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Types of Models
Modelling Process

ENGN2226 Systems Engineering Analysis

TYPES OF MODELS

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Types of Models
• functional (or conceptual or descriptive)

• physical (models, prototypes, …)

• virtual (CAD, schematics, software, …)

• mathematical (or theoretical)

• stochastic (probabilistic)

• empirical (observation)

• …

Functional Model
• a model of the main elements of a system and how they interact

• must contain a scope (boundary) and variables

ENGN2225, 2018
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Functional Analysis (ENGN2225)

ENGN2225, L07 2018

Life Cycle Model

outputs
Supplier outputs

inputs outputs

Manufacture
Raw Materials

Customer
inputs Product

Disposal
inputs
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Energy Energy/Maintenance
Initial Fuel
Resources Oils
Service
metals Vehicle Waste
rubber Manufacture Operation
Emissions
water
oil (for plastics)
Vehicle
Waste
Waste
emissions Retirement
waste water
solid waste
Reclaimed/Reused
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Life-Cycle Cost Model

outputs
Supplier outputs

inputs outputs

Manufacture
Raw Materials

Customer
inputs Product

Disposal
inputs
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Physical Model
• a wide range of mock-ups (non-functional) or prototypes
(some degree of functional)

Virtual
• could be a CAD, schematic, wiring layout, …
• often based on mathematical relationships

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Software Modelling
• software models have an advantage in that they are
often the first step in detailed design
• numerous standards, languages, syntax’s, …
• UML (Unified Modelling Language) can be used for
model-driven architecture
• used to identify and model ‘business’ structures,
behaviours, process and data
• feeds directly into the coding cycle

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databaseanswers.org
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Mathematical Model
• based on mathematical equations and relationships
• identifies logical and quantitative relationships between variables
• typically deterministic, where one set of input values determines the
output values

Darcy’s equation for flow rate of

water through a mechanical water
filter (Fetter, 2001)

A = cross-sectional area
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Dowling et al (2010), p309

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Stochastic Model
• mathematical modelling based on probability distributions
• a range of inputs based on probabilities which leads potentially to a
range of outputs, each with a distinct probability

normal skewed
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Empirical Model
• based on observation and data collection

• often used to support other modelling, for example, applied to a

prototype to test performance, or verify or tune virtual models

Flow rate as a function Flow rate as a function of Flow rate as a function

of water head level sand level of cross-sectional area
600.0 700.0
600.0
600.0
500.0
Flow rate (mL/min)
Flow rate (mL/min)

500.0
Flow rate (mL/min)

500.0
400.0 400.0
400.0
300.0 300.0 300.0
200.0
200.0 200.0
100.0 100.0
100.0
0.0 0.0
0 5 10 0.0 0.0 100.0 200.0 300.0 400.0
0 2 4 6 8
water head level (cm) Cross-sectional area (cm^2)
Sand level (cm)

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physical model

virtual model

Benteler, 2002

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MODELLING PROCESS

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Selecting a Model
• selecting a modelling method will depend on factors including:

– stage in the engineering process

– amount of detail required

– resources available

– data available

– assumptions made

• models generally become more specific as the systems

engineering lifecycle continues
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Role of Modelling
• modelling is used throughout the engineering lifecycle to represent
the behaviour of devices, objects, processes or systems
• the purpose of modelling is to help understand, analyse and design
systems
• used to:
– reduce costs
– simulate (with the aim to predict) behaviour
– explore “what-if” scenarios
– analyse systems (or sub-systems, components, …)
– aid communication

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Selecting Models

Analytical
Activity Physical Models Graphical Models
Models
Concept Laboratory models ‘Back-of-envelope’ Sketches
Generation
and Selection Simulation models Rules of Thumb Layout drawings

Scale models Mathematical

Detailed Pre-production Finite element Detailed assembly
Design prototypes analysis (FEA) drawings
simulation
CAD models

based on Ullman (1992), p229

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Modelling Activities
• early lifecycle modelling typically includes:
– functional model (architecture)
– virtual modelling and simulation
– mathematical
– experiments and analysis
– proof-of-concept’s
– develop an α-version
• modelling that is relative low cost and aids
understanding and decision making
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Modelling Process
Controls: Legislation, safety, risk, …

Inputs Activities Outputs

• life cycle concepts • prepare • strategy
• modelling situation • perform • report
• life cycle constraints • manage • record

Enablers: Resources, research, expertise, data, …

Based on INCOSE (p75)
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Modelling Process
• a generic process for constructing a model is:

1. determine what is being modelled

2. identify key assumptions

3. identify key variables

4. determine relationships between variables

5. identify data

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Modelling
• the intention and purpose for building a model can be posed as a
series of questions (Dym and Little, p128):
– why do we need a model?
– what do we want to find from a model?
– what data are we given?
– what can we assume?
– what are we trying to model?
– what will the model predict?
– how valid are the predictions?
– can we improve the model?
– how will we use the model and its output?

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Minimising Error
• aim to minimise error in planning and preparation
• have a clear scope and aim
• identify and acknowledge sources of error
• ensure an appropriate sample size if necessary
• identify potential sources of bias
• triangulate results by using multiple models, analysis or
data sets
• expert- and peer-review of analysis and outcomes

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References
Blanchard, B., and Fabrycky, W., 1998, System Engineering and Analysis, Third Edition,
Pearson
Brockman, Jay B., 2009, Introduction to Engineering - Modelling and Problem Solving, Wiley
Dowling, D., Carew, A., and Hadgraft, R., 2010, Engineering Your Future - An Australasian
Guide, Wiley
Dym, C. L., and Little, P., 2009, Engineering Design - A Project-Based Introduction, Third
Edition, Wiley
Haraldsson, H. V., Belyazid, S., and Sverdrup H. U., Causal Loop Diagrams - promoting deep
learning of complex systems in engineering education
Hitchins, D. K., 2007, Systems Engineering - A 21st Century Systems Methodology, Wiley
INCOSE, 2007, Systems Engineering Handbook - A Guide for System Lifecycle Processes and
Activities, International Council on Systems Engineering
Ullman, D. G., 1992, The Mechanical Design Process, McGraw-Hill
Ulrich, K., and Eppinger, S., 2000, Product Design and Development

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