BC 15

Modern Wireless Communications Modern Wireless Communications
Modern Wireless
Chapter 5
Communication
Spread Spectrum and Code-
Simon Haykin, Michael Moher
Division Multiple Access
CH05-1 CH05-2
Contents Contents
• 5.5 Code Synchronization
• 5.1 Introduction
• 5.6 Channel Estimation
• 5.2 Direct-Sequence Modulation
– 5.2.1 The Spreading Equation • 5.7 Power Control: The Near-Far Problem
– 5.2.2 Matched-Filter Receiver • 5.8 FEC Coding and CDMA
– 5.2.3 Performance with Interference
• 5.9 Multiuser Detection
• 5.3 Spreading Codes
• 5.10 CDMA in a Cellular Environment
– 5.3.1 Walsh-Hadamard
– 5.3.2 Orthogonal Variable Spreading Factors (OVSF • 5.11 Frequency-Hopped Spread Spectrum
– 5.3.3 Maximal-Length Sequences – 5.11.1 Complex Baseband Representation of FH-SS
– 5.3.4 Scramblers – 5.11.2 Slow-Frequency Hopping
– 5.3.5 Gold Codes – 5.11.3 Fast-Frequency Hopping
– 5.3.6 Random Sequences – 5.11.4 Processing Gain
• 5.4 The advantages of CDMA for Wireless
– 5.4.1 Multiple-Access Interference
– 5.4.2 Mutlipath
– 5.4.3 RAKE Receiver
– 5.4.4 Fading Channels
– 5.4.5 Summary of the Benefits of DS-SS
CH05-3 CH05-4
• CDMA
– Multiple-access technique, individual
5.1 Introduction terminals use spread-spectrum and occupy all
spectrum when they transmit.
• Spread spectrum
– Direct sequencing (DS)
– Frequency hopping (FH)
CH05-5 CH05-6
1
• 5.2.1 The Spreading Equation

• 5.2.2 Matched-Filter Receiver
5.2 Direct-Sequence Modulation • 5.2.3 Performance with Interference
CH05-7 CH05-8
• BPSK signal
~
s (t ) = b Eb g (t ) 0≤t ≤T (5.2)
5.2 Direct-Sequence Modulation • Symbol-shaping function  1 0≤t ≤T


g (t ) =  T ' (5.3)
 0 otherwise
• For rectangular pulse shape, transmit spectrum is given by
5.2.1 The Spreading Equation S g ( f ) = T sin c 2 ( fT ) (5.4)
• For a direct-sequence signal, the symbol-shaping function is

Q
g (t ) = ∑ c(q )g c (t − qTc ) (5.5)
q =1
which is called spreading factor
CH05-9 CH05-10
• For DS modulation, the pulse shape is a sequence of

shorter rectangular pulses called chips, the function of
chip shape is
 1 0≤t ≤T

g c (t ) =  T ' c
(5.6)
5.2 Direct-Sequence Modulation
 0 otherwise
5.2.2 Matched-Filter Receiver
CH05-11 CH05-12
2
• Received signal • The mean of the noise sample ηis zero and the variance is
~ given by T  TT
x (t ) = ~ ~ (t )
s (t ) + w
2
(5.7) ~ (t )g ∗ (t )dt  = E[w (5.10)
σ η2 = E  ∫ w ∫ ∫ ~(t )w~ (s )]g (t )g (s )dtds
∗ ∗
 0  0 0
• Optimum receiver corresponds to the processing T T T

= ∫ ∫ N 0δ (t − s )g (t )g (s )dtds = N 0 ∫ g (t ) dt = N 0
∗ 2
T
y = ∫~
x (t )~
s ∗ (t )dt (5.8) 0 0 0
• In AWGN, the transmission performance of DS spread

