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Different Methods of Surveying PDF
Different Methods of Surveying PDF
M. Seedat, S. Thusi, M.Zaca, L. Mnembe, N. Ndaba – Survey and Land Information Dept. (June 2012)
Introduction
Most people have an understanding that surveying is only restricted to field work on construction sites.
The truth of the matter is that there are six different types of surveying that a surveyor can choose from
in order to undertake a particular job, namely:
Geodetic Surveys
Cadastral Surveys
Engineering Surveys
Aerial Surveys
Mining Surveys
Hydrographic Surveys
In this article we will discuss these different types.To a large degree, the extent of urbanization and
relative worth of the land determine the method of surveying most appropriate. The equipment used
varies with the need and nature of survey.
Geodetic Surveys
Geodetic Surveying is basically control surveying on a large scale, this means that it is control survey
over long distances where measurements are taken and the earth’s curvature and atmospheric
pressures deductions are considered and applied. The word geodesy is from a Greek word geodasia
meaning dividing and the study of the earth’s shape and size.
In most cases this type of survey is carried out when establishing control network of large magnitude,
i.e. the network of trigonometrical survey beacons of the country. If you can imagine the daunting task
of measuring these in South Africa, with all the mountains, valleys and rivers, this is why the curvature of
earth calculations are of vast importance in geodetic surveying.
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As we all know ,the earth’s surface is round , however highly irregular and not suitable as a
computational surface because of the mountains, valleys, rivers and the surface of the sea, it is because
of this reason that the more suitable surfaces were assumed for computational purposes, namely the
Geoid and an Ellipsoid.
Below are the illustrations that show the relationship between the earth’s surface, the geoid and an
ellipsoid.
The geoid is defined as the more
smoothed representation of the
earth and is described as the
surface that would be assumed by
the undisturbed surface of the sea,
continued underneath the
continents by means of small
frictionless channels while the
ellipsoid is a smooth mathematical
surface that best fits the shape of
the geoid and is the next level of
approximation of the actual shape
of the earth.
It is of utmost importance to take note of these issues when undertaking geodetic survey as it involves
the curvature of the earth and the atmospheric conditions and to produce the 3 dimensional control
points of good quality, i.e. horizontal values of Y & X and height at MSL.
Cadastral Surveys
The name Cadastre is a Latin base term which refers to a registry of lands. Cadastral Surveying is
surveying of land so as to determine and define land ownership and boundaries.
Most people do not take seriously the issue of surveying their properties before they develop or erect a
fence/wall, until they have found‐out that they have spent so much money on those developments etc.
on someone else’s property or land.
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Cadastral survey deals with measurements of land, subdivisions and sectional tittles. This kind of survey
can only be carried‐out by a Professional Land Surveyor registered with the South African Council for
Professional and Technical Surveyors (PLATO) as it is stated on the Land Survey Act (No.8 of 1997).
CADASTRAL SURVEYS IN SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT
There are currently nine Surveyor Generals offices, each of which regulates Cadastral Surveys in the
Provinces for which it responsible. These offices are dealing with the safe keeping of survey records,
examinations and approval of cadastral surveys, general plans and draft sectional plans for registration
purpose.
Nearby all these Surveyors General offices there are Deeds Offices which deal with the registration of
properties or land.
Surveyor General’s office have a plan safe where they keep all cadastral surveys that have been
submitted to them by different Land Surveyors. These records are used for beacon relocations and all
other cadastral surveys to ensure that there is no possibility of properties overlapping as to avoid
conflicting claims to ownership.
In South Africa, only Professional Land Surveyors registered with the South African Council for
Professional and Technical Surveyors (PLATO) are legally entitled to undertake this work.
How Cadastral Surveys are performed
Survey methods
There are no prescribed methods that are used in cadastral survey, each survey is different from the
other and it all depends on the area and information that land surveyors have. The only requirement is
that all cadastral survey must be adequately and carefully checked. The control must be based on the
National Control Network.
All survey instruments can be used for cadastral survey as long as they are accurate. When using the GPS
or photogrammetric techniques, a land surveyor needs to follow special requirements that are laid
down.
The accuracies to which surveys must be carried‐out are prescribed and there are three classes of
surveys:
Class A – surveys for the determination of the position of reference marks in urban surveys
Class B – surveys in urban and mining titles in respect of precious stones
Class C – other surveys, including farm surveys and surveys for mining titles in respect of base
minerals.
