Modul Presentation & Negotiation PDF

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PRESENTATION & NEGOTIATION

MODULE
Yuyun Taufik, S.Pd., M.Si.
PROGRAM STUDI HUBUNGAN MASYARAKAT

POLITEKNIK LP3I BANDUNG
2015
Digunakan hanya untuk kalangan Politeknik LP3I Bandung PRODI HUMAS

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PROGRAM STUDI HUBUNGAN MASYARAKAT

BANDUNG
SATUAN ACARA PERKULIAHAN (SAP)

PRESENTATION & NEGOTIATION
YUYUN TAUFIK, S.Pd., M.Si.

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LESSON 1
COMMUNICATION AND SELF-EXPRESSION

1. The Definition
The life of human being can not be separately from the
communication activities, becausethe communication is the integral part
from the system and human being’s social life.The communication
activities can be seen at every part of human daily activities, starting in
the morning when someone wakes up until goes to bed at night. We can
assume that from time to time, we always do in communication activities
regularly. How many hours we spend the time, for example for chit and
chat, read a news paper, listen to the radio, watch TV program, use the
computer, study and so on.
From the research by Jiwanta:1982, there is a high percentage of

time which is used in communication process, it is around 70% until 90%
that we spend the time every day. The percentage of communication
process are: 5 % for writing, 10% for reading, 35% for speaking and 50%
for listening. From the data above, they prove the essence of
communication in the human being’s social life pattern. On the other
hand, the communication is the heart of our daily life. The
communication is always a part of our daily activities. And some people
sometimes do not realize that basically nobody can not avoid from the
communication activities. Next, actually what is the communication?
One says that communication is a process of message delivering

from communicator to the listener through the certain communication
channel. And also one says that communication is a process of message
delivering ( such as symbol, voice, picture, etc) from the sources to the
target (audience) by using the channel of communication. Meanwhile,

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Wilbur Schrarmm( Ashadi: 1987) says that communication is a sharing

process:
“communication is derived from Latin “communis” which is meant

common or altogether. When we communicate, actually we try to
establish commonness by someone. That is , we try to share the
information, idea or value. Such as in this description, for example I try to
deliver the idea that the principle of the communication is, trying to make
the receiver and the sender of communication will have the same
understanding at the certain message”And also,Everelt M. et el (1978)
makes a definition of communication: “The communication is an
information delivering process (message) from information source
(communicator) to the information receiver (communicant) by certain
channel for the purpose of the similarity of meaning”
For further description , can be described by doing a conversation

as the example for the beginning of a communication. Someone who
speaks, is the source of communication or the communicator. Someone
who listens, is called audience, target, listener or communicant. What is
delivered by the communicator is called message. Meanwhile, words
which delivered by air is called channel.

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2. The Communication Process
Picture 1. The illustration of communication process
The communication process is every steps from creating the

information until the comprehending of information by the
communicant. Communication is the process that is always continuous
activities. In a brief, the following is the process of communication :
a. The communicator (sender, source) who has a purpose to
communicate with the other deliver a message to the listener/
target/receivers. The message that is delivered it can be the
information in the form of language (words) or symbols that can be
understood by both parties.
b. The message is delivered through the media or channel that directly
or indirectly. For example by direct conversation by telephoning,
letter, e-mail and etc.

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c. The media (Channel) is a tool that can be used to deliver message

from the communicator to the communicant(receiver). The receiver
gets the message and understands the content of the message into
the language that can be understood by the receiver himself. And the
receiver/the communicant gives the feedback from the given
message whether he understands or comprehends the message
which is given by the sender.
3. The Obstacles Of Communication

a. Technical factor
Technical factor can be the obstacles during the communication such
as: the trouble of communication tools (Microphone, speaker), the
health of speaker, the weather and so on.
b. Language factor
Sometimes people use the words that have double meaning, they
don’t speak to the point, they don’t speak clearly between the
communicant and communicator.
c. Behavior factor
This factor can be caused problem when the communication process
occurred: namely; because of the personal problem from the people
who get involved during the communication.
d. Structural organization factor
When you become the employee in the company, the communication
is getting complex. Because there are the rules and the regulations
must be followed, and it based on the company organization
structure. Sometimes it be the obstacles in communication.
e. Social cultural background factor
Often social cultural background can be the obstacle during the
communication process, for example sundanese who live in Sumatra

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often will have a barrier when they communicate with the local
people in Sumatra.
f. Communication process factor

From the communicator, from example the message is not
clear for himself, it is because the emotional influence or
feeling of the communicator
From the communicant, such as: the lack of attention during
the conversation, the different attitude of conversation and
soon.
From media, for example: because of the black out (the failure
of electric power) and the trouble of radio frequency so we
cannot listen the radio program clearly.
4. Verbal and non verbal language.

When we come in contact with other people, we always
communicate. This can take place through using words, via our voice -
spoken language - but also without, or alongside the use of words - non-
spoken language or non-verbal communication. Posture and movements,
our place in space, use of time and intonation when we speak are all part
of this. Non-verbal communication is better known as body language.
However it is more than just body language.
We always use body language! Looking at someone for example

means something completely different than not looking at someone.
Even our very presence conveys a message. In our contact with other
people it is impossible not to communicate. Several investigators
estimate that at least 70% of the communication between people takes
place through body language and tone of voice. The best known theory is

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that of the American psychologist Mehrabian. He states that when it

comes to expressing feelings:
55% of the communication consists of body language,
38% is expressed through tone of voice and only
7% is communicated through words.
If this is the case we express 93% of our feelings in a non-verbal way. Non-
verbal communication includes facial expressions, eye contact, tone of
voice, body posture and motions, and positioning within groups. It may
also include the way we wear our clothes or the silence we keep.To
deliver the full impact of a message, use nonverbal behaviors to raise the
channel of interpersonal communication:
Eye contact: This helps to regulate the flow of communication. It
signals interest in others and increases the speaker's credibility.
People who make eye contact open the flow of communication and
convey interest, concern, warmth, and credibility.
Facial Expressions: Smiling is a powerful cue that transmits happiness,
friendliness, warmth, and liking. So, if you smile frequently you will
be perceived as more likable, friendly, warm and approachable.
Smiling is often contagious and people will react favorably. They will
be more comfortable around you and will want to listen more.
Gestures: If you fail to gesture while speaking you may be perceived
as boring and stiff. A lively speaking style captures the listener's
attention, makes the conversation more interesting, and facilitates
understanding.
Posture and body orientation: You communicate numerous
messages by the way you talk and move. Standing erect and leaning
forward communicates to listeners that you are approachable,
receptive and friendly. Interpersonal closeness results when you and
the listener face each other. Speaking with your back turned or

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looking at the floor or ceiling should be avoided as it communicates

disinterest.
Proximity: Cultural norms dictate a comfortable distance for
interaction with others. You should look for signals of discomfort
caused by invading the other person's space. Some of these are:
rocking, leg swinging, tapping, and gaze aversion.
Vocal: Speaking can signal nonverbal communication when you
include such vocal elements as: tone, pitch, rhythm, timbre, loudness,
and inflection. For maximum teaching effectiveness, learn to vary
these six elements of your voice.

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LESSON 2
PREPARING THE PRESENTATION

1. Overview Of Presentation
How you do your presentation, it shows every aspects of you
yourself as the presenter (namely; self-confidence, professionalism,
performance and etc) and shows your attitude to your job and also, of
course, to reveal the comprehending and mastering of the topic you are
doing the presentation. Every business needs the capability of its
employee to communicate and contribute effectively for the company
(internal) and also for the customers and other companies (external).
The ability of communication and having effective contribution , they are
the most important factors:
Not only, for: But also, more important for:
Giving the information Increasing enthusiasm
Making illustrations Doing the persuasion
Deciding Asking questions
discussing Motivating
Obviously , when you present your presentation formally or

informally, the presentation must be considered more than functional
communication channel or decision making.For the above reasons, we
should consider the following factors for the presentation;
a. Making the content of presentation subject. For consideration,
the presentation is selling an idea not a product.
b. The importance of creating the right atmosphere and the right
performance of presenter during the presentation.
c. Knowing the character and the type of your audience to adjust
your style to deliver your presentation

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d. Doing the preparation is very important before the presentation.

e. Understanding of technique for arranging effective presentation
by the method of delivering statistical data and diagram and
mastering to use audio-visual tools usage.
f. Being professional for using the audio-visual tools during the
presentation.
g. Using public speaking technique and the language properly and
also expressing the language during presentation clearly and
briefly.
h. At least but not least, practice makes perfect.
2. Preparing The Presentation

Your skill and performance during the presentation is as important
as the presentation itself. The importance is not only for the speaker
influence in the company but also for the company purpose to get the
objective of the company.For that reasons, you must identify some
contexts that the number are numerous and diversities where you will
use them for the presentation. After deciding the context, you should
understand the choosing of style and approach for every contexts, and
also the type of audiences who will attend the presentation.Every times
you deliver the presentation, even in informal situation you must
consider the audience and the goal of your presentation. For your
success of your presentation , you must consider the following :
1) Decide the target that you want to achieve
2) Divide the whole target into the list of target that can be
achieved
3) Know the type of audience of your presentation
4) Decide the approach that will be taken so you achieve the
target.

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For the above reasons, you must adjust the targets with the audience.
A. The Target
Firstly, you must decide the whole targets. What is the result of your
presentation?
Ask some following questions to yourself:
1) Why do I deliver this presentation?
2) Why do they ask me for this presentation?
3) What can I achieve from this presentation?
4) How can I make an interesting presentation?
5) How far have the audience known about the subject of
presentation?
6) Do they already have the background of knowledge?
The most important part from the whole targets is, your message is
delivered. Whatever problem will you present and to whom the
presentation will be (your audience), there is the basic principle to
create the right atmosphere so it can communicate the information,
share the idea and improve the company policy. By knowing your
target, so you can create the following factors:
a) Establishing atmosphere
b) Professionalism
c) Be Tolerant
d) Be assertive
B. Presentation Framework
The key of good and useful presentation framework is to decide some
ideas and relevant information before you start to write. The most
important things of your presentation (both formal and informal

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situation), it has clear structure of presentation that has already

decided. It means:
1) Before presentation, you have decided the plan, the logic
relationship and the points you are going to present.
2) Your presentation must be an integral part that every part of
them is supported each other
3) All of the integrated parts should be comprehensively met with
the whole target.
You need to design two plan:
1. the design of planning and the structure of the presentation
subject
2. the design of planning and the structure how to deliver the
presentationThe above two designs are related and influenced
each other and you should design carefully the link of them.
Generally, your presentation will be more effective, with some
following hints:
1. have only a clear single topic
2. have an obvious target
3. have the parts that can be explained and understood by the
audiences.
After you have got some idea for your presentation, the next steps that you
should prepare for your presentation framework:
Introduction (begin) You make contact with the audience
by introducing the main topic.
Developing (middle) You explain the main topic into
detail, develop main topic and
Conclusion (end) provide the argument of it
You summarize the main topic and

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give the recommendation (if it is

necessary)
C. The Different Audience

To deliver a presentation is not an easy job, especially when we
consider about the audience who has high critical habit. But we should
be optimistic that we always have a chance to improve our
presentation for time to time. There are two factors that must be
considered for handling the audience, namely;
a). mood and the open-minded of the audience,
b). the social relationship between audience and the speaker.
a) The Audience’s Mood And Open-Minded

There are two types of audience, first, they come to the presentation with their
pleasure and second they come to the occasion reluctantly or by forced. A group
of audience who has relationship in the office is the best example of above
condition. Sometimes the external factors can influence the motivation during
the presentation – the width of the building, the temperature in the room, and
the other factors.
b) The Social Relationship.