0
• Optimum processing spectrum is identical to the nonspread system.
T
y =∫~
x (t )g ∗ (t )dt • The signal-to-noise ratio with optimum detection is
0
T
~ (t )g ∗ (t )dt
T
SNR =
(E[y] ) = E 2
b
= b Eb ∫ g (t ) dt + ∫ w
2 (5.9) 2 (5.11)
0 0
ση N0
= b Eb + η
CH05-13 CH05-14
• DS modulation advantage: reduced receiver sensitivity to

interference.
• To explain this, complex envelope is
5.2 Direct-Sequence Modulation ~ A − j 2πf t
ξ (t ) = ξ e ξ (5.13)
T
• Received signal, including interferer, is given by
5.2.3 Performance with Interference ~ ~
x (t ) = ~ ~ (t )
s (t ) + ξ (t ) + w (5.14)
• Jamming term
T
~
yξ = ∫ ξ (t )g ∗ (t )dt (5.15)
0
CH05-15 CH05-16
• After multiplication by de-spreading sequence, the jamming tone

becomes ~ A − j 2πf t
ξ (t )g ∗ (t ) = ξ
e ξ
g ∗ (t )
T
Q
• Equivalent noise contribution ∞
of jamming is given by the frequency-
Aξ
∑ c (q )g (t − qT )
− j 2πf ξ t
= e ∗
domain equation σ ξ2 = ∫ Sξg ( f )S p ( f )df
T q =1
c c
−∞
(5.18)
Aξ Q (5.16) Aξ 1
∑ c (q )g (t − qT )e
∗ − j 2πfξ t
= c c 0≤t ≤T ≈ ×
T q =1
Q T
• The corresponding spectrum is give by Aξ
≈
Aξ T PGT
Sξg ( f ) = ×Q× sin c 2 (( f + fξ )Tc )
T Q2 • In nonspread system, the interference power after the integrate-and-
(5.17) dump circuit is ∞
Aξ
= sin c 2 (( f + fξ )Tc ) σ ξ2 = ∫ Ax sin c 2 (( f + fξ )t )S p ( f )df
Q −∞
• To estimate the contribution of jammer to the noise after (5.19)
demodulation, we assume: Aξ
≈
– The frequency offset is small T
– The noise bandwidth of the integrate and dump circuit is 1/T • In a DS-SS system, the interference is reduced by the processing
gain PG relative to its effect in a nonspread system.
CH05-17 CH05-18
3
• With TDMA, the users are time orthogonal, with FDMA, the users
are approximately frequency orthogonal, with CDMA, the users are
approximately code orthogonal
• To achieve this orthogonality, a different symbol-shaping function is
5.3 Spreading Codes assigned to each user k
Q
g k (t ) = ∑ ck (q )g c (t − qTc ) 0 ≤ t ≤ T (5.20)
q =1
• The approximate orthogonality of gj(t) and gk(t) for different time

offsetsτcan be expressed as
∞
R jk (τ ) = ∫ g j (t + τ )g k∗ (t )dt ≈ 0 for j ≠ k (5.21)
−∞
• Additional self-orthogonality requirement that minimizes a number of

practical channel and receiver effects is
()
R τ ≈ 0 for τ > 0
kk
(5.22)
CH05-19 CH05-20
5.3 Spreading Codes
5.3.1 Walsh-Hadamard sequences
CH05-21 CH05-22
• To construct a Walsh-Hadamard sequence, we begin with

sequences of length 2
1 1  (5.25)
H1 =  
1 − 1
• A four orthogonal sequences of length 4 from the sequences of 5.3 Spreading Codes
length 2 1 1 1 1 
H H1  1 − 1 1 − 1
H2 =  1 = (5.26)
H 1 − H1  1 1 − 1 − 1
  5.3.2 Orthogonal Variable Spreading
1 − 1 − 1 1 
• In general, we may construct orthogonal sequences of length

2n 2n Factors (OVSF)
from sequences of length 2n-1 by operation
H H n−1  (5.27)
H n =  n−1
H n−1 − H n−1 
CH05-23 CH05-24
4
• Suppose we need OVSF codes of length n1 and n2, with n1 < n2. The
algorithm for constructing OVSF codes is
1. Construct Hn1 by the usual Walsh-Hadamard algorithm.
n
2. Choose one row of the matrix Hn1 as the code of length 2 1. Let
H'n1 represent the Hadamard matrix with the selected row
removed.
3. Continue the Walsh-Hadamard algorithm with H'n1; that is,
H 'n H 'n1 
H 'n1 +1 =  ' 1  (5.29)
H n1 − H 'n1 
4. Then continue until the desired H'n2 is constructed
n
5. Choose any row of H'n2 as the spreading code of length 2 2
6. If a third code is needed, continue in a similar manner
CH05-25 CH05-26
• Sequences having properties similar to random sequences but can

