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fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/TIA.2019.2936388, IEEE
Transactions on Industry Applications

Behavior of protective relays during Sub Synchronous Resonance in transmission line

and adaptation of Generator out Of Step Protection
Salman Rezaei
KPGM Co.
Km 20 Kerman-Rafsanjan autobahn
Kerman-Iran
rezaiesalman@gmail.com

Abstract—Sub Synchronous Resonance (SSR) is a

phenomenon which electrical energy is exchanged between II. INTRODUCTION
generator and transmission system below power frequency. SSR
occurs due to interaction of a series compensated transmission The First Sub Synchronous Resonance was experienced at
line with a generator. It results in shaft oscillation and out of Mohave power Plant in 1970. It caused shaft failure of the
step condition. During SSR, the magnitude of voltage and turbo-generator and plant outage. The plant experienced the
current is increased. It also increases probable occurrence of second shaft failure, which recognized as SSR in 1971 [1].
ferroresonance. It is obviously clear that protective relays are SSR has been subjected to many investigations since 1971
affected in such conditions. In this paper, Manitoba Hydro to recognize causes and mitigation options. By bifurcation
electrical network is examined with series capacitors by analysis, the stable limit cycle bifurcates to a stable torus and
PSCAD/EMTDC to investigate impact of SSR on operation of
an unstable limit cycle, which connect to a stable limit cycle
different types of protective relays. SSR is mostly concern in
transmission line. In addition, swing characteristic of impedance by a supercritical torus bifurcation [2]. Frequency scanning is
during SSR causes activation of Out of Step Blocking (OSB) able to calculate the equivalent resistance and inductance, of
element of distance relay; in addition, Out Of Step (OOS) the network seen from a point behind the stator winding of a
protection of generator. Hence, an adaptive algorithm based on generator as a function of frequency [3]. Artificial Neural
sub harmonic measurement and ferroresonance analysis in time Network based SSR is Designed and implemented in [4].
domain is proposed for OOS characteristic of generator Time Frequency Distribution algorithm presented in [5] is
protective relay to recognize SSR condition and make a decision designed to extract time variable information about frequency
on behavior of the function. Finally, the algorithm is examined contents from the time domain signal.
in SSR condition to certify the correct operation.
SSR has also caused problems in operation of wind farm.
Index Terms— Series compensation; Sub Synchronous SSR analysis on DFIG (Doubly Fed Induction Generator)
Resonance; Power oscillation; Manitoba Hydro; based wind farm and optimal adaptive controls to mitigate
PSCAD/EMTDC; Protective relays; Adaptive algorithm; Out of SSR in wind farm are presented in [6-7].
step characteristic During SSR condition, sub harmonic components of
I. NOMENCLATURE electrical quantities interact with natural frequencies of rotary
fs Power system nominal frequency. systems due to series capacitance. It causes torsional
VS Voltage at the sending end of the line oscillation of the turbo-generator shaft. This kind of
VR Voltage at the receiving end of the line oscillation in the shaft results in out of step condition of the
R Resistance of the network generator. In fact, SSR increases the magnitudes of voltage
L Inductance of the network and current. Transformer core is saturated due to voltage
C Capacitance of the network increment so that occurrence of ferroresonance will be
XL Inductive reactance of the network. probable in a series compensated network [8-9].
XC Capacitive reactance of the network. Consequently, SSR is able to carry out a mal operation in
XT Total reactance of the system. protective relays, whereas no actual fault occurs in the
ZT Total impedance of the system. system.
Phase angle Several methods have been presented in literature to detect
ζ Damping ratio. SSR condition. A method based on shaft angle and voltage
ω1 Angular power frequency. angle measurement has been presented in [10]. Digital
ω2 Damping frequency. torsional stress protective relay monitor the turbine-generator
ωn Un-damped natural frequency. shaft for torsional oscillation to detect shaft fatigue. [11]. Sub
f0 Rotor electrical frequency. harmonic protection relay detects SSR condition by means of
fn Rotor natural frequency. sub harmonic components evaluation [12-13]. This paper is
fr Slip frequency improved with respect to its conference version [14]. It
ffr Frequency of total waveform in ferroresonance. follows the latest investigation in adaptive protection during
δ Load angle. SSR. An algorithm based on sub harmonic measurement and
T Period of power signal ferroresonance analysis in time domain has been proposed for