Some groups that you must consider when you do the presentation in front of
them. There are: your superiors, your staff, manager from other division, your
colleagues, and some part timers.Based on the beginning of the book, you must
classify the above group into consideration during the presentation:
Increasing the enthusiasm
Doing persuasive
Asking
Giving motivation

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D. Why a Story Is Like a Cup

In our last article, we learned that lawyers, non-profit marketers,
advertisers, educators and others use stories to explain and convince effectively.
But why do audiences respond so well to stories? The answer, according to brain
science, is that our brains need information to be packaged as stories.
Here is a parable about this idea:
“In a faraway land, a boy went to learn at the feet of a wise man day after day.
The wise man always instructed the boy through stories. One day, the boy asked
“Master, why do you always teach through stories? Would it not be faster to
teach me directly?” To this, the wise man answered “Please bring me some tea.”
The boy rose and prepared a cup of tea in a white china cup. The wise man took
the cup from the boy and sipped it, then asked “Why did you bring me a cup
when I only asked for the tea?”
A story is like a cup; it's the brain's natural container for holding
knowledge. Brain scientists believe we are highly skilled at converting stories into
meaning. All experiences in life are experienced as a sequence of events: I pet
the strange dog at the park; he bites me; I run away. I wear my lucky tie to
school; I get an A+ on my math test. We store our life experiences as stories so
that we can recall and use the experiences later. If I see a dog tied up outside a
drug store, I remember my last dog experience and what happened; stories keep
us safe.
Brain scientists speculate there are many ways to "package" a message. At

one extreme, we can package information as logic, including data, lists and
analysis. Our brains process logic with the left brain, testing the arguments
carefully and finally arriving at a reasoned acceptance or rejection of the

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message. At the other extreme are stories, which are processed in the right
brain, the domain of visualization and emotion.
E. The Four Benefits of Communicating with a Story

Educators, lawyers, advertisers, brain scientists and others have conducted
hundreds of studies over the past 40 years to understand how to use stories to
help students learn, sway juries and make you more likely to buy. From these
studies, we have learned there are at least four benefits to communicating
through stories – stories make your messages more understandable, increase
trust, make your message spread and get the audience to agree with you.
1. Make Your Messages More Understandable

The most important benefit of stories is they make our message more
meaningful. Through experience, we have become experts at drawing life lessons
out of stories: Don't drink orange juice right after brushing your teeth, don't
speed on that stretch of highway, and don’t talk politics with Phil. You can tell
me something, but if you tell me a story, I can figure out the lesson myself.Lists
of facts are difficult to understand and remember later because they aren't in a
story format. Tell me I should always lock my front door and I'm skeptical. But
tell me you were burglarized when you left your front door unlocked one day
and that easily fits into my warehouse of stories.In research about juror
decisions, from the last article, we learned jurors cannot interpret a list of facts
until it is sorted into a story. An isolated piece of information, like "Johnson
stabbed Caldwell", is not enough. We need to know about the series of events

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that led up to that stabbing to understand the players' motivations and make a
decision about guilt. In the same way, your audience will best understand your
message after they organize it in their minds into a story form.
2. Increase Trust and Build a Rapport with Your Audience

Stories create a bond between the teller and the listener. Sociologists believe
every person fundamentally feels alone in the world. We crave connecting with
others who have had similar experiences as ourselves, which we learn by
listening to each other’s stories. I learned this lesson when I was a leadership
coach at the University of Chicago, responsible for coaching two groups of MBA
students on their leadership skills. I found when I gave them feedback to improve
their performance, they were attentive but defensive. But when I told them
stories about how I had faced similar challenges as a leader, they became much
more open to my feedback. As a workshop leader, I've learned the quickest way
to build rapport with students is to tell them a story.
3. Make Your Message Spread

Because stories are easier to understand, and easier to remember, they are also
easier to share. History shows that knowledge is passed through generations via
stories.In a study about word-of-mouth communication, researchers found that
50% to 75% of word-of-mouth travels in the form of a story. Do you want your
idea to become viral? Then find a way to package it as a story.
4. Get the Audience to Agree with You

One of the most important benefits of stories is that they make your argument
more convincing. There are two reasons for this: stories turn off counter-
arguments and make your audience less likely to find reasons to disagree, and
stories touch emotions and make the audience more likely to agree.

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1) Stop Disagreement
Facts encourage people to process information critically and think of
reasons to agree and reasons to disagree. But stories are processed
differently. Stories relax the audience and encourage them to use their
imagination and emotions’ resulting in what is called "narrative
transport" or a "story listening trance"; where critical thought is
suspended and fewer counter-arguments are generated. In a way, stories
act like a snooze button on critical thought.
Let's look at a study about self-referencing and persuasion which proved
this theory. Two hundred and fifty university students looked at shoe ads.
Ads that told a story, and invited the reader to imagine wearing the
shoes, were about 30% more persuasive than ads that just listed the
features and benefits. But here's the kicker. When the study was
repeated, and a different group of students was told to view the story ads
critically, the storytelling advantage disappeared completely. You can
break the story listening trance by paying attention to the meat of the
argument. This may be one reason that executives are suspicious of
stories; they know stories can be used to persuade and distract an
audience from critical thinking. Executives don't want their inner critics
turned off, don't way to beswayed by cherry-picked analogies and don't
want their emotions to be swayed. They want to see your analysis. They
remain firmly rooted to the bedrock of logic and do not want to be
persuaded over to the quicksand of stories.
2) Help Agreement
Stories make us more likely to agree, for a couple of reasons. First, the
storylistening trance is caused by making listeners transport themselves
into the story, using their imagination to “see" the characters, the setting
and so on. Great speakers invite their audiences to imagine, and they
paint a vivid mental picture. A study about the storylistening trance

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published in the Journal of American Folklore, found speakers who use

picture words were the most effective at creating the trance, especially
when the pictures caused the listener to look back on their own personal
memories, especially childhood memories. The story of the ghost who
lived in the closet is easy to visualize and conjures images of our own
terrified nights in our bedrooms. Stories also make us more likely to agree
because our brains are hardwired to look for the lessons in stories and
apply them to new situations. If I've been bitten by a dog before, I will
behave more carefully with each new dog I meet. If I tell you that we've
tried something in the past and it didn't work, you are likely to believe it
won't work this time. That's how the brain works; it compares new
experiences to old experiences to determine what is likely to happen and
how should we behave.
G. How Mercy Corps Used the Storytelling Effect

Non-profits have also discovered the power of storytelling. In September
2007, the non-profit group Mercy Corps wanted to know if better storytelling
would increase donations. The director sent a different email to two groups of
supporters. In the first email, the director wrote about the work Mercy Corps
was doing and encouraged people to donate. The email started with a message
about the organization's work:
"It's been a busy summer for our emergency response teams. Near-record
monsoons in parts of Pakistan, Nepal and India. Torrential rains in central Sudan.
Crop-killing floods in North Korea and a massive earthquake in Peru."
In the second email, the director told a story about a girl named Giselle
and how her life was improved because of the group's work. This email began:
"Young Giselle fled the violence sweeping the Democratic Republic of Conga
twice last week. On Monday, her family hastily abandoned their farm when

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soldiers arrived."I will tell you that the first email generated one donation for
every 3,000 emails. And what do you think was the result for the second email?
Twice as good?Five times as good? Go ahead, look away from this article and
guess. How much more effective was the second email?
The answer: One of every 142 emails was answered with a donation; twenty-
three times more effective than the director's first email.Call it the "storytelling
effect". Study after study by educators, lawyers, non-profit organizations,
advertisers and other groups find we are naturally drawn to stories. Stories are
found to make ideas easier to understand, easier to agree with and easier to
remember later.Stories are persuasive, and so it's no wonder that in boardrooms
and ballrooms across the world, speakers are thinking hard about how to
combine storytelling with their PowerPoint presentations.
H. Pitch an Idea with a Great Story

One of the best examples of storytelling in front of a skeptical business
audience came in 2002 in a business school lecture hall at the University of
Chicago. It was an MBA class on entrepreneurship and each group of 3-5
students pitched their business idea to a panel of cool venture capitalists. Their
approach tended to follow this logical path: the market size is X, if we can get 3%
of that market our revenue will look like this in 3 years.
Then our instructor Jim Schrager, a long-time veteran of the venture capital
world, stood up to model the correct way to pitch a new business idea. He stood
in front of us in silence for about ten seconds, while we squirmed, waiting for
him to begin his business pitch. Then, he began to tell a story.
"In 1998, the Vice President of a global technology firm was side-swiped on the
highway by a semi-truck, sending him into a concrete bridge piling at 70 miles
per hour. His car was destroyed, his wife died instantly, but he miraculously
survived. Paramedics pulled him from the twisted metal of his shattered car and
rushed him to the nearest hospital, bleeding profusely. The doctors and nurses

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raced him into surgery. But it was too late. They could not stop the bleeding and
this wealthy business executive died."
Schrager paused and looked around the room, which was hushed. Then he
continued:
"If the hospital had our product, that man might still be alive today."Schrager
went on to describe the product, the patents, the several hospitals where the
product was in use, the inventor's credentials and so on. Everyone in that
classroom felt humbled. We had focused on impressing the investors with the
market size. Schrager used a story not only to help the potential investors
understand the product, but to turn them into humbled admirers before he even
talked about the revenue potential.I will never forget how powerful that
example was, and it illustrates the incredible magic of a story to help an audience
see the world through the hero's eyes.
I. Three Ways to Begin Your Presentation with a Story