be generated simply at both the transmitter and receiver.
• Can be generated by Shift register
• Maximal-length sequences have five important properties:
5.3 Spreading Codes 1. Length property: Each maximal length sequence is of length
2m-1.
2. Balance property: Each maximal length sequence has 2m-1
ones and 2m-1-1 zeros.
3. Shift property:
5.3.3 Maximal-Length Sequences 1. The modulo-2 sum of an m-sequence and any circular-
shifted version of itself produces another circular-shifted
version of itself.
4. Subsequence property: Each maximal sequence contains a
subsequence of 1,2,3,…,m-1 zeros and ones.
5. Autocorrelation property.
CH05-27 CH05-28
• Define the circular autocorrelation function

1 Q −1
R jj (k ) = ∑ c(q )c((q + k ) mod(Q ))
Q q =0
(5.30)
• Normalized autocorrelation 1 k =0

R jj (k ) =  − 1 (5.31)
k ≠0
 Q
• Each maximal-length sequence provides 2m-1 approximately
orthogonal sequences obtained by different (circular) time shifts of
the original sequence.
• Given the irreducible polynomial
x m + cm −1 x m −1 + cm − 2 x m −2 + K + c1 x + 1 = 0 (5.32)
A shift register for m-sequence can be constructed
CH05-29 CH05-30
5
• Prevent transmission of long strings of zeros and

ones that may appear in raw data.
5.3 Spreading Codes • Long strings of 0 and 1 cause
– difficulties for circuits tracking
– Peaks in transmit spectrum excessive
5.3.4 Scramblers
interference.
CH05-31 CH05-32
5.3 Spreading Codes
5.3.5 Gold Codes
CH05-33 CH05-34
• Gold codes are created by summing the output of the two

m-sequence generators to produce a new 0-1 sequence.
• The cross-correlation of the Gold codes is approximately
bounded by
1 2
R jk (τ ) ≤ + j≠k (5.33)
Q Q
• For select pairs of maximal-length sequences, we can

generate 2m-1 distinct gold codes
CH05-35 CH05-36
6
• For random sequences, we define cross-correlation of two

sequence as (5.34)
Q
1 
Rxy (k ) = E  ∑ xq yq + k 
 Q q =1 
5.3 Spreading Codes • The autocorrelation function of random sequence is given by
1 Q 
Rxx (k ) = E  ∑ xq yq + k 
 Q q =1 
5.3.6 Random Sequences 1 Q
 ∑ [ ][ ]
E xq E x q+ k = 0 × 0 = 0 k ≠0 (5.35)
Q
=  qQ=1
1
 Q q =1
[ ]
 ∑ E xq2 = 1 k =0
• If we compute the cross-correlation properties, we can get

Rxy (k ) = 0 for all k (5.36)
CH05-37 CH05-38
• The average cross-correlation energy of 2 random

sequences is give by
[ ]= E  Q1 ∑ x y  
2
5.4 The advantages of CDMA for

Q
2
E Rxy q q
 q =1

 1 Q Q 
= E  2 ∑∑ xq yq xm ym 
 Q q =1 m =1 
Wireless
1 Q (5.37)
= 2 ∑ xm2 ym2
Q m =1
Q
1
= ∑ 1× 1
Q 2 m =1
1
=
Q
• The interference power between two random sequences
is inversely proportional to the length of the sequence.
CH05-39 CH05-40
• Effect on multiple-access performance when

spreading codes are not perfectly orthogonal.
• 5.4.1 Multiple-Access Interference
Wireless
• 5.4.2 Multipath Channels
• 5.4.3 RAKE Receiver 5.4.1 Multiple-Access Interference
• 5.5.5 Fading Channels
• 5.4.5 Summary of Benefits of DS-SS
CH05-41 CH05-42
7
• Received complex baseband signal of synchronous