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This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/TIA.2019.2936388, IEEE
Transactions on Industry Applications
overcurrent protective relay of Grand Rapids hydro generator
in Manitoba Hydro system [15-16].
SSR is mostly concern in turbo generators [17] whereas, in
[18] stated that hydro generator could be possibly exposed to
a harmful shaft torque as a result of superimposed sub and
super synchronous fault currents following upon a fault in the
series compensated grid. Hence, in order to investigate
impact of SSR on hydro generators Grand Rapids station in
Manitoba Hydro system is considered as an example.
In this paper, Manitoba Hydro network with several power
sources including Grand Rapids hydro generator and a double
circuit transmission line with a length of about 500 Km [19]
is simulated in PSCAD/EMTDC software. Reactance of
double circuit line is compensated by suitable placement of
series capacitance [16]. Impact of SSR on operation of
different types of protective relays such as distance relay with
OSB element, out of step protection of generator (pole
slipping), differential and overcurrent relay is analyzed in the
network. Out of step protection of generator is configured to
separates the generator from the grid in case of pole slipping
to maintain stability of the network. It decides to operate or
restrict operation according to protection strategy.
This paper mostly focuses on behavior of OOS generator
protection function during SSR. Hence, an adaptive algorithm
based on sub harmonic measurement and ferroresonance
analysis in time domain is proposed for this function. The
algorithm recognizes occurrence of SSR along with
ferroresonance. In case of operation of the function, it either
decides to change the locus of characteristic or blocks trip
operation of the element in OOS conditions. In addition, the
algorithm distinguishes protection of the generator against
sub harmonics, which are close to natural frequencies of the
rotor. Finally, the algorithm is examined in SSR conditions to
certify the correct operation.
III. THEORETICAL APPROACH OF SSR IN TRANSMISSION LINE
Theoretical aspect of SSR in AC transmission system is
explained in this section.
A. Series compensation and SSR phenomenon
Loadability of AC transmission line is defined as follow
[20].
.
= (1)
Series compensation increases capability of power
transmission by adding series capacitors, which decrease total
line impedance as follow.
= − (2)
= (1 − ). (3)
S is the compensation degree, which is changed between 0
and 100% defined as follow.
= × 100% (4)
The degree of compensation could be 100% theoretically. It
may produce large currents in the presence of small
disturbances or faults. On the other hand, a high level of
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compensation highlights the problem in protective relays and
in voltage profile during fault condition. In a radial series-
compensated power system, the electrical resonance
frequency is given by the following formula [21].
=± (5)
Where fs is power system nominal frequency
XL is total inductance of the grid
Current flowing to the grid circulates to armature winding
of the generator and interacts with turbine-generator rotor as
sub harmonic and super harmonic frequencies. As shown
below, the current includes fundamental component (grid
frequency) and also another sinusoidal components are
determined by existing elements in the grid. [21-22].
( )= sin( 1 + 1 ) + − 2 sin( 2 + 2 ) (6)
Where: ζ is damping ratio given by (7).
= (7)
2
ω2 is damping frequency as follow.
2 = 1− 2 (8)
ωn is un-damped natural frequency as follow.
1
= (9)
Sub synchronous current induced to generator produces
torque on the turbine-generator shaft. Sub synchronous torque
may coincide with one of the natural frequencies of the rotary
system. It causes oscillation of the shaft at some natural
frequencies. Sub synchronous resonance can Cause
catastrophic damage to the turbine-generator shaft. SSR is
generally divided in to transient and steady state described as
follow.
Transient SSR occurs due to occurrence of a short circuit in
a system with series compensation. Transient magnitudes
include sub synchronous frequencies, which depend on
elements in the network. Slip frequency fr in generator is
given by (10) [23].
= 0− (10)
In case this frequency coincides with one of natural
frequencies of the turbine-generator rotor (fn), torque
amplitude is increased much larger with respect to the system
without compensation.
Steady state (Self-excitation) SSR is divided in to the
Induction Generator Effect (IGE) and Torsional Interaction
(TI). IGE considers generator as a rigid mass at constant
speed connected to the network. TI considers the turbine-
generator with multi-mass shaft, which interact with the
system disturbances at its natural frequencies.
B. SSR analysis tool
In order to analyze SSR several methods have been
proposed. Frequency scanning and eigenvalue analysis are
the most popular tools, which have been practical in this case.
Frequency scanning calculates impedance from behind of
stator winding of generator as a function of frequency.
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For dynamic stability studies, eigenvalue analysis is The polygon width Za also determines the maximum
performed by deriving the linearized model of ac system as detectable power swing slip frequency. Considering that even
follow [24]. with rapid power swings, at least two impedance values must
Ỳ= (11) have been established within the power swing polygon.
4
The elements of matrix Y depends upon the system = (17)
. .
quantities and operating conditions necessary to describe the
Occurrence of power swing in effect of SSR with specific
system and the matrix A is a n × n matrix. Eigenvalue of
slip frequency and different ratio of n=EA/EB causes
matrix A is calculated and then torsional frequencies are
operation of the function in corresponding protective zone.
obtained as follow.
| |.2
Out of step function has a decisive role to maintain stability
= (12) of the network during power swing. Hence, adaptation of
2
Where λi is calculated eigenvalue of matrix A characteristic to detect power swing in effect of SSR and
determination of behavior of the relay according to protection
IV. SUB SYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN ELECTRICAL strategy seems to be necessary.
PROTECTION

A. Protective relays in presence of SSR

Fig 1. Shows a simplified system diagram where a series
compensated transmission line interconnects two generating
sources.

Fig. 1. A typical series compensated power network.