Even in a boardroom presentation, you need to start by grabbing the
audience's attention and getting them on your side. While your presentation
may not lend itself to such a powerful and tragic story as above, there are three
storytelling techniques you can use to grab and hold your audience’s attention: a
springboard story, an analogy, or a metaphor.
1.Use a Springboard Story
Stephen Denning, author of The Leader's Guide to Storytelling, describes a
springboard story as a true story that illustrates a problem you are facing and
introduces the solution to that problem. The Schrager example discussed above
is an example of a springboard story.Customer case studies are an excellent
source of springboard stories. I conduct market research for a living, including
interviewing customers, potential customers and channel partners, to learn how
they make technology purchasing decisions. I am always on the lookout for good
customer stories of the challenges they face and how they are solving those

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problems. When I present the final results to clients, I will often begin by using a
customer story to illustrate the problem and the solution. Talk to your sales
people; they are a great source of customer stories.According to Denning, it's
best to include both the problem and the solution in the springboard story.
Problems make listeners sour, but solutions keep people positive and their
confidence in you high.
2.Use an Analogy
An analogy is a similarity between two different things, like the similarities
between a bird and a plane. This is how human beings learn; we make
generalizations from one thing and apply them to other things. This happens
naturally and automatically.We not only see similarities; sometimes we actually
transfer traits from one thing to another. For instance, we compare a sports car
to a first kiss and automatically transfer the excitement and newness of a kiss to
a car, even though the similarities are not real.And analogies work. For instance,
in a2009 study at the University of British Columbia, researchers showed
advertisements for sports cars, massage chairs and mountain vacations. Some
ads contained straightforward features and benefits. Other ads used analogies,
comparing the sports car to a first kiss and the massage chair to a hot tub after a
hard day of skiing. The result: audiences were about 50% more interested in
products when the ads used analogies, because they generated positive
memories and emotions that transferred onto the advertised product. In a 2004
study at Northwestern University, people falsely believed facts were true of one
story when they read them in a similar, analogous story.
A great example of analogy is how Microsoft describes the importance of

cloud computing. For those who don't know, cloud computing means using
software (like PowerPoint) through a web browser instead of as an application
on your computer. To explain the importance of cloud computing, Microsoft

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begins with an analogy of how the first automobile was introduced in the early
1900's and no-one could see its potential to change the world. Cloud computing
is like that; we can't quite see how it will change the world, but it's inevitable.
1) When to Use an Analogy

Consider using an analogy when opening your presentation with the following:
a. Complex or new ideas: Familiar analogies help audiences understand difficult-
to-imagine ideas. For instance, to explain cloud computing to an audience, you
could use the analogy of how we used to send physical mail to our loved ones.
Now, we send email. We don't need the physical paper and ink anymore; the
same thing withsoftware. We don't need to load a physical CD into our
computer; we can just log into software through the internet.
b. Controversial ideas: Some ideas go down easier after hearing an analogy. For
instance, perhaps you feel your business is being threatened by internet
competitors. Rather than argue and defend this claim, you could start out by
talking about the decline of telephone books, maps, newspapers and TV Guide.
Then, when the analogy has been made, you talk about how your business is
being caught in the same trend.
c. A problem at a decision-making meeting: Analogies can help people see a

problem in a new way and generate creative new solutions. For instance, if your
company is losing sales to a competitor who tells lies about your product; does
that remind you of anything? How would you deal with a schoolyard bully? Or a
computer hacker?Or a slanderous news reporter? By recasting the problem in
the form of an analogy, you can brainstorm solutions you may not have thought
of.The analogy should be a true story, not a fable or fabrication. A study at the
National University of Singapore found story ads were more persuasive than
logical ads. But when the audience thought harder about the story ads, only the

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stories that seemed true were still persuasive.You can find analogies by reading
the news, history books, or just paying attention to common situations around
you. Sometimes, analogies suddenly hit you like a bolt of lightning when you've
been thinking about it long enough. When you have a complex or controversial
idea, ask yourself "what does this remind me of?" Then brainstorm as many
ideas as you can; both good and bad ideas.
3. Use an Image as a Metaphor

A metaphor is not a story, but like an analogy it can activate stories from
our memory. And just like analogies, metaphors make us see the new situation
as similar to the metaphor, including the emotions and other characteristics of
that metaphor.
As an example, I once attended a business presentation to learn about different
licensing programs. Licensing is usually a very dry subject, riddled with legal rules
and conditions. But this presenter, rather than show a table comparing the
different licensing programs, showed three 7-11 soda cups; small, medium and
the Big Gulp. We now had a familiar metaphor to use as a placeholder while the
speaker explained the three licensing choices.You can also invent a metaphor,
such as describing how a new technology is frightening to customers. Cloud
computing is a new concept among technology leaders, and they have concerns
about what happens when someone else is in charge of their company's private
data. To communicate this fear to an audience, you might create a picture of
customers standing at the edge of a cliff and being invited to step out onto a
fluffy cloud. This metaphorical image conveys, in ways words cannot, what a big
step it is to step off solid ground and into the unknown. The audience creates
their own internal story, aided by the hero (customer looking over the edge),
conflict (uncertainty of stepping onto a cloud) and imagery.

25
LESSON 3
PROVIDING THE PRESENTATION

1. Some Tips Of Making Power Points Slides
Making PowerPoint Slides
Avoiding the Pitfalls

of Bad Slides
Tips to be Covered
1. Outlines
2. Slide Structure
3. Fonts
4. Colour
5. Background
6. Graphs
7.Spelling and Grammar
8.Conclusions
9. Questions

26
Outline
1. Make your 1st or 2nd slide an outline of your

presentation
Ex: previous slide
2. Follow the order of your outline for the rest of
the presentation
3. Only place main points on the outline slide
Ex: Use the titles of each slide as main points
Slide Structure – Good
1. Use 1-2 slides per minute of your presentation

2. Write in point form, not complete sentences
3. Include 4-5 points per slide
4. Avoid wordiness: use key words and phrases
only

27
Slide Structure - Bad
1. This page contains too many words for a

presentation slide. It is not written in point
form, making it difficult both for your audience
to read and for you to present each point.
Although there are exactly the same number
of points on this slide as the previous slide, it
looks much more complicated. In short, your
audience will spend too much time trying to
read this paragraph instead of listening to
you.
Slide Structure – Good
1. Show one point at a time:

a) Will help audience concentrate on what you are
saying
b) Will prevent audience from reading ahead
c) Will help you keep your presentation focused

28
Slide Structure - Bad
1. Do not use distracting animation
2. Do not go overboard with the animation
3. Be consistent with the animation that you use
Fonts - Good
1. Use at least an 18-point font

2. Use different size fonts for main points and
secondary points
this font is 24-point, the main point font is 28-point,
and the title font is 36-point
3. Use a standard font like Times New Roman or
Arial

29
Fonts - Bad
1. If you use a small font, your audience won’t be able to read what you have written
2. CAPITALIZE ONLY WHEN NECESSARY. IT

IS DIFFICULT TO READ
3. Don’t use a complicated font
Colour - Good
1. Use a colour of font that contrasts sharply with

the background
Ex: blue font on white background
2. Use colour to reinforce the logic of your
structure
Ex: light blue title and dark blue text
3. Use colour to emphasize a point
But only use this occasionally

30
Colour - Bad
1. Using a font colour that does not contrast with

the background colour is hard to read
2. Using colour for decoration is distracting and
annoying.
3. Using a different colour for each point is
unnecessary
Using a different colour for secondary points is
also unnecessary
4. Trying to be creative can also be bad
Background - Good
1. Use backgrounds such as this one that are

attractive but simple
2. Use backgrounds which are light
3. Use the same background consistently

throughout your presentation

31
Background – Bad
1. Avoid backgrounds that are distracting or

difficult to read from
2. Always be consistent with the background
that you use
Graphs - Good
1. Use graphs rather than just charts and words

a) Data in graphs is easier to comprehend & retain
than is raw data
b) Trends are easier to visualize in graph form
2. Always title your graphs

32
Graphs - Bad
January February March April

Blue Balls 20.4 27.4 90 20.4
Red Balls 30.6 38.6 34.6 31.6
Graphs - Good
Items Sold in First Quarter of 2002
100
90
80
70
60
Blue Balls
50
Red Balls
40
30
20
10
0

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Graphs - Bad
100
90
90
80
70
60
Blue Balls
50
Red Balls
38.6
40
34.6
30.6 31.6
30 27.4
20.4 20.4
20
10
0
Graphs - Bad
1. Minor gridlines are unnecessary

2. Font is too small
3. Colours are illogical
4. Title is missing
5. Shading is distracting

34
Spelling and Grammar
1. Proof your slides for:

a) speling mistakes
b) the use of of repeated words
c) grammatical errors you might have make
2. If English is not your first language, please

have someone else check your presentation!
Conclusion
1. Use an effective and strong closing

Your audience is likely to remember your last
words
2. Use a conclusion slide to:

a) Summarize the main points of your presentation
b) Suggest future avenues of research

35
Questions??
1. End your presentation with a simple question

slide to:
a) Invite your audience to ask questions
b) Provide a visual aid during question period
c) Avoid ending a presentation abruptly
2. More about slide

Your slides should not only be engaging, but also easy to understand
quickly (Reynolds, 2008). Think “Visual” — such as pictures, charts, and drawings
that support what you will be speaking about. You want the slides to support and
clarify the story you will be telling rather than simply be redundant text that
mimics what you are saying.

36
Paint a Picture to Tell a Story

Making bad slides is easy... and all too common, thus you need to invest in not
only your slides, but also in your visual presentation (Duarte, 2008).
Resources for making better slide show presentations (Google):
Ideas on how to create powerful presentations
Death by PowerPoint
Slide:ology
Presentation Zen

37
LESSON 4
EXERCISE OF PRESENTATION
1. Signposting Language.
A good way to make your presentations effective, interesting and easy to
follow is to use signpost language. 'Signpost language' is the words and phrases
that people use to tell the listener what has just happened, and what is going to
happen next. In other words, signpost language guides the listener through the
presentation. A good presenter will usually use a lot of signpost language, so it is
a good idea to learn a few of the common phrases, even if you spend more time
listening to presentations than giving them! Signpost language is usually fairly
informal, so it is relatively easy to understand.

38
Signposting
Section of
Signpost Language
Presentation
The subject/topic of my presentation is ...

I'm going to present about ...
Introducing the topic
My topic today is…
My topic is concerned with ...
I’m going to divide this presentation into four parts.

There are a number of points I'd like to make.
Basically/ Briefly, I have three things to say.
I'd like to begin/start by ...
Let's begin/start by ...
Overview (outline of
First of all, I'll...
presentation)
… and then I’ll go on to …
Then/ Next ...
Finally/ Lastly ...
That's all I have to say about...