CDMA
K
x (t ) = ∑ α k ~
~ ~ (t )
sk (t ) + w 0 ≤t ≤T (5.38) • Average amplitude at correlator output is given by
  K
k =1 E [ y ] = α b E + E [η ] + E  E ∑ α b R 
1 1 b (5.41)
1 b k k 1k
  k =0
• The individual transmitted signals reflect their respective = α1b1 Eb + 0 + 0
data and spreading waveforms, given by = α1b1 Eb
~
sk (t ) = bk Eb g k (t )
(5.39) • The variance of output is
[
σ γ2 = E Y − E[ y ]2 ]
• The output is given by  2   K
 K 2

= E  η1 + 2 Re η1∗  Eb ∑ α k bk R1k   + Eb ∑ α k bk R1k 
T
   k =2  k=2

y = ∫~
x (t )g1∗ (t )dt K K (5.42)
0
= N 0 + 0 + Eb ∑∑ α kα l∗ E bk bl∗ E R1k R1∗l [ ][ ]
k =2 l =2
T
(5.40) K K
K
= α1b1 Eb + η1 + ∑ α k bk Eb ∫ g k (s )g1∗ (s )dt
= N 0 + Eb ∑∑ α kα l∗δ (k − 1)E R1k R1∗l [ ]
k =2 l=2
k =2 0
K
= N 0 + Eb ∑ α k E R1k
2 2
K k =2
= α1b1 Eb + η1 + Eb ∑ α k bk R1k 0≤t ≤T

k =2 CH05-43 CH05-44
• Signal-to-interference-pulse-noise ratio
• From Eq.(5.37), we can have
(E[ y] ) 2
[ ]
E R jk
2
≈
1
Q
(5.43)
SINR =
σ Y2
Eb
= (5.47)
• Contribution of multiple-access term to the noise variance  K −1 
given by  N 0 + Q Eb 
K
 
1
≈ Eb ∑ α k
2  
2
σ MAI (5.44)  
k =2 Q E
= b
1 
N 0  1 + K − 1 Eb 
• The transmitters are power controlled, which means  
 Q N0 
αk = 1 for all k (5.45) =
Eb
Dg
N0
• 1st and 2nd order statistics of MAI contribution to noise
• Degradation
[ ] K −1 −1
µ MAI = E y − α1b1 Eb = 0 and 2
σ MAI = Eb (5.46)  K − 1 Eb  (5.48)
Dg = 1 + 
Q
 Q N 0 
CH05-45 CH05-46
• Complex envelope of channel impulse response is given by

L
~
h (t ) = ∑ α l δ (t − τ l ) (5.49)
l =1
• Define windowed channel spectrum by
H ( f ) f < Rc / 2 (5.50)
Wireless HR( f )= 
0 otherwise
• By Nyquist smapling theorem, the time domain equivalent of
5.4.2 Mutlipath HR(f) can be represented by {hn}
∞
hw (t ) = ∑h
n = −∞
n sin c(Rc (t − n Rc )) (5.51)
CH05-47 CH05-48
8
• With Rc=1/Tc, the chip rate, by the convolutional sampling

theorem, the received signal is
~ ~
xmp (t ) = hw (t ) ⊗ ~ ~ (t )
s (t ) + w 5.4 The advantages of CDMA for
∞
Wireless
= ∑ h s(t − lT ) + w~(t )
l = −∞
l c
(5.52)
L'
= ∑ hl s(t − lTc ) + w
~ (t ) 5.4.3 RAKE Receiver
l =0
CH05-49 CH05-50
• Operating in multipath environments. • If the delay spread of channel is much less than the symbol
• The output of each delay element is processed by a single- period T, then T
∫ g (t − (l − i )T )g (t )dt ≈ R (l − i )
∗ (5.54)
user receiver. c gg
0
• This receiver has (L+1) fingers and gets the name “RAKE” • Contribution of self-interference to total noise for the first
from its resemblance to common garden rake. finger is L
σ Y2 = N 0 + Eb ∑ hl Rgg (lTc )
2 2
• The output of ith finger (5.55)
T − iTc l =1
∫ ~x (t + iT )g (t )dt
∗
yi = c • If spread code has cross-correlation properties similar to
− iTc
T − iTc L T − iTc
random codes, then we can approximate result
∫ ∑ h s (t − lT
~ + iTc )g ∗ (t )dt + ~
∫ w(t + iT ) g
∗
= l c c (t )dt (5.53)
− iTc l = 0 1
∑h ∑ hl
− iTc 2
Rgg (lTc ) ≈
2 2
L T − iTc l (5.56)
= ∑ hl ∫ ~
s (t − lTc + iTc ) g ∗ (t )dt + η i l≠ j Q l≠ j
l =o − iTc
≈ hi b Eb + b Eb ∑ hl Rgg (l − i ) + η i
l ≠i
CH05-51 CH05-52
• The final estimate of data is given by weighted sum of output