SSR causes growing voltage and current oscillations.
Increasing the voltage causes saturation of transformer and
reactor so that ferroresonance occurs in no-load conditions.
Furthermore, the ferroresonance causes an undamped
exchange of energy at sub synchronous frequencies between
the series capacitor and saturable transformer core [9].
Occurrence of ferroresonance results in misshaping
waveform of magnitudes with different frequencies in the
network [25]. It causes power oscillation, which is
superimposed on torsional oscillation in SSR. Follow Power
oscillation, impedance swings in the network and is
calculated as below [26].
+ ( − )= = = . cot (13)
2 2
1 Fig. 2. Generator OOS characteristic in power swing due to SSR.
=− ∙ . (14)
2 1−
Consequently, impedance in the relay is measured by the As was discussed in advance, the magnitude of current is
following formula [27]. increased during SSR. Hence, over current relay might pick
( − )− up whereas, no fault occurs in the system. On the other hand,
= ( + + ) 2 2 − (15)
− + state of the art protective relays use fundamental waveform of
Where δ = δA- δB is load angle difference between two magnitudes to eliminate interferences; hence, the relay may
sources not operate in case of existing high magnitude of harmonics
Fig. 2 shows polygon characteristic of OOS, generator with low fundamental component.
protection function in impedance diagram. The diagram Differential relay eliminates faults in its protective zone. In
comprises reactance (X) and resistance (R) axis. The case of occurrence of SSR along with ferroresonance,
characteristic is configured to operate in two protective secondary current of no-load transformer is not increased as
zones. Zone 1 covers sub transient reactance of the generator well as primary current therefore, differential current is
and short circuit reactance of transformer whereas zone 2 increased and the relay operates despite no internal fault
covers impedance of the network. The value of Za determines occurs in protective zone.
warn angle and trip angle of the characteristic. It is calculated
based on total impedance of the system [28].
= 2
(16)
2

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B. Ferroresonance detection based on time domain
analysis
The consequences of experiences and simulations of SSR
phenomena certify occurrence of ferroresonance due to
increasing voltage magnitude and collision of capacitance
line with saturated area of transformer or reactor core. Hence,
in order to make a reliable detection of power swing in case
of SSR it is preferable to detect ferroresonance of different
types which can be considered in setting modification of
OOS characteristic.
In this section, proposed method in [29-30] is used to
determine ferroresonance of different types based on time
domain analysis. In order to design a detection tool based on
a logical circuit, ferroresonant characteristics must be
quantified. THD (Total Harmonic Distortion) and ∆f
(frequency difference with respect to rated frequency) are the
quantities, which are used as criteria to determine
ferroresonance of different types as shown in Table I.
TABLE I
CRITERIA TO DETERMINE FERRORESONANCE MODE
Ferroresonance ∆f d∆f T.H.D (%)
type dt
Fundamental zero Zero > 50
Harmonic constant Zero > 50
Quasi-periodic variable Not zero > 100
Chaotic variable Not zero > 100
Fundamental ferroresonance is detected when frequency of
waveform remains at nominal value (∆f is zero) and the value
of THD is more than 50%. Harmonic ferroresonance is
detected when frequency of waveform is deviated from
nominal value and remains constant (∆f is not zero);
furthermore, the value of THD is also more than 50%. In
most cases, fundamental and harmonic ferroresonance
contain odd harmonics; hence, harmonic spectrum is discrete.
Quasi-periodic and chaotic modes are determined when
∆
is detected.
In addition, the value of THD increases more than 100%
where chaotic mode contains a continuous harmonic
spectrum. As harmonic spectrum is mostly a qualified
characteristic, THD and ∆f are only used in logical circuit to
determine ferroresonance modes.
C. SSR detection algorithm in generator Out Of Step
protection
In this section, an algorithm based on eigenvalue analysis,
sub harmonic measurement and analysis of ferroresonance in
time domain is proposed to control operation of out of step
protection of generator during SSR. In addition, the algorithm
distinguishes protection of turbine-generator against sub
harmonics, which may coincide with natural frequencies of
the rotor.
Fig. 3 shows an example of flowchart of the proposed SSR
detection algorithm, which is used in generator protection. In
order to detect torsional oscillation of generator, mechanical
parameters of each section of the rotor like inertia and shaft
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stiffness are entered to the algorithm. Typical values are
given in the flowchart for a 480 MW hydro generator. Then,
natural frequencies (fn) of the rotor are determined by
eigenvalue analysis. The algorithm receives pole slipping
setting values and grid quantities like; instantaneous values of
voltage, current, and frequency. Sub synchronous frequencies
in the current waveform of the network are detected in range
of 5-50 Hz by means of low pass filter. Then Fast Fourier
Transform (FFT) decomposes the signal in to number of sub
harmonics. It represents a replica of fer, which depends on the
value and type of elements (R-L-C) in the network. Slip
frequency fr induced in the rotor is compared with natural
frequencies of the rotor. It distinguishes fr which coincide
with one of natural frequencies (fn) then alarm massage is
issued by the algorithm.
The algorithm calculates sub harmonic currents as criteria
to detect SSR in the network defined as follow [12].
Current Sub Harmonic Nominal Ratio
( )= × 100 (18)
Harmonic Current Sub Harmonic Fundamental Ratio
spectrum
Discrete
Discrete ( )= × 100 (19)
Discrete
Continuous Current Total Sub Harmonic Distortion
2 2 2
(5 ) + (6 ) +⋯+ (50 )
( )= × 100 (20)
(60 )
Setting values of the above criteria depends on required
sensitivity to detect SSR. It also can be determined by
protection scheme. If the value of one of the above criteria
exceeds setting value and remains stable more than 100 ms or
more than 10 Operation Per Second (OP/S), SSR is
considered in the network. OP/S registers successive pickup
values, which are dropped off in the time below 100 ms. The
criteria explained in section IV. B, to determine
ferroresonance of different types is used in the algorithm.
In case of occurrence of power swing due to SSR and
ferroresonance conditions impedance varies in the network.
In unstable power swing condition, impedance trajectory may
traverse across out of step characteristic of generator
protection. The algorithm designated for OOS characteristic
decides to determine behavior of the function in such
conditions according to protection strategy. Protection
strategy is also determined based on results of the stability
analysis in the network. In such conditions, the algorithm is
subject to delay after passing impedance trajectory through
trip angle at the first sleep. In this time, it determines
behavior of the characteristic according to protection strategy.
As shown in the flowchart, it is able to recalculate new
setting parameters to change dimension of OOS
characteristic. In addition, it determines number of slips in
each zone and considers a time delay in trip operation.
Changing dimension of the characteristic is accomplished
by calculation of center and radius of the impedance circle as
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shown in Fig. 3. For instance, in case of passing impedance
locus through generator with a value of n<1 in impedance
diagram the condition is provided for operation of zone1. It is
assumed that protection strategy requires the OOS function
does not operate in power swing with such value of n due to
SSR. On the other hand, the function is required to operate in
rest of values of n, which may pass through transformer or
transmission line. Hence, the value of Zm must be
recalculated so zone1 of OOS characteristic can be situated
out of the impedance locus.