Finishing a section We've looked at...
So much for...
Moving on now to …
Turning to...
Let’s turn now to …
The next issue/topic/area I’d like to focus on …
Starting a new section
I’d like to expand/elaborate on …
Now we'll move on to...
I'd like now to discuss...
Let's look now at...

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Where does that lead us?

Let's consider this in more detail...
What does this mean for...?
Analyzing a point and giving
Translated into real terms...
recommendations
Why is this important?
The significance of this is...
Section of
Signpost Language
Presentation
For example,...
A good example of this is...
Giving examples As an illustration,...
To give you an example,...
To illustrate this point...
To sum up ...
To summarize...
Right, let's sum up, shall we?
Let's summarize briefly what we've looked at...
If I can just sum up the main points...
Finally, let me remind you of some of the issues we've
covered...
Summarizing and concluding
To conclude...
In conclusion ...
In short ...
So, to remind you of what I’ve covered in this talk, …
Unfortunately, I seem to have run out of time, so I’ll conclude
very briefly by saying that …..
I'd like now to recap...
Simply put...
Paraphrasing and clarifying In other words.......
So what I’m saying is....

40
To put it more simply....

To put it another way....
I’m happy to answer any queries/ questions.

Does anyone have any questions or comments?
Invitation to discuss / ask Please feel free to ask questions.
questions If you would like me to elaborate on any point, please ask.
Would you like to ask any questions?
Any questions?

41
LESSON 5
NEGOTIATION
1. Definition
The Definition of negotiation from Wikipedia: Negotiation is a dialogue
between two or more people or parties, intended to reach an understanding,
resolve point of difference, or gain advantage in outcome of dialogue, to produce
an agreement upon courses of action, to bargain for individual or collective
advantage, to craft outcomes to satisfy various interests of two people/parties
involved in negotiation process. Negotiation is a process where each party
involved in negotiating tries to gain an advantage for themselves by the end of
the process. Negotiation is intended to aim at compromise.
Negotiation occurs in business, non-profit organizations, government

branches, legal proceedings, among nations and in personal situations such as
marriage, divorce, parenting, and everyday life. The study of the subject is called
negotiation theory. Professional negotiators are often specialized, such as union
negotiators, leverage buyout negotiators, peace negotiators, hostage negotiators,
or may work under other titles, such as diplomats, legislators or brokers.
2. PLANNING & PREPARATION FOR NEGOTIATIONS
Most people prepare for a negotiation by trying to decide what their

"bottom line" is. Their bottom-line is the worst agreement they would accept.
They then decide how much above their bottom line they will ask for when they
make their first offer. They may also determine a "fall back" position for their
first concession, but that is about the extent of their planning.
A great improvement can be made in negotiating planning by

systematically considering factors that apply to virtually every negotiation.
Both you and the opposing side should be analyzed. The "5 Planning Factors"

42
should be considered in every negotiation. A planning chart can be used to

help you in the planning. Before and during the negotiations, you should ask
yourself the following questions:
What do I know?
What don't I know yet?
How am I going to find out the information I need?
A. 5 Factors For Planning

1) People
What are the past histories and present feelings of the people involved in
this negotiation? What are their goals and objectives? Who is more
powerful and what is the source of that power? What influences can
they bring to bear on this negotiation? What do you know about their
negotiating style?
2) Relationship
Do the negotiators or their constituents have any history together? What
was that prior relationship like? How are they getting along now during
the negotiation? Do they have a good relationship? Is it strained? Have
they just met for the first time? Will the parties have a continuing
relationship or will this be a "one-shot" negotiation? Even if the parties
are not likely to work together in the future, will reputations be made in
this negotiation that will follow the negotiators in the community?
3) Issues
The issues involved in the negotiation are the topics to be negotiated.
They are also the questions and concerns that each party raises during

43
the negotiation. It is usually very helpful to frame the issues as questions

to be answered rather than statements that are made.
4) Positions
The positions in the negotiation are the solutions that each person has in
mind. Positions are the "What" that the negotiators want. Many
different positions are considered during a negotiation including, the
opening position (demand), a fall back position, a bottom line, and a
BATNA (Best Alternative To A Negotiated Agreement).
5) Interests
Interests are the basic needs that negotiators seek to be met in any
agreement. If you know the interests, you know "why" the negotiators
take the positions they do during the negotiations. Maslow's hierarchy of
needs is helpful here.
3. Types of Negotiation
Negotiation theorists generally distinguish between two types of
negotiation. Different theorists use different labels for the two general types and
distinguish them in different ways. They are:
A. Distributive negotiation
Distributive negotiation is also sometimes called positional or hard-bargaining
negotiation. It tends to approach negotiation on the model of haggling in a
market. In a distributive negotiation, each side often adopts an extreme
position, knowing that it will not be accepted, and then employs a combination
of guile, bluffing, and brinksmanship in order to cede as little as possible before
reaching a deal. Distributive bargainers conceive of negotiation as a process of
distributing a fixed amount of value.The term distributive implies that there is a
finite amount of the thing being distributed or divided among the people
involved. Sometimes this type of negotiation is referred to as the distribution of
a “fixed pie.” There is only so much to go around, but the proportion to be

44
distributed is variable. Distributive negotiation is also sometimes called win-

lose because of the assumption that one person's gain results in another
person's loss. A distributive negotiation often involves people who have never
had a previous interactive relationship, nor are they likely to do so again in the
near future. Simple everyday examples would be buying a car or a house.
B. Integrative Negotiation
Integrative negotiation is also sometimes called interest-based or principled
negotiation. It is a set of techniques that attempts to improve the quality and
likelihood of negotiated agreement by providing an alternative to traditional
distributive negotiation techniques. While distributive negotiation assumes
there is a fixed amount of value (a “fixed pie”) to be divided between the
parties, integrative negotiation often attempts to create value in the course of
the negotiation (“expand the pie”). It focuses on the underlying interests of the
parties rather than their arbitrary starting positions, approaches negotiation as
a shared problem rather than a personalized battle, and insists upon adherence
to objective, principled criteria as the basis for agreement. The word integrative
implies some cooperation. Integrative negotiation often involves a higher
degree of trust and the forming of a relationship. It can also involve creative
problem-solving that aims to achieve mutual gains. It is also sometimes called
win-win negotiation.
4. Negotiation Stages
Most persons think of negotiation interactions as unstructured encounters.
Before they begin to bargain with others, they spend a substantial amount of
time exploring the relevant facts, economic considerations, and similar issues.
How much time do they spend on the development of their bargaining strategy?
Usually no more than ten to fifteen minutes. When they commence such

45
interactions, most individuals have only three things in mind pertaining to their
actual negotiation strategy:
(1) where they plan to begin;
(2) what they hope to achieve; and
(3) their bottom lines.
Between where they begin and where they end, they wing it thinking of such
encounters as entirely unstructured. It can be highly beneficial for negotiations
to appreciate how structured bargaining interactions are, to enable them to
recognize what stage they are in and to know what they should be doing in each
stage.The first stage is the most important, and the opposing parties are not yet
conducting substantive discussions. The Preparation Stage is where persons must
thoroughly plan their impending interactions. This is where they must carefully
determine all of the relevant factors that might influence their interaction. What
are the relevant factual, economic, and legal issues? Might they be affected by
political or cultural considerations? They need to contact all of the persons on
their own side who might possess pertinent information to be sure they obtain
everything they need to assess the value of their situations. Once they have this
information, they must ask themselves three crucial questions. First, what
happens to their side if they fail to reach agreements with the other side? Roger
Fisher and William Ury like to call this their BATNA, for their Best Alternative to a
Negotiated Agreement.
Others simply regard this as their bottom lines. This is as far as negotiators
should go before they decide to end their encounters and accept their non-
settlement alternatives. It is important to appreciate that bad deals are worse
than no deals, when the terms needed to generate agreements are worse than
their non-settlement options. Second, what are their goals? There is a direct
correlation between negotiator aspirations and bargaining outcomes, with
persons with elevated goals achieving far better results than individuals with

46
modest goals. Third, what will be their opening offer? Many people believe that
if they begin with modest and fair opening offers, the other side will respond in
kind and they will have pleasant and cooperative interactions. This idea is
unfortunately incorrect due to a phenomenon known as "anchoring."
When someone puts a reasonable offer on the table, the other side
actually moves away from them psychologically, due to the fact they begin to
believe that they will obtain better terms than they initially thought possible. It is
thus preferable to begin with less generous opening positions that will
undermine opponent confidence and induce them to lower their expectations. It
is vital, however, to always begin with positions that can be logically explained.
When individuals begin with irrationally elevated opening position statements,
they lose credibility and increase the likelihood of non-settlements. Once they
have determined these three benchmarks, many negotiators think their
Preparation Stage is finished. They have two other things they must do. First,
they need to place themselves in the shoes of the other side and ask themselves
what factors are influencing those persons. What do they hope to obtain from
this interaction? How much do they need an accord, and how high or low would
they be likely to go before they walk away from the bargaining table? Individuals
often think they do not possess much bargaining power until they place
themselves in the shoes of the other side and appreciate the fact that those
persons need the deal more than they do. Once they have completed this part of
the Preparation Stage, they should take a few minutes to plan their actual
bargaining strategy. Do they envision a few large concessions or a number of
smaller position changes? What bargaining tactics do they plan to employ to
advance their interests? People who plan their interactions and picture being
successful usually achieve better results than less prepared cohorts.