of each finger of RAKE receiver
L
y = ∑ hi* yi
i =1
(5.57) 5.4 The advantages of CDMA for
Wireless
L L
≈ Eb ∑ hl b + ∑ h η
2 *
l l
l =0 l =0
which is called maximal-ratio combining (MRC)
• The resulting output signal-to-noise ratio is
2
5.4.4 Fading Channels
 L 2
Eb  ∑ hl 
SNR =
(E[y ] ) 2
=  l =L0  (5.58)
σ Y2
N 0 ∑ hl
2
l=0
L
Eb ∑ hl
2
l =0
=
N0
CH05-53 CH05-54
9
• Assumption: Transmission systems are usually designed such that

channel is approximately constant, at least over the duration of a
symbol interval.
• Therefore, the fading performance of single-user spread spectrum
BPSK or QPSK is same as non-spread case.
• For the transmission of coherent BPSK over a single-ray Rayleigh-
fading transmission path, BER performance is
1
Pe ≈ (5.59)
4 Eb N 0
• BPSK performance is given by
L
 2 L − 1 1 
Pe ≈    (5.60)
 L  4 Eb N 0 
• With second-order diversity, there is an approximate squaring of the
bit error rate
CH05-55 CH05-56
Important features in a multiple-access system

1. Spectral density of transmitted signal is reduced by factor equal to
processing gain.
5.4 The advantages of CDMA for 2. Effect of interference by processing gain.
3. Under ideal conditions, there is no difference in BER performance
Wireless between spread and non-spread forms of BPSK or QPSK.
4. In multipath channels, if it is treated as interference, its effect can
be reduced by processing gain.
5.4.5 Summary of the Benefits of DS- 5. Multipath can improve receiver performance by capturing the
SS energy in paths having different transmission delays.
6. In fading channels, spread-spectrum receiver can obtain important
advantage in diversity by using RAKE receiver.
7. Choice of spreading codes is critical to reduce multiple-access
interference and multipath self-interference.
CH05-57 CH05-58
5.5 Code Synchronization
CH05-59 CH05-60
10
• Assume spreading code is transmitted repeatedly

• Complex baseband receieved signal prior to chip filters
~
x (t ) = Eb g (t )e j (2π∆ft +φ ) 0 ≤t ≤T • Ideally the vale if Cx(k1) should be
(5.61)
= Eb g (t − T )e j ( 2π∆fkTc +φ ) T ≤ t < 2T E ∆ke jφ ' if the sequences align
C x ( ki ) =  b
• Output of sampling device 0 otherwise (5.64)
~ • To increase the confidenceof synchronization, we form a decision

x (kTc ) = Eb g (kTc mod T )e j ( 2π∆fkTc +φ )
(5.62) variable
= Eb c(k mod Q )e j ( 2π∆fkTc +φ ) L1
D = ∑ C x (kl )
2
(5.65)
• Partial correlation l =1
k1 + ∆k
C x (k1 ) = ∑ x(kT )c ((m + (k − k ))mod Q )
k = k1
c
*
0 1
k1 + ∆k
(5.63)
= Eb ∑ c(k mod Q )c ((m + (k − k )) mod Q )e ( π
k = k1
*
0 1
j 2 ∆fkTc +φ )
k1 + ∆k
≈ Eb e jφ ' ∑ c(k mod Q)c ((m + (k − k )) mod Q )
k = k1
*
0 1
CH05-61 CH05-62
• In flat-fading channel, a frequency shift will be happened