Fig. 3. Flowchart of SSR detection algorithm in overcurrent relay

In order to modify setting parameters of the characteristic the In n<1 state, if the radius (R) of impedance circle is greater
center and radius of the impedance circle are calculated by than the distance between center of circle and point A Zm is
the formulas presented in Fig. 4 for both n>1 and n<1 states. recalculated by the following formula to locate the

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characteristic out of the circle. form the characteristic, can be modified according to
= −( − ) . (21) situation of impedance circle and discretion of protection
Where C is distance between center of circle and point A strategy. If OOS, ferroresonance and SSR are not detected
Security Factor (SF), is applied to increase stability margin. setting values of the relay are returned to initial values. In
On the contrary, in n>1 state, if the radius (R) of impedance addition to that, in case of increasing the current higher than
circle is greater than the distance between center of circle and Imax the condition of I > Imax is added to retrieve initial setting
point A (C) Zs and ZTr are recalculated by the following values.
formula to locate the characteristic out of the circle. It is clearly identified that, the values of measured sub
+ = ( + )−( − ) . (22) harmonics, ferroresonance of different type detection, in
addition; increasing voltage and current during SSR and
ferroresonance depends on varies conditions. These
conditions includes the values of R-L-C elements, switching
and line and plant outage, which results in changing network
configuration. Furthermore, the status of generator excitation
system (under-over) is crucial to determination of system
impedance situation. Hence, in order to provide an intelligent
protection which adapt the status of the system with
protection requirements automatically, on line monitoring of
the system is required by the algorithm.

V. SUB SYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE IN THE NETWORK

In Manitoba Hydro system, G1A-G2A double circuit
transmission line connects Ashern station to Grand Rapids
station with a length of about 234 km. In another side, Ashern
station is connected to Rosser station by A3R-A4D double
circuit transmission line with a length of about 200 km (Fig.
5). Transformers in Silver station are supplied from a single
line, which is tapped from A3R line in a distance of about 50
km from Ashern station [19]. As the line comprises three
sections, compensation is applied at the beginning of the line
Fig. 4. Modification of generator OOS characteristic in SSR in each section individually [16].
Reciprocally, other values and setting parameters, which
A
SILVER TAP V
GRAND RAPIDS END Timed Timed
Breaker Breaker
ASROSC1Logic ASHC1 Logic ASHVC1
ASHERN ST. R-ASROS C-ASROS Open@t0 CAPACITOR PLACEMENT Open@t0 ASHVC1
ASG1A
P = 184.9
ASROSVC1

G1A ASHERN 50 [ohm] 0.00005 [uF] ASROSC1 ASHC1 Q = -4.124

ASHVC1

A3R A3R
ASROS
A A A A
250 [uF] V V 83 [uF] V V
G1AG... n1_right
C-ASDOR 0.00005 [uF] A3RA4D1 A3RA4D2

G2A ASDOR
A A
REMOTE
ASDORVC2

DAMPING REACTOR 250 [uF] V A4D V 83 [uF] A4D

ASHVC2

ASG2A ROSSER END

VERMILLION TAP ASDORC2 CAPACITOR PLACEMENT ASHC2 DORSEY-RIDGEWAY
Timed Timed
Breaker Breaker
ASDORC2Logic ASHC2 Logic ASHVC2
ASHVC2
Open@t0 Open@t0

Fig. 5. Series compensation in Manitoba Hydro network in PSCAD/EMTDC

TABLE II
VALUES OF INERTIA, STIFFNESS AND NATURAL FREQUENCIES OF 480 MW
Table II shows rotor mechanical specifications like inertia HYDRO GENERATOR
and time constant of hydro generator in Grand Rapids station
Inertia Value (s) Stiffness Value Fn (Hz) Mode
[16]. Furthermore, in [31] an example of simulation of a (pu. T/rad)
hydro generator with torsional shaft model is implemented by JT1 0.0830 KT1-2 18.0858 51.94 5
the values of rotor inertia and time constant nearly the same JT2 0.1451 KT2-3 33.1075 43.15 4
as the information given in [16]. JT3 0.7864 KT3-4 51.3650 33.31 3
JT4 0.7945 KT4-Gen 68.0483 0.00 0
JGen 0.7859 KGen-Exc 2.117 20.86 1
JExc 0.0284 24.97 2