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Beacons and Boundaries
A property beacon is a natural or artificial feature which marks the boundary corner of a piece of
land/property. A boundary is an imaginary line between the beacons.
The types of beacons that can be used are prescribed by the regulations, but it is usually an iron peg of
specified dimension, corner of a permanent building, well constructed corner post or a drilled hole in
rock/concrete. All beacons used need to be described on the general plan or diagram.
A typical general plan
Consolidation and Sub divisional surveys
A consolidation is where an owner of adjacent properties/land wants to combine it to form one big
property/land. A subdivision is the opposite of a consolidation; here an owner of adjacent
properties/land wants to cut his/her property/land into small pieces of parcels.
This kind of survey can only be done by a registered Professional Land Surveyor and the Land Surveyor
need to send all the necessary information to the Surveyor General Office for registration and approval.
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Engineering Surveys
This type of survey is associated with the engineering design (topographic, layout and as built) often
requiring geodetic computations beyond normal civil engineering practice. It is required in planning and
execution of nearly every form of construction. The equipment commonly used for this are theodolites,
GNSS(GPS) and levelling instruments.
Topographic or Detail Surveys
The purpose of topographic survey is to gather survey data about the natural and manmade features of
the land as well as its elevations. Maps are then prepared from this information. The work usually
consists of the following:
‐Establishing horizontal and vertical control that will serve as reference points for the survey. The most
accurate method of establishing the vertical control is by levelling.
‐Collecting enough horizontal and elevation of ground points to provide enough data for plotting when
the map is prepared. For example, when surveying for upgrading a taxi rank, the features to be located
will be: existing sidewalks, curbs, trees, island, etc. And also for a road intersection features like: kerbs,
road marking (white/yellow lines), islands will be located.
‐the Position and shape of natural and manmade features that may be required for the survey.
‐Calculating distances, angles and elevations.
Setting Out
This is done to construct a structure accurately according to a design. The most common procedure is to
establish a grid in relation to the design. Then, particular points are correctly staked out physically on
site either on exact position or at a particular offset as agreed amongst parties involved
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As Built Surveys
This type of survey is carried out during or immediately after a construction project for record,
completion evaluation and payment purposes. An as built survey shows the location or position of
features that have been constructed and that are subject to completion evaluation. As built surveys are
usually compared to the design information. They show the difference between the constructed or built
information and the design.
Areas and Volumes
On an engineering site the measurement of areas is more often only a step in the determination of
volumes although occasions do arise when areas are only required for example;
Design and Costing : ‐ For capacity of the wall, volume of material within given limits, or volume
required to fill an empty space. All of these are determined by doing a survey and certain calculations.
The Survey Department has undertaken some of
the as built, setting out and field checks on
numerous sites in the Ethekwini Municipality the
largest being the construction of the Queen Nandi
Drive from phase 1 to the present phase of
construction. We continue to carry out detail
surveys for various projects for all departments in
the municipality.
Aerial Surveys
Aerial survey is a method of collecting information conducted from an airborne platform. This is
collected by using aerial photography, LiDAR or laser scanning. It is often recognized similarly as
aerophotogrammetry, part of photogrammetry where the camera is mounted on an aircraft. Aerial
survey is different to satellite imagery because of its better resolution, quality and atmospheric
conditions.
Photogrammetry is the practice of determining the geometric properties of objects from photographic
images. This involves estimating the three dimensional coordinates of points on an object. These are
determined by measurements made in two or more photographic images taken from different
positions. Common points are identified on each image. A line of sight (or ray) can be constructed from
the camera location to the point on the object. It is the intersection of these rays (triangulation) that
determines the three‐dimensional location of the point.
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In the simplest example, the distance between two points that lie on a plane parallel to the
photographic image plane can be determined by measuring their distance on the image, if the scale of
the image is known. The images are obtained by mounting a camera on an aircraft which points
vertically down towards the ground. Multiple overlapping photos of the ground are taken as the aircraft
flies along a flight path. These photos are processed in a stereo‐plotter (an instrument that lets an
operator see two photos at once in stereo view).Generally the higher you fly the less points you have
per square meter and your pixel resolution worsens.
Photogrammetry is more accurate in the x and y direction while range data is generally more accurate in
the z direction. The range data can be supplied by techniques like LiDAR and laser scanners.