there the
• amplitude and phase of the received signal can be
5.6 Channel Estimation changed.
• The mobile channel effects on phase, frequency and
amplitude are slowly time-varying.
• It is critical at receiver performance to have an accurate
channel estimation and tracking strategy to tack these
variations.
CH05-63 CH05-64
• Channel-tracking algorithm
– Reliable data estimates, which involves transmitting
training sequence to adapt the channel estimates initially.
– Bandwidth of low-pass filter must be chosen
appropriately.
– If data stream is channel encoded to operate at a lower
SNR, reliability of the uncoded data at the output of
RAKE receiver is liable to be poor at all times.
CH05-65 CH05-66
11
• The complex baseband received signal is

K
xc (t ) = ∑ α k ~
~ ~ (t )
sk (t ) + w (5.67)
5.7 Power Control: The Near-Far • SINR of 1st user is k =1
(E[ y ])2
Problem SINR =
σ Y2
α12 Eb
= K
1
N0 + Eb ∑ α k2 (5.68)
Q k =2
2
α Eb 1
= 1
K − 1 α 12 Eb  1 α  
2
N0 K
1+ ∑ k  
Q N 0  ( K − 1) k = 2  α 1  
 
Eb , 1
= α 12 Dg where Dg' =
K − 1 α 12 Eb  1 K  α k  
2
N0
1+ ∑ 
Q N 0  K − 1 k = 2  α1  
 
CH05-67 CH05-68
• Comparing the definition of D 'g with definition of Dg , we • Near-far problem: If any of the signal strengths is a greater than the
can see desired signal(αk>>α1), the multiple-access interference will be
increased.
– The received energy for the desired signal is α12 Eb
• Solution for near-far problem: Power control.
instead of Eb.
• Implementation issues of power control:
– Difference is that the denominator of D ' g included the
– Latency
factor, multiplier applied to the multiple-access
• Power must be measured at the receiver and then relayed to
interference.
2 the transmitter to adjust the transmit power.
1 K
 αk 
(K − 1) ∑
  (5.70)
– Accuracy
k = 2  α1 
• Minimal averaging of potentially very noisy signal.
CH05-69 CH05-70
5.8 FEC Coding and CDMA
CH05-71 CH05-72
12
• Forward error correction (FEC) coding increases the bandwidth by

a factor of 2 to 3, but includes redundancy. • The equation is the general expression for the
1 degradation due to multiple-access interference when
• Decompose the maximum spreading rate into two parts Q = Qs ×
r coding is present and unchanged from the uncoded
expression.
• If each FEC-encoded bit is spread by factor Qs, we can write Eq.
(5.48) as • Since the operating Eb/N0 is much lower in coded
−1 −1 −1
  K − 1  Es          situation, there is significant improvement in overall
Dg = 1 +   = 1 +  K − 1  Eb  = 1 +  K − 1  Eb 
    Q r  rN    Q N  (5.72)
  Qs  N 0     0    0 performance
• This is the general expression for the degradation due to multiple- • FEC coding often provides a form of time tiversity
access interference when coding is present and unchanged from
the uncoded expression.
• However, since the operating Eb/N0 is much lower in coded situation,
there is significant improvement in overall performance.
CH05-73 CH05-74
5.9 Multiuser Detection
CH05-75 CH05-76
• Matched-filter outputs can undergo further processing in the form of

multiuser detection so that the multiple-access interference can be
reduced. • Multiuser detection algorithm is to perform the equivalent of
interference cancellation
• In synchronous CDMA, an equivalent baseband discrete-time model
for the system over one symbol period is • Method 1:
α1 0 L 0  – Conventional receiver: estimates each user’s bits on basis of sign
0 α L 0 
y = ARb + η 0 ≤ t ≤ T where b = [b1 , b2 ,K bK ]
T
and A =  2  (5.73,74) of individual elements.
M