47
When they have completed the Preparation Stage, negotiators begin to

interact substantively with the other side, and they enter the Preliminary Stage.
This is where the parties should work to establish personal rapport and positive
bargaining environments. Too many negotiators view their opponents as the
enemy, and they begin with some hostility. They should appreciate the fact that
in most situations their opponents are actually their friends -- they are enabling
them to earn a living. They should take some time to establish first name
relationships which personalize their discussions far more than impersonalized
Mr. and Ms. interactions. They should engage in some small talk about possibly
common interests that will enable them to become more friendly. Once they
take a few minutes to establish such rapport, they enhance the likelihood their
interaction will be professional and courteous. They should also work to create
positive bargaining environments.
When this is accomplished, they increase the probability they will achieve
agreements and the likelihood they will generate mutually efficient accords.
Once the Preliminary Stage is concluded, the participants move into the
Information Stage, which involves "value creation. This is where the parties
endeavor to determine what they have to share with one another. The most
effective way to gather such information from others is to ask a number of
questions. It is initially helpful to ask broad, open-ended inquiries that are
designed to get the other side talking. The more they talk, the more information
they disclose. What are the factors affecting their side? What are the terms they
hope to achieve? Once negotiators think they have obtained a general
understanding of the factors affecting the opposing parties, they should ask
some "what" and "why" questions. What do they want, and why do they want it?
The "what" inquiries are used to elicit the terms the other side wants to obtain,
while the "why" questions seek to ascertain the interests underlying those terms.
It is important to appreciate that one side may not be willing to give the other

48
side what it is asking for, but, once they appreciate the interests underlying
those items, they may be able to formulate terms they could provide which
would satisfy those interests.
Near the end of the Information Stage, bargaining parties begin to

exchange items. This is when they enter the Distributive Stage. This is a
competitive part of bargaining interactions, as the negotiators work to determine
how they will divide the surplus they created during the Information Stage. The
negotiators are likely to employ different tactics designed to induce the other
side to move in their direction. They may use arguments, emotional appeals, and
similar approaches. Two effective weapons include silence and patience. Once
negotiators have made position changes, they should be quiet and wait for
responses from the other side. If they are anxious and speak too soon, they may
end up bidding against themselves by making unreciprocated successive
concessions. Patience is critical, because it takes time for negotiators to lower
their sights. If they are pushed prematurely, they often dig in and refuse to move.
On the other hand, if they are given the time they need to establish lower goals,
they will be more likely to change their positions.
Near the end of the Distributive Stage, the bargaining parties usually see an
agreement on the horizon. Since human beings tend to like certainty and feel
anxious about uncertainty, negotiators often move quickly at this point to
conclude the deal. They must appreciate the fact they have entered the Closing
Stage which is a delicate part of interactions. If one side moves too swiftly to
finish the interaction, it might close seventy to eighty percent of the gap
remaining between the parties. This usually causes them to obtain terms that are
less generous than they would have achieved if they had not moved so quickly.
During the Closing Stage the parties should continue to move toward final
agreement, but they should not rush the process -- and they should not move

49
more quickly than the other side. It is important that they do not bid against
themselves by making consecutive concessions that are not matched by their
opponents. At the end of this stage the parties usually have an agreement.
Once the Closing Stage is concluded, negotiators often think their

interaction is finished. If they stop now, they may leave party satisfaction on the
bargaining table. During the Information Stage, the Distributive Stage, and the
Closing Stage, parties often over-state and under-state the value of items being
exchanged for strategic purposes. If Side A is certain that Side B really hopes to
get something it is perfectly willing to give them, it might indicate that it values
that term to make Side B think it has made a significant concession when it gives
it to them. On the other hand, when Side A really wants something it thinks Side
B does not value very much, it may under-state the degree to which it wants that
term so that it does not have to give Side B much in exchange for it. As a result of
such "puffing," items may end up on the inefficient side of the table. It is thus
important for negotiators to move into the Cooperative Stage where they should
endeavor to be sure they have reached mutually efficient agreements. One side
should make it clear that the parties have actually reached an overall agreement,
to avoid claims of dishonest negotiating when they suggest alternatives that may
all be less beneficial to the other side. They can then offer to trade items they
believe may have ended up on the wrong side. They offer to trade something to
Side B they think that side actually values more than they do in exchange for a
different term they think they value more than Side B. They are endeavoring to
expand the overall pie to be divided so that they can simultaneously enhance
their respective positions. They should strive to reach the Pareto efficient point
where neither side can gain any more without the other side suffering a loss.
Once they reach this point, they should briefly review the terms they think
have been agreed upon to be sure they have actually achieved an agreement.

50
During the latter part of interactions, negotiators often change positions quickly,
and one side may have thought something was being given up that was not
being conceded. If they find such a misunderstanding now, they are likely to
correct it amicably. On the other hand, if they do not find it until one side has
drafted the agreement, there may be claims of dishonesty and recriminations.
Once they have agreed upon the final terms, they have successfully concluded
the bargaining process.
Elements of negotiation.
There are many different ways to categorize the essential elements of
negotiation.One view of negotiation involves three basic elements: process,
behavior and substance. The process refers to how the parties negotiate: the
context of the negotiations, the parties to the negotiations, the tactics used by
the parties, and the sequence and stages in which all of these play out. Behavior
refers to the relationships among these parties, the communication between
them and the styles they adopt. The substance refers to what the parties
negotiate over: the agenda, the issues (positions and - more helpfully - interests),
the options, and the agreement(s) reached at the end. Another view of
negotiation comprises four elements: strategy, process, tools, and tactics.
Strategy comprises the top level goals - typically including relationship and the
final outcome. Processes and tools include the steps that will be followed and
the roles taken in both preparing for and negotiating with the other parties.
Tactics include more detailed statements and actions and responses to others'
statements and actions. Some add to this persuasion and influence, asserting
that these have become integral to modern day negotiation success, and so
should not be omitted.

51
A. Adversary or partner?
The two basically different approaches to negotiating will require different
tactics. In the distributive approach each negotiator is battling for the largest
possible piece of the pie, so it may be quite appropriate - within certain limits - to
regard the other side more as an adversary than a partner and to take a
somewhat harder line. This would however be less appropriate if the idea were
to hammer out an arrangement that is in the best interest of both sides. A good
agreement is not one with maximum gain, but optimum gain. This does not by
any means suggest that we should give up our own advantage for nothing. But a
cooperative attitude will regularly pay dividends. What is gained is not at the
expense of the other, but with him.
B. Employing an advocate
A skilled negotiator may serve as an advocate for one party to the
negotiation. The advocate attempts to obtain the most favorable outcomes
possible for that party. In this process the negotiator attempts to determine the
minimum outcome(s) the other party is (or parties are) willing to accept, then
adjusts their demands accordingly. A "successful" negotiation in the advocacy
approach is when the negotiator is able to obtain all or most of the outcomes
their party desires, but without driving the other party to permanently break off
negotiations, unless thebest alternative to a negotiated agreement (BATNA) is
acceptable.Skilled negotiators may use a variety of tactics ranging from
negotiation hypnosis,to a straightforward presentation of demands or setting of
preconditions, to more deceptive approaches such as cherry picking. Intimidation
and salami tactics may also play a part in swaying the outcome of negotiations.
Another negotiation tactic is bad guy/good guy. Bad guy/good guy is when one
negotiator acts as a bad guy by using anger and threats. The other negotiator
acts as a good guy by being considerate and understanding. The good guy blames

52
the bad guy for all the difficulties while trying to get concessions and agreement
from the opponent.
5. Negotiation Styles
R.G. Shell identified five styles/responses to negotiation. Individuals can
often have strong dispositions towards numerous styles; the style used during a
negotiation depends on the context and the interests of the other party, among
other factors. In addition, styles can change over time.
1. Accommodating: Individuals who enjoy solving the other party’s
problems and preserving personal relationships. Accommodators are
sensitive to the emotional states, body language, and verbal signals of the
other parties. They can, however, feel taken advantage of in situations
when the other party places little emphasis on the relationship.
2. Avoiding: Individuals who do not like to negotiate and don’t do it unless
warranted. When negotiating, avoiders tend to defer and dodge the
confrontational aspects of negotiating; however, they may be perceived
as tactful and diplomatic.
3. Collaborating: Individuals who enjoy negotiations that involve solving
tough problems in creative ways. Collaborators are good at using
negotiations to understand the concerns and interests of the other
parties. They can, however, create problems by transforming simple
situations into more complex ones.
4. Competing: Individuals who enjoy negotiations because they present an
opportunity to win something. Competitive negotiators have strong
instincts for all aspects of negotiating and are often strategic. Because
their style can dominate the bargaining process, competitive negotiators
often neglect the importance of relationships.
5. Compromising: Individuals who are eager to close the deal by doing what
is fair and equal for all parties involved in the negotiation. Compromisers

53
can be useful when there is limited time to complete the deal; however,
compromisers often unnecessarily rush the negotiation process and make
concessions too quickly.
A. Bad faith negotiation

When a party pretends to negotiate, but secretly has no intention of
compromising, the party is considered to be negotiating in bad faith. Bad faith is
a concept in negotiation theory whereby parties pretend to reason to reach
settlement, but have no intention to do so, for example, one political party may
pretend to negotiate, with no intention to compromise, for political effect.
Bad faith in political science and political psychology refers to negotiating
strategies in which there is no real intention to reach compromise, or a model of
information processing. The "inherent bad faith model" of information
processing is a theory in political psychology that was first put forth by Ole Holsti
to explain the relationship between John Foster Dulles’ beliefs and his model of
information processing. It is the most widely studied model of one's opponent. A
state is presumed to be implacably hostile, and contra-indicators of this are
ignored. They are dismissed as propaganda ploys or signs of weakness. Examples
are John Foster Dulles’ position regarding the Soviet Union, or Hamas's position
on the state of Israel.
B. Emotion in negotiation
Emotions play an important part in the negotiation process, although it is
only in recent years that their effect is being studied. Emotions have the
potential to play either a positive or negative role in negotiation. During
negotiations, the decision as to whether or not to settle, rests in part on
emotional factors. Negative emotions can cause intense and even irrational
behavior, and can cause conflicts to escalate and negotiations to break down,
but may be instrumental in attaining concessions. On the other hand, positive

54
emotions often facilitate reaching an agreement and help to maximize joint gains,
but can also be instrumental in attaining concessions. Positive and negative
discrete emotions can be strategically displayed to influence task and relational
outcomes and may play out differently across cultural boundaries.
C. Affect Effect
Dispositional affects affect the various stages of the negotiation process:
which strategies are planned to be used, which strategies are actually
chosen,[ the way the other party and his or her intentions are perceived, their
willingness to reach an agreement and the final negotiated outcomes. Positive
affectivity (PA) and negative affectivity (NA) of one or more of the negotiating
sides can lead to very different outcomes.
1) Positive affect in negotiation

Even before the negotiation process starts, people in a positive mood
have more confidence, and higher tendencies to plan to use a cooperative
strategy. During the negotiation, negotiators who are in a positive mood tend to
enjoy the interaction more, show less contentious behavior, use less aggressive
tactics and more cooperative strategies. This in turn increases the likelihood that
parties will reach their instrumental goals, and enhance the ability to find
integrative gains. Indeed, compared with negotiators with negative or natural
affectivity, negotiators with positive affectivity reached more agreements and
tended to honor those agreements more. Those favorable outcomes are due to
better decision making processes, such as flexible thinking, creative problem
solving, respect for others' perspectives, willingness to take risks and higher
confidence. Post negotiation positive affect has beneficial consequences as well.
It increases satisfaction with achieved outcome and influences one's desire for
future interactions. The PA aroused by reaching an agreement facilitates the
dyadic relationship, which result in affective commitment that sets the stage

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for.subsequent.interactions. PA also has its drawbacks: it distorts perception of

self performance, such that performance is judged to be relatively better than it
actually is. Thus, studies involving self reports on achieved outcomes might be
biased.
2) Negative Affect In Negotiation