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grid par.
Rotor shaft comprises a 4-section turbine, generator and
Voltage
exciter. Electrical resonance frequency (fer) generated by the 1.3M
1.0M 0.1035M
elements of the network due to a short circuit produces a sub 0.8M
0.5M
-0.2378M
-0.3413M
synchronous frequency in generator in Grand Rapids station. 0.3M
Min -0.8820M

(V)
0.0
It may coincide with one of natural frequencies of hydro -0.3M
-0.5M
Max 1.0119M

generator. Natural frequencies of the rotor are categorized in -0.8M

-1.0M
six torsional modes as shown below. 4.0k
Current
0.2853k
3.0k
Torsional modes of Hydro generator in Grand Rapids station -0.2344k
1 2.0k
mod 5

1.0k -0.5197k
0 Min -2.7163k

(A)
0.0
-1 -1.0k Max 3.6240k
T1 T2 T3 T4 Gen Exc
1 -2.0k
mod 4

-3.0k
0
t (s) 1.100 1.150 1.200 1.250 1.300 1.350 1.400 1.450 1.500 1.550 1.073
-1 1.531
T1 T2 T3 T4 Gen Exc
0.458
1
mod 3

0
(b)
-1
Fig. 7. Grid parameters in short circuit. (a) Non-compensation, (b) Series
T1 T2 T3 T4 Gen Exc compensation.
2
mod 0

1
Fig. 8 shows frequency spectrum of stator current of hydro
0 generator. It consists of sub frequency 27 Hz with amplitude
T1 T2 T3 T4 Gen Exc
1
of about 50% with respect to fundamental. This is fer which is
mod 1

0 generated by the network elements at the instance of short

-1
T1 T2 T3 T4 Gen Exc
circuit. fer is induced in the generator rotor and generates
1 = 60 − 27 = 33Hz. The slip frequency of fr coincides
mod 2

0
with one of natural frequencies (Fig.6, mode 3) of rotor shaft
-1
T1 T2 T3 T4 Gen Exc in Grand Rapids station.
Fig. 6. Torsional modes of Hydro generator in Grand Rapids station. 4 Sub harmonic of current in Hydro generator
x 10

Analysis of operation of protective relays during SSR is 2 Fundamental

implemented by applying a three-phase fault at 230 kV side X: 60.7
Y: 2.001e+04
1.8
in Silver station. Compensation level is set to 75% for all
three sections. The fault occurs in the time of 1.2 s from 1.6 Sub harmonic
energizing then it is removed after 0.2 s where Grand Rapids
1.4
station is in generator mode. Fig. 7a and 7b compare impact X: 27.28
Y: 1.156e+04
Amplitude

of series compensation on grid parameters with respect to 1.2

non-compensated line during short circuit. As shown in Fig. 1
7a (non-compensation), voltage increases up to 285 kVpick in
0.8
two periods and suppresses immediately. Pick value of short
circuit current includes DC component is increased up to 2.9 0.6
kA. DC component is decayed after 100ms. In Fig. 7b, (series
0.4
compensation) voltage increases up to 1MVpick. It causes
saturation of transformer core and occurrence of 0.2
ferroresonance. Current waveform is misshaped and includes 0
sub harmonics, which flow in the network.
grid par.
0 27 60 100 200 300
Voltage Frequency (Hz)
300.000k
200.000k
105.6516k Fig. 8. Frequency spectrum of current of generator in Grand Rapids station.
-44.0951k
100.000k -149.7467k
0.000 Min -263.766... Fig. 9a shows electrical parameters of hydro generator. All
(V)

-100.000k Max 285.224...

-200.000k
parameters have increasing manner. Envelope of current
-300.000k grows up to 2.66 times greater than nominal current. Follow
2.0k
Current oscillation of voltage and current active power and load angle
0.2808k
1.0k -0.3716k oscillate similarly. Oscillation of parameters is increased
0.0 -0.6524k significantly from 1.5 to 9 Hz in the time after 6.5 s. Fig. 9a
Min -2.8973k
(A)

-1.0k
Max 1.7104k shows electrical parameters of hydro generator. Oscillation of
-2.0k
active power causes torsional strength to hydro generator
-3.0k
t (s) 1.100 1.150 1.200 1.250 1.300 1.350 1.400 1.450 1.500 1.550 1.073 shaft. Direction of magnitude of torque on the shaft between
1.531
0.458 section 1 and 2 of turbine, in addition mechanical
(a) displacement of section 1 with respect to generator change

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alternatively. Furthermore, mechanical speed of section 1 is

significantly increased with respect to rated speed.
Main,Hydro System : Graphs
VMA
VI. OPERATION OF PROTECTIVE RELAYS IN SSR
15.0k
-11.4588k
10.0k A. Overcurrent relay
-5.5003k
5.0k 5.9585k Overcurrent relay is affected due to increasing the
0.0 Min -13.7323k
(V)

