluorescent lamps (CFL), cold cathode fluorescent lamps (CCFL),
high-intensity discharge lamps, and light-emitting diode lamps (LED). Some jurisdictions, such
as the European Union, are in the process of phasing out the use of incandescent light bulbs.

FLUORESCENT LAMP:

CONSTRUCTION
 A fluorescent lamp or fluorescent tube is a gas-discharge lamp that
uses electricity to excite mercury vapor. The excited mercury atoms produce short-
wave ultraviolet light that then causes a phosphor to fluoresce, producing visible light. A
fluorescent lamp converts electrical power into useful light much more efficiently
than incandescent lamps. The luminous efficacy of a compact fluorescent light bulb is about 60
lumens per watt, four times the efficacy of a typical incandescent bulb. For conventional tube
fluorescent lamps the fixture is more costly because it requires a ballast to regulate the
current through the lamp, but the lower energy cost typically offsets the higher initial cost.
While larger fluorescent lamps have been mostly used in commercial or institutional buildings,
the compact fluorescent lamp is now available in the same popular sizes as incandescent and is
used as an energy-saving alternative in homes.

There are three types of fluorescent lamps:

1. Iron cathode or cold- cathode type

2. Tungsten cathode, preheated type
3. Tungsten cathode, cold.

CFL LAMP:

A compact fluorescent lamp (CFL), also called compact fluorescent light, energy-saving light,
and compact fluorescent tube, is a fluorescent lamp designed to replace an incandescent lamp;
some types fit into light fixtures formerly used for incandescent lamps. The lamps use a tube
which is curved or folded to fit into the space of an incandescent bulb, and a compact electronic
ballast in the base of the lamp.
Compared to general-service incandescent lamps giving the same amount of visible light, CFLs
use one-fifth to one-third the electric power, and last eight to fifteen times longer. A CFL has a
higher purchase price than an incandescent lamp, but can save over five times its purchase price
in electricity costs over the lamp's lifetime. Like all fluorescent lamps, CFLs contain mercury,
which complicates their disposal. In many countries, governments have established recycling
schemes for CFLs and glass generally.
CFLs radiate a spectral power distribution that is different from that of incandescent lamps.
Improved phosphor formulations have improved the perceived color of the light emitted by
CFLs, such that some sources rate the best "soft white" CFLs as subjectively similar in color to
standard incandescent lamps.
Saturated color CFLs are also produced, less commonly:

Red, green, orange, blue, and pink, primarily for novelty purposes
Blue for phototherapy
Yellow, for outdoor lighting, because it does not attract insects
Black light (UV light) for special effects

LED LAMP:
An LED lamp (or LED light bulb) is a solid-state lamp that uses light-emitting diodes (LEDs)
as the source of light. LED lamps offer long service lifeand high energy efficiency, but initial
costs are higher than those of fluorescent and incandescent lamps. Chemical decomposition of
LED chips reduces luminous flux over life cycle as with conventional lamps.
Commercial LED lighting products use semiconductor light-emitting diodes. Research
into organic LEDs (OLED), or polymer light-emitting diodes(PLED) is aimed at reducing the
production cost of lighting products. Diode technology currently improves at an exponential rate.
LED lamps can be made interchangeable with other types of lamps. Assemblies of high power
light-emitting diodes can be used to replace incandescent or fluorescent lamps. Some LED lamps
are made with bases directly interchangeable with those of incandescent bulbs. Since the
luminous (amount of visible light produced per unit of electrical power input) varies widely
between LED and incandescent lamps, lamps are usefully marked with their lumen output to
allow comparison with other types of lamps. LED lamps are sometimes marked to show the watt
rating of an incandescent lamp with approximately the same lumen output, for consumer
reference in purchasing a lamp that will provide a similar level of illumination.
Efficiency of LED devices continues to improve, with some chips able to emit more than 100
lumens per watt. LEDs do not emit light in all directions, and their directional characteristics
affect the design of lamps. The efficiency of conversion from electric power to light is generally
higher than for incandescent lamps. Since the light output of many types of light-emitting diodes
is small compared to incandescent and compact fluorescent lamps, in most applications multiple
diodes are assembled.
Light-emitting diodes use direct current (DC) electrical power. To use them on AC power they
are operated with internal or external rectifier circuits that provide a regulated current output at
low voltage. LEDs are degraded or damaged by operating at high temperatures, so LED lamps
typically include heat elements such as heat sinks and cooling fins.

Questions
1) Define the term. Luminous flux: Luminous Intensity, Lumen, Candle Power and
Illumination.
2) Describe the construction and working of an incandescent lamp
3) Draw a neat sketch of fluorescent tube and explain it working