Negative affect has detrimental effects on various stages in the negotiation
process. Although various negative emotions affect negotiation outcomes, by far
the most researched is anger. Angry negotiators plan to use more competitive
strategies and to cooperate less, even before the negotiation starts. These
competitive strategies are related to reduced joint outcomes. During
negotiations, anger disrupts the process by reducing the level of trust, clouding
parties' judgment, narrowing parties' focus of attention and changing their
central goal from reaching agreement to retaliating against the other side. Angry
negotiators pay less attention to opponent’s interests and are less accurate in
judging their interests, thus achieve lower joint gains. Moreover, because anger
makes negotiators more self-centered in their preferences, it increases the
likelihood that they will reject profitable offers.
Opponents who really get angry (or cry, or otherwise lose control) are
more likely to make errors: make sure they are in your favor. Anger does not
help in achieving negotiation goals either: it reduces joint gains and does not
help to boost personal gains, as angry negotiators do not succeed in claiming
more for themselves. Moreover, negative emotions lead to acceptance of
settlements that are not in the positive utility function but rather have a negative
utility. However, expression of negative emotions during negotiation can
sometimes be beneficial: legitimately expressed anger can be an effective way to
show one's commitment, sincerity, and needs. Moreover, although NA reduces
gains in integrative tasks, it is a better strategy than PA in distributive tasks (such

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as zero-sum). In his work on negative affect arousal and white noise, Seidner
found support for the existence of a negative affect arousal mechanism through
observations regarding the devaluation of speakers from other ethnic origins."
Negotiation may be negatively affected, in turn, by submerged hostility toward
an ethnic or gender group.
D. Conditions For Emotion Affect In Negotiation

Research indicates that negotiator’s emotions do not necessarily affect the
negotiation process. Albarracın et al. (2003) suggested that there are two
conditions for emotional affect, both related to the ability (presence of
environmental or cognitive disturbances) and the motivation:
1. Identification of the affect: requires high motivation, high ability or both.
2. Determination that the affect is relevant and important for the judgment:
requires that either the motivation, the ability or both are low.
According to this model, emotions are expected to affect negotiations only when
one is high and the other is low. When both ability and motivation are low the
affect will not be identified, and when both are high the affect will be identify
but discounted as irrelevant for judgment. A possible implication of this model is,
for example, that the positive effects PA has on negotiations (as described
above) will be seen only when either motivation or ability are low.
E. The effect of the partner’s emotions

Most studies on emotion in negotiations focus on the effect of the
negotiator’s own emotions on the process. However, what the other party feels
might be just as important, as group emotions are known to affect processes
both at the group and the personal levels. When it comes to negotiations, trust
in the other party is a necessary condition for its emotion to affect, and visibility
enhances the effect. Emotions contribute to negotiation processes by signaling
what one feels and thinks and can thus prevent the other party from engaging in

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destructive behaviors and to indicate what steps should be taken next: PA signals
to keep in the same way, while NA points that mental or behavioral adjustments
are needed. Partner’s emotions can have two basic effects on negotiator’s
emotions and behavior: mimetic/ reciprocal or complementary. For example,
disappointment or sadness might lead to compassion and more cooperation. In a
study by Butt et al. (2005) which simulated real multi-phase negotiation, most
people reacted to the partner’s emotions in reciprocal, rather than
complementary, manner. Specific emotions were found to have different effects
on the opponent’s feelings and strategies chosen:
Anger caused the opponents to place lower demands and to concede
more in a zero-sum negotiation, but also to evaluate the negotiation less
favorably.
It provoked both dominating and yielding behaviors of the opponent.
Pride led to more integrative and compromise strategies by the partner.
Guilt or regret expressed by the negotiator led to better impression of
him by the opponent, however it also led the opponent to place higher
demands. On the other hand, personal guilt was related to more
satisfaction with what one achieved.
Worry or disappointment left bad impression on the opponent, but led
to relatively lower demands by the opponent.
6. Negotiation Tactics
Tactics are always an important part of the negotiating process. But tactics
don't often jump up and down shouting "Here I am, look at me." If they did, the
other side would see right through them and they would not be effective. More
often than not they are subtle, difficult to identify and used for multiple
purposes. Tactics are more frequently used in distributive negotiations and when
the focus in on taking as much value off the table as possible. Many negotiation
tactics exist. Below are a few commonly used tactics:

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a. Auction: The bidding process is designed to create competition. When

multiple parties want the same thing, pit them against one another.
When people know that they may lose out on something, they will want
it even more. Not only do they want the thing that is being bid on, they
also want to win, just to win. Taking advantage of someone’s
competitive nature can drive up the price.
b. Brinksmanship: One party aggressively pursues a set of terms to the

point at which the other negotiating party must either agree or walk
away. Brinkmanship is a type of “hard nut” approach to bargaining in
which one party pushes the other party to the “brink” or edge of what
that party is willing to accommodate. Successful brinksmanship
convinces the other party they have no choice but to accept the offer
and there is no acceptable alternative to the proposed agreement.
c. Bogey: Negotiators use the bogey tactic to pretend that an issue of

little or no importance to him or her is very important. Then, later in
the negotiation, the issue can be traded for a major concession of
actual importance.
d. Chicken: Negotiators propose extreme measures, often bluffs, to force

the other party to chicken out and give them what they want. This
tactic can be dangerous when parties are unwilling to back down and
go through with the extreme measure.
e. Defense in Depth: Several layers of decision-making authority is used

to allow further concessions each time the agreement goes through a
different level of authority. In other words, each time the offer goes to

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a decision maker, that decision maker asks to add another concession

in order to close the deal.
f. Deadlines: Give the other party a deadline forcing them to make a

decision. This method uses time to apply pressure to the other party.
Deadlines given can be actual or artificial.
g. Flinch: Flinching is showing a strong negative physical reaction to a

proposal. Common examples of flinching are gasping for air, or a visible
expression of surprise of shock. The flinch can be done consciously or
unconsciously. The flinch signals to the opposite party that you think
the offer or proposal is absurd in hopes the other party will lower their
aspirations.] Seeing a physical reaction is more believable than hearing
someone saying, “I’m shocked.”
h. Good Guy/Bad Guy: The good guy/bad guy approach is typically used in
team negotiations where one member of the team makes extreme or
unreasonable demands, and the other offers a more rational approach.
This tactic is named after a police interrogation technique often
portrayed in the media. The “good guy” will appear more reasonable
and understanding, and therefore, easier to work with. In essence, it is
using the law of relativity to attract cooperation. The good guy will
appear more agreeable relative to the “bad guy.” This tactic is easy to
spot because of its frequent use.
i. Highball/Lowball: Depending on whether selling or buying, sellers or

buyers use a ridiculously high, or ridiculously low opening offer that will
never be achieved. The theory is that the extreme offer will cause the

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other party to reevaluate his or her own opening offer and move close
to the resistance point (as far as you are willing to go to reach an
agreement). Another advantage is that the person giving the extreme
demand appears more flexible he or she makes concessions toward a
more reasonable outcome. A danger of this tactic is that the opposite
party may think negotiating is a waste of time.
j. The Nibble: Nibbling is asking for proportionally small concessions that

haven’t been discussed previously just before closing the deal. This
method takes advantage of the other party’s desire to close by adding
“just one more thing.”
k. Snow Job: Negotiators overwhelm the other party with so much

information that he or she has difficulty determining which facts are
important, and which facts are diversions. Negotiators may also use
technical language or jargon to mask a simple answer to a question
asked by a non-expert.
7. Nonverbal communication in negotiation

Communication is a key element of negotiation. Effective negotiation
requires that participants effectively convey and interpret information.
Participants in a negotiation will communicate information not only verbally but
non-verbally through body language and gestures. By understanding how
nonverbal communication works, a negotiator is better equipped to interpret the
information other participants are leaking non-verbally while keeping secret
those things that would inhibit his/her ability to negotiate.

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A. Examples of non-verbal communication in negotiation
1) Non-verbal "anchoring"
In a negotiation, a person can gain the advantage by verbally expressing
his/or her position first. By “anchoring” your position, you establish the position
from which the negotiation will proceed. In a like manner, one can “anchor” and
gain advantage with non verbal (body language) ques.
Personal Space: The person at the head of the table is the apparent
symbol of power. Negotiators can repel this strategic advantage by
positioning allies in the room to surround that individual.
First Impression: Begin the negotiation with positive gestures and
enthusiasm. Look the person in the eye with sincerity. If you cannot
maintain eye contact, the other person might think you are hiding
something or that you are insincere. Give a solid handshake.
2) Reading non-verbal communication

Being able to read the non-verbal communication of another person can
significantly aid in the communication process. By being aware of inconsistencies
between a person’s verbal and non-verbal communication and reconciling them,
negotiators will be able to come to better resolutions. Examples of incongruity in
body language include:
Nervous Laugh: A laugh not matching the situation. This could be a sign of
nervousness or discomfort. When this happens, it may be good to probe
with questions to discover the person’s true feelings.
Positive words but negative body language: If someone asks their
negotiation partner if they are annoyed and the person pounds their fist
and responds sharply, “what makes you think anything is bothering me?”

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Hands raised in a clenched position: The person raising his/her hands in

this position reveals frustration even when he/she is smiling. This is a
signal that the person doing it may be holding back a negative attitude.
If possible, it may be helpful for negotiation partners to spend time
together in a comfortable setting outside of the negotiation room.
Knowing how each partner non-verbally communicates outside of the
negotiation setting will help negotiation partners to sense incongruity
between verbal and non-verbal communication within the negotiation
setting.
3) Conveying receptivity
They way negotiation partners position their bodies relative to each other
may influence how receptive each is to the other person's message and ideas.
Face and eyes: Receptive negotiators smile, make plenty of eye contact.
This conveys the idea that there is more interest in the person than in
what is being said. On the other hand, non-receptive negotiators make
little to no eye contact. Their eyes may be squinted, jaw muscles clenched
and head turned slightly away from the speaker
Arms and hands: To show receptivity, negotiators should spread arms
and open hands on table or relaxed on their lap. Negotiators show poor
receptivity when their hands are clenched, crossed, positioned in front of
their mouth, or rubbing the back of their neck.
Legs and Feet: Receptive negotiators sit with legs together or one leg
slightly in front of the other. When standing, they distribute weight
evenly and place hands on their hips with their body tilted toward the
speaker. Non-receptive negotiators stand with legs crossed, pointing
away from the speaker.

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Torso: Receptive negotiators sit on the edge of their chair, unbutton their
suit coat with their body tilted toward the speaker. Non-receptive
negotiators may lean back in their chair and keep their suit coat buttoned.
Receptive negotiators tend to appear relaxed with their hands open and palms
visibly displayed.