-5.0k
magnitude of voltage and current; in addition, oscillation of
Max 13.7917k
-10.0k power in the network as described below.
-15.0k Overcurrent relay measures rms value of fundamental to
80.00k
IMA protect generator and transformer in Grand Rapids station.
28.4412k
60.00k
49.7636k
Fig. 10a shows the secondary value of current measured by
40.00k
20.00k 21.3224k the relay during short circuit in 230 kV side in Silver station
0.00 Min -70.4337k where series capacitors are out of service. The straight red
(A)

-20.00k
Max 70.5721k
-40.00k line indicates relay setting value. The relay does not operate
-60.00k
-80.00k because the measured current is below pickup setting of the
1.0k
Active Power relay. In series compensation (Fig. 10b), current increases up
0.8k 0.4933k
0.6k 0.6458k
to pick up value of the relay. As the current amplitude has
0.4k
0.2k
0.1525k increasing manner, trip condition of the relay is fulfilled after
(MW)

0.0 Min -0.7088k a time delay.

-0.2k Max 0.8361k
-0.4k
-0.6k GRAND RAPIDS OVERCURRENT
-0.8k Harmonic 1 rms sec O/C Definite time
1.20
Load Angle 0.543
40 1.00
6.543 0.755
0.80
30 0.212
30.619 0.60 Min 0.538
(A)

20 24.076 0.40
(Degree)

Max 1.015
10 Min -19.887 0.20
0 Max 30.628 0.00

-10 Pick up 0: Low

-20
t (s) 7.5 Trip 0: Low
3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0
6.1 t (s) 0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 1.91
f -0.7 0.72
-1.19
(a)
Hydro System : Graphs
(a)
GRAND RAPIDS OVERCURRENT
Torque on shaft from mass 1-2
8.0 Harmonic 1 rms sec O/C Definite time
-3.781 1.40
6.0 0.628
0.024 1.20
4.0 0.886
1.00
2.0 3.806 0.258
0.80
(pu)

0.0 Min -5.388 Min 0.398

(A)

0.60
-2.0 Max 6.093 0.40 Max 1.253
-4.0 0.20
-6.0 0.00
Mech. position mass 1 wrt gen Pick up 0: Low
60
-22.084
-0.439 Trip 0: Low
21.645
(Degree)

t (s) 0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 1.91

Min -44.482 0.72
Max 51.028 -1.19
(b)
-50 Fig. 10. Operation of overcurrent relay in Grand Rapids station during short
Delta mech. speed mass 1 wrt rat. speed circuit in Silver station. (a) Non-compensation, (b) Series compensation.
4.0k
3.5k 2.2322k
3.0k 0.6397k
2.5k
2.0k
-1.5925k B. Distance relay with OSB element
(RPM)

1.5k Min 0.6400k

1.0k Max 3.2869k Distance relay comprises two protective zones, which
0.5k
0.0 are surrounded by OSB elements, which restrict false
-0.5k
t (s) 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 12.0 13.0 11.6 tripping of the relay during power swing in the network.
7.7
f -0.3
As shown beforehand, SSR causes power oscillation,
(b) which begin with a swing frequency of 1.5 Hz and then
Fig. 9. Parameters of hydro generator in Grand Rapids station during SSR. with an increasing value of 9 Hz in the time of 6.5 s from
(a) Electrical parameters, (b) Mechanical parameters energizing (Fig.9a). Fig.11a shows distance characteristic
and OSB elements in impedance diagram. The diagram
comprises reactance (X) and resistance (R) axis based on

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ohm. Impedance locus enters in to zones 1 and 2 and hydro generator. Similarly, the diagram comprises reactance
remains stable in zone 1 so that trip signal is issued. On (X) and resistance (R) axis based on ohm. Referring to Fig. 2,
the other hand, the impedance locus passes only through OOS characteristic comprises warn and trip angle in the right
OSB elements; hence, OSB signal is issued so that and left side of the polygon. Impedance circles pass through
operation of the relay can be blocked in case of short warn angle, which alert out of step condition. Trip signal is
circuit fault
R5 OSBalong with occurrence
X5 OSBof SSR in the network. issued when the impedance locus passes through trip angle in
R6 OSB X6 OSB an unstable out of step condition after specified number of
SILVERPROTECTION_1 : LINE IMPEDANCE
RZ2 XZ2
RZ1
X Coordinate XZ1
Y Coordinate
slips. Diameter and location of the impedance circles depends
Rab Xab on the ratio of n = . Fig. 12b, shows the calculated ratio
Rbc Xbc
Rca Xca of n between Grand Rapids and the network. The values of n
R5m OSB X5m OSB
+y decrease and are often smaller than 1 in the time after 6.5 s;
400 R6m OSB X6m OSB
RZ2m XZ2m
hence, hydro generator is mostly under excited during SSR.
GRANDRAPIDSPROTECTION : XY Plot
300
R6 OSB X6 OSB
X Coordinate
R5 OSB Y Coordinate
X5 OSB
200
Rab (ohm) Xab (ohm)
Rbc (ohm) Xbc (ohm)
100
Rca (ohm) Xca (ohm)
-x +x 200 RZ2 +yXZ2
0
RZ1 XZ1
-100 POLI1X POLI1Y
150 POLI3X POLI3Y
-200 POLI2Y POLI2X
POLI4Y POLI4X
-300 100 POLI5X POLI5Y

-400
-y 50
-300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300
Aperture Width 11.709... -x +x
0
0.000s 15.000s Position 3.290