Airborne LiDAR is a highly cost effective means of collecting detailed topographic survey information,
and offers significant advantages over traditional forms of topographical survey in terms of speed,
access, resolution, accuracy and canopy penetration, for a variety of applications.
LiDAR – Light Detection and Ranging is a method of detecting distant objects and determining their
position or other characteristics by analysis of pulsed laser light reflecting from their surfaces. Basically a
laser pulse is reflected from a rotating mirror inside a laser scanner. By measuring the time delay
between when the laser pulse is emitted, and when it returns to the scanner, the distance between the
scanner and the object can be precisely determined. The scanner can also accurately measure angles.
When all of the distance, angular and positional information is processed the scanner can produce
highly accurate 3 dimensional data set, which is sometimes referred to a point cloud. Photos can clearly
define the edges of buildings when the point cloud footprint cannot. Therefore often the orthorectified
images are draped on top of the LiDAR grid thus creating a 3 dimensional visual survey.
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Aerial surveys are used for:
Archaeology
Agriculture
Land surveys
Mining
Reconnaissance
Fishery surveys
Monitoring vegetation and ground
cover
Large scale planning for land
development
A 3D visualization can be created by geo‐referencing the aerial photos and LiDAR data in the same
reference frame. The laser scanners are either mounted onto airplanes or helicopters, the latter being
more popular as they are more maneuverable and can be flown at lower altitudes. Typical progress
rates for linear infrastructure routes, such as electricity transmission lines or highways, are 80 – 100 km
per day.
This image shows a typical
scan of a pylon survey (note
the cables between pylons are
scanned as well)
The cost of aerial surveying
has reduced dramatically over
the past decade and will
continue to do so.
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Mining Surveys
Mining survey is a specialist area of surveying involving the measurement, representation and
management of data associated with mining operations which could be the underground and open‐cut
mine workings. These measurements enable new mine works to avoid older and possibly flooded ones,
allow connections to be made between different underground passages and also to establish the
boundaries of mining claims and territories.
Mine surveyors are responsible for preparing and updating the entire surface and underground plans of
a mine to account for new buildings and other structures and to keep records of mining operations.
They plan the direction and extent of all underground workings and used advanced surveying
techniques and instruments to give these directions underground.
Mine surveyor’s work underground most mornings of the week giving direction lines for the miners to
follow or taking samples of the reef and during the afternoons they do calculations in their offices.
The methods and the instruments used for open cast and underground
mine surveying are similar to those used for normal surveys the
difference is only where the working points are fixed on the underground
mine, which is on the ceiling of the rocks in the tunnels.
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Hydrographic Surveys
Hydrographic survey is the science of measurement and description of the physical features of the
navigable portion of the earth’s surface (seas) and adjoining coastal areas, with special reference to
their use for the purpose of navigation. Hydrographic surveys support a variety of activities: nautical
charting, port and harbour maintenance (dredging), coastal engineering (beach erosion and
replenishment studies), coastal zone management and offshore resource development.
In suitable shallow water areas LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) may be used which is an optical
remote sensing technology that can measure the distance to and other properties of a target by
illuminating the target with light often using pulses from a laser. This equipment can be installed on
inflatable craft, small craft, AUVs (Autonomous Underwater Vehicles), UUVs (Unmanned Underwater
Vehicles) or large ships and can include side scan, single beam and multi beam equipment.
The data that is collected during the hydrographic survey is massive and it has to undergo post‐
processing, thinned out and corrected for errors. These errors that need to be corrected are the errors
due to bad sounding, the effects of tides, waves, water levels and temperature differences. Usually
when undertaking this survey, the surveyor would have additional data collection equipment to record
the data for correcting the soundings. The final product is usually charts which are created by a
combination of specialty charting software or CAD packages usually AutoCAD.
Ship scanning the ocean floor Sonar image of a wreck on the ocean floor
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Conclusion
The Survey and Land Information Department in the Ethekwini Municipality utilizes all these survey
methods with the exception of aerial, mining and hydrology surveying. These if required are outsourced
to companies that specialize and have the equipment (airplanes, boats etc.) to undertake such surveys.
However we do assist in establishing ground control points and air marks for the Photogrammetry
Department and our department has also only recently begun using laser scanning however this is on a
limited and small scale (embankments and small structures).
After having discussed the different types of surveying available and their applications one can decide
which method is the most suitable to meet our client’s needs. We hope that this article has enlightened
and cleared up the minds of those that were not aware that there are other methods of surveying and
their applications.
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