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LESSON 6
CONFLICT
Conflict-Handling Styles
HIGH Collaborate
I Win,
You Win
Importance of relationship
Accommodate
I Lose,
You Win
MEDIUM Compromise
We Both Win,
We Both Lose
Avoid Control
I Lose, I Win,
LOW
You Lose You Lose
LOW MEDIUM HIGH

Presentation And Negotiation Team -
Importance of outcome
T39
1. Understanding Conflict Handling Styles

In a dispute, it's often easier to describe how others respond then to how
we respond. Each of us has a predominant conflict style that we use to meet our
own needs. By examining conflict styles and the consequences of those
behaviors, we can gain a better understanding of the impact that our personal
conflict style has on other people. With a better understanding, you then can
make a conscious choice on how to respond to others in a conflict situation to
help reduce work conflict and stress. Behavioral scientists Kenneth Thomas and
Ralph Kilmann, who developed the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument,
have identified five styles to responding to conflict—competition(controlling),
collaboration, compromise, avoidance, and accommodation. No conflict style is
inherently right or wrong, but one or more styles could be inappropriate for a
given situation and the impact could result in a situation quickly spiraling out of
control.

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A. Controlling (Competitive style)

Value of own issue/goal : High
Value of relationship : Low
Goal: I win, you lose
People who consistently use a competitive style come across as aggressive,
autocratic, confrontational, and intimidating. A controlling style is an attempt to
gain power and pressure a change at the other person’s expense. A competitive
style of managing conflict can be appropriate when you have to implement an
unpopular decision, make a quick decision, the decision is vital in a crisis, or it is
important to let others know how important an issue is to you – "standing up for
your right." The biggest disadvantage of using this style is that relationships can
be harmed beyond repair and may encourage other parties to use covert
methods to get their needs met because conflict with these people are reduced
to – "if you are not with me, you are against me."
B. Accommodating
Value of own issue/goal: Low
Value relationship: High
Goal: I lose, you win
By accommodating you set aside your own personal needs because you want to
please others in order to keep the peace. The emphasis is on preserving the
relationship. Smoothing or harmonizing can result in a false solution to a
problem and can create feelings in a person that range from anger to pleasure.
Accommodators are unassertive and cooperative and may play the role of a
martyr, complainer, or saboteur. However, accommodation can be useful when
one is wrong or when you want to minimize losses when you are going to lose
anyway because it preserves relationships. If you use it all the time it can become
competitive – "I am nicer than you are" – and may result in reduced creativity in
conflict situations and increased power imbalances.

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C. Avoiding
Value of own issue/goal: Low
Value of relationship: Low
Goal: I lose, you lose
Avoidance is characterized by deliberately ignoring or withdrawing from a
conflict rather than facing it. This style may be perceived as not caring about
your own issue or the issues of others. People who avoid the situation hope the
problem will go away, resolve itself without their involvement, or think that
others are ready to take the responsibility. There are situations where avoidance
is appropriate such as when you need more time to think of how to respond,
time constraints demand a delay, confrontation will hurt a working relationship,
or there is little chance of satisfying your needs. However, avoidance can be
destructive if the other person perceives that you don’t care enough to engage.
By not dealing with the conflict, this style allows the conflict to simmer and heat
up unnecessarily, resulting in anger or a negative outburst.
D. Compromising
Value of own issue/goal: Medium
Value of relationship: Medium
Goal: I win some, you win some
The compromising style demonstrates that you are willing to sacrifice some of
your goals while persuading others to give up part of theirs – give a little, get a
little. Compromising maintains the relationship and can take less time than
collaboration and resolutions might mean splitting the difference or seeking a
middle ground position. The downside to compromising is that it can be an easy
way out and reduces new creative options. If you constantly split the difference
or “straddle the fence,” game playing can result and the outcome could be less
than ideal.

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E. Collaborating
Value of own issue/goal: High
Value of relationship: High
Goal: I win, you win
The collaborative style views conflicts as problems to be solved and finding
creative solutions that satisfy all the parties’ concerns. You don’t give up your
self interest; you dig into the issue to identify the underlying concerns, test your
own assumptions, and understand the views of others. Collaboration takes time
and if the relationship among the parties is not important, then it may not be
worth the time and energy to create a win-win solution. However, collaboration
fosters respect, trust, and builds relationships. To make an environment more
collaborative, address the conflict directly and in a way that expresses willingness
for all parties to get what they need.
Although all of the approaches have their time and place, you need to ask
yourself the basic question, "Is my preferred conflict handling style the very best
I can use to resolve this conflict or solve this problem?"
2. Focus on Interests (Needs), Not Positions (Wants)

Understanding people's interests is not a simple task because we tend to
communicate our positions – things that are likely to be concrete and explicit. It
is helpful to learn to recognize the difference between person’s positions and
interests to assist in creative problem solving.
Positions are predetermined solutions or demands that people use to
describe what they want – what the person wants to happen on a
particular issue.
For example: "I want the report."
Interests define the problem and may be intangible, unexpressed, or not
consistent. They are the main reasons why you say what you want – the
motivation behind the position. The conflict is usually between each

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person's needs, desire, concern, or fear. For example: "I need to receive
the report by Friday, so I can have time to review and edit before the due
date next Wednesday." Remember that figuring out your interests is just
as important as figuring out their interests.
3. How to Identify Interests

To identify interests of the other person, you need to ask questions to determine
what the person believes he or she truly needs. When you ask, be sure to clarify
that you are not asking questions for justification of their position, but for a
better understanding of their needs, fears, hopes, and desires.Using open-ended
questions that encourage a person to "tell their story" helps you begin to
understand their interest. Open ended questions are opposite of closed-ended
questions, which require a response of "yes" or "no." To illustrate the difference,
consider the following example:
Did you have a good relationship with your supervisor? (closed-ended)
Tell me about your relationship with your supervisor. (open-
ended)Examples of open-ended questions:
What’s your basic concern about …?
Tell me about …
What do you think about …?
How could we fix …?
What would happen if …?
How else could you do …?
What could you tell me about …?
Then what?
Could you help me understand …?
What do you think you will lose if you …?
What have you tried before?
What do you want to do next?

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How can I be of help?

The most powerful interests for you to consider are the basic human needs for
security, economic well-being, sense of belonging to an organization, identify,
recognition of contribution or efforts, and autonomy or control over decisions or
work. It is not uncommon for you or the other person to have multiple interests
and it would be helpful for you to write them down as they occur to help you
sort them out. This list may be helpful to think through ideas that may meet
these interests.
Problem solving on your interests and the other person’s interests leads to more
creative and successful resolutions because you meet not only your need but
theirs as well.

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LESSON 7
OBJECTIVE CRITERIA
Often, in negotiations, people will be in positional bargaining, butting
heads and wills in a way that frays nerves, destroys relationships and may not
ultimately get anyone what they truly want. One way around the perils of
positional bargaining (and there are a variety of ways) is to turn the discussion
into a rational one. Switch the focus from a battle of wills into a search for the
appropriate external fair standards or benchmarks, often called ‘objective
criteria’.
Objective criteria are factual pieces of information, independent of the

parties in the negotiation, that are relevant to what should or should not be
agreed to in that negotiation. As an example, in negotiating to purchase a
particular car, we would want to look at what that car sells for at other
dealerships. What do similar cars sell for? What does the blue book (or red book
if applicable) say the price should be? What is the previous year’s model selling
for? All of those pieces of factual information are relevant to what you should
pay for that car, some more relevant than others.
We have all used objective criteria at some point in our lives, but much of
the strength of objective criteria comes not only from which objective criteria we
use, but how we use them. This article reviews tips and techniques for getting
the most out of such objective standards.
1. The Most Effective Objective Criteria

The most effective objective criteria, are:
a. Obtained from as objective and credible a source as is possible (e.g.
respected providers ofsimilar goods and services in the marketplace), and
are confirmable frommultiple sources;

71
b. Clearly similar and relevant to the issue in question (e.g. if looking at the
car, compare thecost of the same model, same year, same options, same
mileage etc., so you are comparing apples to apples);
c. Simple to work out and understand (i.e. the more convoluted the
explanation as to why itis relevant, the less likely it will be persuasive). One
could construct an elaborateargument based on gas mileage and inflation
rates that the price of the car should be$10,000, but that’s a circuitous and
unconvincing route when more direct comparablesexist;
d. In a form that is verifiable by the other side immediately or in advance (e.g.
share details in advance, bring copies of written documentation and share
it, provide contactinformation so they can verify facts independently, etc.);
e. Up to date (e.g. a recent appraisal is more persuasive than a six year old
one); and
f. Persuasive not only to you, but to the other party, and to a neutral
observer. For example, a valuation from an expert that was chosen and
paid by you may not be persuasive, even
if they are right, because they are seen as being “in your pocket”.
2. In Order To Effectively Communicate Objective Criteria.

You May Want To:
a. Ask the other party about criteria of which they are aware;
b. There may be overlap (you won’t need to convince them of the credibility of
your source if they have already found it);
c. Doing so shows your willingness to listen and your interest in their views, and
may promote mutual respect;
d. You may learn something that surprises and educates you (e.g. you won’t
damage your credibility by using outdated or wrong information); and

72
e. Giving serious and sincere consideration to their criteria will model the way
you want them to treat your information. In addition, you need to understand
their views fully in order to respond to them.
f. Avoid showing a patronizing attitude when presenting your data. You might
be right, but if you present your information in a way that tells the other
person they are “wrong”, it may just make them defensive and resistant to
your ideas;
g. Interpret, use and apply the objective criteria provided to you by the other
party (youwon’t need to convince them of the credibility of their own
information, just how to properly apply it);
h. Present reasons (criteria) first, conclusions later (e.g. so they hear and
understand the reasons before reacting to the conclusion);
i. Give the other party assistance in verifying the objective criteria (e.g. provide
reference contacts, copies of documents etc.) If they can’t verify it with their
own eyes, why should they believe you;
j. Share details of objective criteria in advance, if appropriate, so that everyone
can do theirdue diligence and be ready to negotiate when they meet (gives
time for information to be digested and tested);
k. Work together to identify sources of objective criteria which all parties will
accept (e.g.,neither party may know what the prime rate of interest is, but
both might agree that it isthe appropriate measure of a fair rate of interest);
and
l. Give the other party time to digest the information and come to terms with it
before they decide whether to accept it and be guided by it. To progress, they
need to digest.