(a) -50
SILVERPROTECTION_1 : Graphs

OSB -100

-y
-150
-200 -100 0 100 200 300
Z1 Pickup Aperture Width 11.197183...
0.000s 15.000s Position 0.000
(a)
GRAND RAPIDS PROTECTION
Z1Trip n=EGen/EGrid
1.20
1.10 1.058
1.00 0.934
0.90 -0.124
0.80
0.70 Min 0.467
Z2 Pickup 0.60 Max 1.091
0.50
0.40

t (s) 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 12.0 5.0
9.4
Z2Trip 4.4
(b)
Fig. 12. Pole slipping relay. (a) Protective zone and impedance loci, (b) Ratio
x
of n and number of slips during SSR.
0.0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5 15.0
D. Differential relay
(b) Transformers in Silver station are protected by differential
Fig. 11. Distance relay with OSB element. (a) Protective zones and
impedance loci, (b) Operation of the relay.
protection. The relay has been examined in fault conditions;
hence, reliability of the protection has been certified. The
C. Out of step protection relay is re-examined in fault conditions where series
capacitors are in service. As was mentioned in advance, an
As was discussed in advance, out of step protection function external three phase fault occurs in 230 kV side of
protects generator and transformer against power swing transformer in Silver station. Fig. 13a shows the values of
condition, which cause mechanical and thermal damages. As Idiff (differential current) and Ibias (biasing current) with
was shown in section V, hydro generator in Grand Rapids respect to the time. The relay goes to mal operation
station is exposed to out of step condition during SSR. Fig. successively due to switch off transient state [30] after fault
12a shows polygon characteristic of out of step protection of elimination and drops off after 1 s. At the time of 6.5 s, along

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with increasing slip frequency (Fig. 9a) Idiff is increased and A. Explanation of the algorithm
the relay picks up again so that successive operation of The adaptive algorithm in OOS protection comprises rotor
protection is obtained for a period of about 2s. Fig. 13b natural frequency calculation, SSR, out of step and
shows two-slope characteristic of differential protection and ferroresonance detection; in addition, OOS setting
current loci based on Idiff indicated on y axis and Ibias modification. The algorithm is implemented by
indicated on x axis. Due to external fault in series PSCAD/EMTDC software explained as follow.
compensation, Idiff increases up to 200% with respect to In order to determine natural frequencies (fn) of hydro
Ibias in both above-mentioned states. generator and detection of generator oscillation, Matlab
SILVERPROTECTION_1,Differential : Graphs
IDiffL1
interface is used in PSCAD. The values of inertia constant
3.00
0.222 and stiffness of the shaft are defined to calculate eigenvalues
2.50 0.213
2.00 -0.009
by the algorithm. Electrical resonance frequency (fer) of the
1.50 Min 0.000 network is measured from the current which pass through a
(A)

Max 2.610
1.00 low pass filter. Sub synchronous harmonics with the values
0.50
higher than 30% are evaluated to find slip frequency (fr)
0.00
IBiasL1
induced in the generator shaft. If fr coincides with one of the
1.40
1.20
0.111 natural frequencies of the shaft an alarm message is generated
0.107
1.00 -0.005
to operate desired action (shut down or trip the generator)
0.80 Min 0.000 according to protection strategy. The values of ISHNR,
(A)

0.60 Max 1.305

0.40 ISHFR, and ITSHD are also calculated in Matlab interface to
0.20 recognize SSR. If these values exceed from 6%, 13%, 100%
0.00
respectively in 100 ms or 10 OPS SSR is considered to be
L1Trip
0: Low detected.
x 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 4.9
Ferroresonance is detected according to criteria in table I.
0.9
-4.0
In this example, the value of Zm is recalculated in n<1 state.
(a) In case of passing impedance locus through trip angle of OOS
SILVERPROTECTION_1,Differential : XY Plot
characteristic along with detection of SSR and
ferroresonance, the algorithm block trip operation of the relay
X Coordinate Y Coordinate
and initiates a process to modify setting calculation of the
IBiasL1 IDiffL1
IBiasL2 IDiffL2
function according to protection strategy. radius and center of
Slope1 Slope1 the impedance circle are calculated by the algorithm. Then,
5.0 Slope2 Slope2
+y Zm is modified as described in section IV.C. This value is
4.0 IBiasL3 IDiffL3 also multiplied by a Security Factor (SF) of 0.8 to maintain
3.0 stability margin.
2.0
It must be noted that, as the criteria to modify setting values
of the characteristic may not be appeared simultaneously
1.0
-x +x during SSR, they are set in the algorithm (by flip flap) to be
0.0
used in setting modification.
-1.0 The speed required to calculation depends on the maximum
-2.0 allowable time between pickup and trip time of the function.
-3.0 hence microprocessor of the relay must be able to proceed on
-4.0
setting modification in this time. This matter is out of scope
-y of the paper and is not evaluated here.
-5.0
-3.0 -2.0 -1.0 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0
Aperture Width 0.290...
B. Examination of the algorithm in the network
0.000s 15.000s Position 1.337 In this section, functionality of SSR detection algorithm of
(b) OOS characteristic is examined in SSR condition, which was
Fig. 13. Differential relay. (a) measured currents and operation of the relay explained in section V. The main objective of the algorithm is
(b) Operating slops and current loci. automatic setting modification of the characteristic to prevent
mal operation of the function by analysis and detection of
VII. SSR DETECTION ALGORITHM OF GENERATOR OOS SSR and ferroresonance.
PROTECTION IN PSCAD/EMTDC Oscillation of generator is detected by applying eigenvalue
In this section, flowchart of SSR detection algorithm of analysis. The algorithm uses the values of inertia and stiffness
generator OOS protection explained in section IV.C is of the rotor to determine natural frequencies of the shaft. It
implemented in PSCAD/ EMTDC software. Thereafter, the also uses Fast Fourier Transform to decompose current
algorithm is examined in presence of SSR condition, which waveform and detect sub harmonics. As shown in section V,
was explained in advance to prevent mal operation of sub harmonic with the frequency of 27 Hz and magnitude of
overcurrent relay. about 50% is detected at the instant of short circuit. It results