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3. To Find Effective Objective Criteria,

You May Want To:
a. Identify the options you want to propose and then find the criteria
needed to support thoseoptions;
b. Prepare, prepare, prepare. It takes time, but it pays off, and it impresses;
c. Call appropriate sources to explore the facts (record contact information
and conversation details for future use);
d. Follow up verbal discussions and get relevant written documentation
(quotations, specifications, diagrams, etc.);
e. Use the internet, but use it wisely. Don’t use sources that will cause you
to lose credibility;
f. Ask people with the expertise in the field where to look;
g. Use third party neutral experts where appropriate and cost-effective
(ideally, choose people that are acceptable to all parties as being
impartial, or even better, select the expert by agreement with the other
parties). A neutral expert that you hired, even if acceptable to the other
parties, will be taken with a grain ofsalt…or two;
h. Use trade journals, and relevant advertising sources;
i. Use precedents where appropriate. In deciding what provisions to put in
a contract, for example, don’t get into an argument, look at similar
contracts in your organizations, in the industry, or look at legislation or
model contracts such as the Uniform Commercial Code for guidance;
j. Where time and money allow, check multiple sources (you can then
compare and use the most appropriate and favorable sources). Not every
piece of factual information needs to be revealed to the other side. This is
why procurement professionals seek at least three quotations, but don’t
limit it to just three if time and money warrant casting a broader net;
k. Ask the other party- they may be a source of useful objective criteria, if
you consider them trustworthy and they are willing to share the

74
information (e.g. what have they paid for similar services in the past). You
can do this in an RFP if you are seeking proposals;
l. Review credible sources (e.g. industry leaders, respected individuals or
companies); and
m. Test and improve the criteria to the extent possible (e.g. if a good or
service is listed at price X, ask whether you could get it for any less than
the list price)

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LESSON 8
THE SIMULATION OF NEGOTIATION AND CONFLICT

1. The Language of Presentation
When you are talking to people in a business situation, it is important to be
able to make it clear when you are talking about a fact and when you are giving
your personal viewpoint. There are several ways that you can show that what
you are saying is your personal viewpoint.
Verbs: mean, think, expect, believe, would like, understand

You can add a personal dimension to what you say, by making yourself the
subject of your comment. See the examples below.
Michelle says : 'I mean I think I've made an effort... I think it's become less
interesting'
Sean says : 'I expect you to do that job... I know it’s difficult...'
Abigail uses 'do' to give extra emphasis when she says: 'I do believe that what
I've contributed to the department...'
Angela says : 'I'd like to help you. I understand...'
Adverbs: frankly, hopefully, really, just

Adverbs are a useful tool to express a personal judgment or opinion. 'Frankly'
means 'honestly and directly'. It is often used when the speaker wants to
prepare the listener to hear something that he or she knows will make the
listener feel uncomfortable.
Sean says: '...since then, frankly, I've seen very little change.'
Sean also uses 'hopefully' to personalize what he says: '...hopefully you come
back from leave refreshed...'
Sean says 'I really want to see some improvement...', and Abigail personalizes
what she says by using 'just' (meaning 'only')
Abigail says 'I just think it's time...'

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Adjectives
Sean uses several adjectives to express his personal views of a situation. In
unit 1, he says 'I'm afraid that...' and in unit 2 he says: 'It's important that...'. In
unit 1 he combines an adjective with an adverb to say: 'I wasn't particularly
happy...'You can use all these techniques to indicate that a statement is your
personal viewpoint – whether what you are saying is good news or bad news for
the listener!
All managers sometimes have to have difficult conversations with people

working under them. What is the best way to give negative feedback? Imagine
you are unhappy with the behavior of a member of your team. You have decided
to raise the issue with this person and tell him or her that you would like to see
an improvement. What words or phrases might be useful in this tricky
conversation? When you have thought of a few.
Check your understanding by reading the script below:
Sean: Okay, well, I’m not going to get into a discussionabout who deserved
to get the job. Clearly, the person who was appointed was the right
person for the job. What you need to do is look at your work and what
you’re doing and where that’s taking you in your career. But bearing in

77
mind that you are still employed to do a job and I expect you to do
that job with a certain attitude. You’re meeting members of the public
quite regularly - it’s important that you aren’t unhappy, or at least that
you don’t show it. This meeting is really just to let you know I’m not
happy with the effort that you’ve made...
Michelle: Okay …
Sean: … and I really want to see some improvement. I know it’s difficult. I
know that it’s depressing not to get a job, but you’ve got to snap out
of it, you’ve got to get on with the job that you’re doing now.
A. Resolving Difficulties
Next, we’re going to hear another difficult conversation between the
team leader and the employee we heard in the first unit. We’ll encounter
some more phrases useful for expressing dissatisfaction.
Imagine that you are giving a second warning to an employee whose work or
attitude is not of a high standard. What words or phrases might be useful in this
conversation?When you have thought of a few.

78
Sean: Michelle, can I have a word please, in my office? Now then. I won’t
take long about this, I’ll come straight to the point. We had a chat...
Michelle: Yeah.
Sean: At that point, I wasn’t particularly happy with the way that you were
behaving in the office, the way that you were being uncooperative, a
little bit surly with people. And since then, frankly, I’ve seen very little
change.
Michelle: Well, I mean, I think I’ve made an effort, trying to be helpful like I
normally am with people, and I feel that I’m still doing my job - not that
the job’s very interesting. I think it’s become less interesting since
Sarah got the promotion. I think she’s getting some more of the
interesting work.
Sean: Okay, well I’m afraid that,despite what you say, it hasn’t come
across. I don’t want to jump to any conclusions, but you have taken
quite a bit of time off … and …
Michelle: Yeah, but you’re allowed to take leave, aren’t you?
Sean: You are allowed to take leave. Hopefully you come back from leave
refreshed and you leave your problems at home.
B. Asking for Pay Rise

It’s never easy to talk about your salary, but it might sometimes be
necessary! How is it possible to do this without sounding rude or too desperate?
Imagine that you have been working for your company for three years, but you
haven’t yet received a pay rise or a significant bonus. You have decided to raise
this issue with your manager. What words and phrases might be useful in your
conversation with him or her?When you have thought of five.

79
Abigail: Hi, are you free for a quick chat?
Mark: Sure, come in, come in. Sit down. What can I do for you?
Abigail: Okay. Well, it’s a bit difficult, but …I really feelthat it’s about time that I
had a pay rise.
Mark: Okay and why do you feel like that?
Abigail: Well, I have been here now for three years and in that time I have made
good progress. I really feel that I’ve grown in the job and I’vetaken on a
lot more responsibility. I just think it’s time that it was recognised and
that my efforts were rewarded.
Mark: Right. So you feel that you’re on a low salary for your current position
and current responsibilities, do you?
Abigail: Yeah, I do believe that what I’ve contributed to the department over
recent months means that I should be paid more.
Mark: Okay, well, what kind of rise would you be looking for?
Abigail: Well, you know, I think that 3% on top of the usual annual rise with
inflation isn’t too much to ask.
Mark: Three per cent... Hmm. Right, well, as you know, I can’t just give you a
pay rise immediately, just like that. I’ll have to discuss it with the other
managers here. And, as you can imagine, there aren’t unlimited funds

80
available for things like this. But you might be pleased to hear that we
are having a pay review meeting very soon and I’ll make sure we discuss
your request then.
Abigail: Okay, fine. Should I put this request in writing as well? So we all have a
record of this discussion?
Mark: Yes, that’d be a good idea. Email me and also copy it to human
resources.
Attachment
A. Write down some idea to deliver them in front of your classmate.
a. ……………………………………………………………………………………
b. ……………………………………………………………………………………
c. ……………………………………………………………………………………
B. Write The Topic Of Presentation Based On The Product The Students Have.
And Then Do The Short Presentation Of Selling An Idea From The Product They
Have Got.

81
C. Evaluate your classmate presentation based on the following items. Give the
score (1-100) and write some reasons.
Assessment For Presentations
Poise and focus :
a. Concentration:………………………
b. Posture:……………………..
c. Body Control: ……………….
Eye Contact:
a. Focus on a fixed point:………….
b. Eyes out of text:…………..
Projection and diction:
a. Volume: ………..
b. Articulation: …………….
c. Pace:…………………
D. Knowing Your Negotiation’s Intelligence

Fill out the following table based on your individual assessment:
No Questions Very Good Very Bad
1 The awareness of negotiation 5 4 3 2 1

2 Become a good listener
3 Have high target
4 Become detective: asking questions
5 Be patient
6 Flexible assumption
7 Focus on satisfactory
8 Take a risk

82
9 Solve the problem

10 Say “no” and ready to leave
Note:
5 = very good
4= good
3= fair
2=bad
1=very bad
Based on the result you may improve your negotiation skill.
E. Write Down The Case Study Of The Right Type Of Negotiation

83
F. Write down the criteria, the attitude, habit and informal rules from your
observation for the following cases:
1. The standard of personal behavior in some companies
2. The information flow among the department.

84

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1

PRESENTATION & NEGOTIATION

Yuyun Taufik, S.Pd., M.Si.

PROGRAM STUDI HUBUNGAN MASYARAKAT

Digunakan hanya untuk kalangan Politeknik LP3I Bandung PRODI HUMAS

PROGRAM STUDI HUBUNGAN MASYARAKAT

SATUAN ACARA PERKULIAHAN (SAP)

YUYUN TAUFIK, S.Pd., M.Si.

Digunakan hanya untuk kalangan Politeknik LP3I Bandung PRODI HUMAS

COMMUNICATION AND SELF-EXPRESSION

From the research by Jiwanta:1982, there is a high percentage of

One says that communication is a process of message delivering

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Wilbur Schrarmm( Ashadi: 1987) says that communication is a sharing

“communication is derived from Latin “communis” which is meant

For further description , can be described by doing a conversation

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2. The Communication Process

Picture 1. The illustration of communication process

The communication process is every steps from creating the

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c. The media (Channel) is a tool that can be used to deliver message

3. The Obstacles Of Communication

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f. Communication process factor

4. Verbal and non verbal language.

We always use body language! Looking at someone for example

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that of the American psychologist Mehrabian. He states that when it

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looking at the floor or ceiling should be avoided as it communicates

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PREPARING THE PRESENTATION

Obviously , when you present your presentation formally or

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d. Doing the preparation is very important before the presentation.

2. Preparing The Presentation

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situation), it has clear structure of presentation that has already

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give the recommendation (if it is

C. The Different Audience

a) The Audience’s Mood And Open-Minded

b) The Social Relationship.

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D. Why a Story Is Like a Cup

Brain scientists speculate there are many ways to "package" a message. At

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E. The Four Benefits of Communicating with a Story

1. Make Your Messages More Understandable

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2. Increase Trust and Build a Rapport with Your Audience

3. Make Your Message Spread

4. Get the Audience to Agree with You

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published in the Journal of American Folklore, found speakers who use

G. How Mercy Corps Used the Storytelling Effect

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H. Pitch an Idea with a Great Story

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I. Three Ways to Begin Your Presentation with a Story