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in inducing slip frequency of 33Hz in the rotor. It coincides 350

with mode III of the rotor torsional modes. The signal of ISTHD = 325%
generator oscillation can be used to different purposes 300
according to protection scheme.
Fig. 14a shows the percent of amplitude of the measured 250
sub harmonic parameters like; ISHNR, ISHFR, and ITSHD.

Amplitude %
They are increased up to 65%, 52%, and 325% respectively
200
for duration more than 100 ms. Threshold values for these
parameters are determined by protection scheme. In this
example, the values are high enough to consider as SSR 150 ISHNR = 65%
condition in the specified time. As was shown in Fig. 7b,
ISHFR = 52%
increasing the magnitude of voltage up to 1 MV causes 100
saturation of transformer core. Capacitance line of the system
traverses across nonlinear area of saturated curve of 50
transformer and results in occurrence of ferroresonance.
Fig. 14b shows the measured ferroresonance detection
0
quantities, which are listed in table I. the value of ∆f is ISHNR ISHFR ISTHD
increased up to 5 Hz then suppressed gradually. Follow (a)
SILVERPROTECTION_1 : Graphs
variation of ∆f, d∆f/dt is also increased up to 18 Hz/S
deltaf
showing frequency changes with respect to the time. The 6.0
0.072
value of THD is increased up to 3000 % in short time and 5.0 0.003
suppressed to a value of 70 % in sustained state. According 4.0 -0.069
to threshold values of criteria to detect ferroresonance of Min 0.002
3.0
(HZ)

Max 5.122
different types in table I, fundamental ferroresonance is 2.0
detected in fault inception time. Then all types of
1.0
ferroresonance are detected after fault elimination for
0.0
duration of about 0.5 s, whereas fundamental type is still
ddeltaf/dt
detected after this time. Protection strategy is responsible to 20.0
0.000
17.5
select the ferroresonance type in which setting modification is 0.000
15.0
implemented. 12.5
0.000
Min 0.000
SSR and ferroresonance are detected in the time of fault
(HZ/S)

10.0
Max 18.951
inception. However, impedance loci traverse across OOS 7.5
characteristic of generator protection in Grand Rapids station 5.0
in effect of power oscillation in the time of 5 s after short 2.5
0.0
circuit in Silver station. As was shown in Fig. 12b the value THDmax
of n = EGen/EGrid < 1 is mostly eminent hence, impedance 3.5k
0.0367k
circle passes through zone1 of the characteristic. 3.0k 0.1582k
Fig. 14c shows modified polygon characteristic which was 2.5k 0.1215k
2.0k Min 0.0005k
illustrated in Fig. 12a. It is shown that impedance loci
(%)

1.5k Max 2.5536k

traverse close to the origin (zero impedance). Therefore,
1.0k
according to protection strategy, in order to prevent mal
0.5k
operation of the characteristic zone1 must be blocked during 0.0
SSR or the value of Zm must be reduced excessively. As was
discussed in section IV.C, in power swing conditions due to Fundame...
0: 0.000
SSR, the algorithm considers a delay after passing impedance
trajectory through trip angle at the first sleep before generator
outage. During this time, the algorithm calculates a new value Harmonic
0: 0.000
of Zm. As shown in Fig. 14c, modified value of Zm indicated
by red line must be set to 3.2 ohm as calculated by (21).
= 50 − (90 − 44) . 0.8 = 3.2 Quisi-Cha...
0: 0.000
Zm is set back to its initial value if current exceeds 3 times
greater than nominal current or SSR, ferroresonance and out t(s) 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80 2.00 2.20 2.40 2.30
of step conditions are not detected. 1.33
f -1.03
(b)

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R6 OSB
GRANDRAPIDSPROTECTION : XY Plot
X6 OSB
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RZ1 XZ1
775
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POLI3X POLI3Y
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This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/TIA.2019.2936388, IEEE
Transactions on Industry Applications

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Biographies
Salman Rezaei received B.Sc. in electrical
engineering from Mehriz-Azad University, Mehriz,
Yazd, Iran in 2010. He has been working in Kerman
Combined Cycle Power Plant since 2005. He was a
laboratory technician and then electrical engineer of
technical office. His activities include protective
relaying, testing electrical devices, generator
transformer and protective relays, electrical studies
and simulation of distributed resources and electrical
projects. He also cooperates with Kerman Namad
Niroo Co. (KNN) representing engineering services
for energy as Manager of electrical department. His research interests include
simulation and design of protective systems, ferroresonance, and nonlinear
dynamic.

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