M M 

b̂ = sign y {} (5.77)
 0 0 L αK 
• For matrix R is the cross-correlation matrix of symbol-shaping • Method 2
waveforms of different users, ijth element of R and the vector of – Optimum (maximum-likelihood) detector
correlated Gaussian noise samples with element is 2
bˆ = arg min b y − ARb (5.78)
T T
∗ ~ (t )dt
Rij = ∫ g i (t )g (t )dt and η i = ∫ g (t )w ∗ (5.75,76) • Method 3
j i
0 0 – de-correlating detector
{
bˆ = sign R −1 y } (5.80)
CH05-77 CH05-78
13
• Interference caused by another CDMA signal appears to be

approximately equivalent to additive Gaussian noise.
5.10 CDMA in a Cellular • Multiple-access interference is directly proportional to channel loading.

• Define intracellular interference as
Environment
K −1 K (5.81)
I intracell = Eb ≈ Eb
Q Q
• Intercellular or other-cell interference is the second type of
interference.
• Define relative other-cell interference factor as
I other −cell (5.82)
f =
I intracell
CH05-79 CH05-80
• Ping Pong effect:

– With the mobile terminal switching back and forth between two
base stations as the strength of the signal varies at the boundary
between two cells.
• The size of relative other-cell interference factor depends on
1. Propagation-loss exponent:
• the larger the propagation loss exponent is, the quicker
adjacent-cell interference will be attenuated.
2. Variations in signal strength due to shadowing:
• the larger the variation due to shadowing, the greater the
potential is to cause problems.
CH05-81 CH05-82
• Total interference density

I 0 = I intracell + I other −cell
• 3. The handoff technique between cells: (5.83)
K
– Hard handover: ≈ (1 + f )
Eb
Q
• the case where communications are terminated • Signal-to-interference-plus-noise at individual receiver
with one base station immediately upon
Eb
acquisition of 2nd base station. SINR =
N0 + I0
• This will result a ping-pong effect. Eb (5.84)
=
– Soft handover:  N 
I 0 1 + 0 
• mobile terminal maintains communications with  I0 
both base stations until one of them becomes • Cellular CDMA system are often interference limited.
significantly stronger than the other. • Substitute Eq.(5.83) into Eq. (5.84), we get
• This can prevent ping-pong effect.
1
SINR = (5.85)
 
(1 + f ) K 1 + N 0 
Q I0 
CH05-83 CH05-84
14
• Refer to Figure 5.26

– For a constant SINR moving from a noise-limited system to
an interference-limited system increases the permissible
channel loading.
– For a constant SINR, increasing other-cell interference
significantly reduces the permissible channel loading.
– Reducing the SINR required by the receiver can
significantly improve the permissible channel loading.
• Cell sectorization:
– Installation of directional antennas as opposed to
omnidirectional antennas to improve system capacity
CH05-85 CH05-86
• Advantages of FH-SS
– High tolerance of narrowband interference.
5.11 Frequency-Hopped Spread – Relatively straightforward interference avoidance.
– Current technology-hopped bandwidths on the order of
Spectrum several gigahertz.
• Disadvantages of FH-SS
– Noncoherent detection
– Higher probability of detection
CH05-87 CH05-88
• As DS-SS, complex baseband signal can be expressed as

~
s (t ) = m(t ) exp( j 2πζ k t + θ k ) 0≤t ≤T (5.86)
5.11 Frequency-Hopped Spread
• For linear modulation, the data modulation is
Spectrum
m(t ) = b Es g (t ) 0 ≤t ≤T (5.87)
5.11.1 Complex Baseband • For frequency-hopped systems, M-ary FSK will be used, in which
Representation of FH-SS case we have
() (
m t = E exp j 2πf t 0 ≤ t ≤ T
s i ) (5.88)
• Hop period is the period when the transmit frequency is constant.

• When hop period larger than the symbol time, multiple data symbols
transmitted on each hop, this is called slow-frequency hopping.
CH05-89 CH05-90
15
• Chip refers to the tone of shortest duration.

• For slow-frequency-hopped system, chip rate = symbol rate.
• For fast-frequency-hopped system, chip rate = hopping rate.
Rc = max{Rs , Rh } (5.89)
• The tone (signal) which produced by combination of pseudonoise
(PN) code generator output and MFSK modulator output is
s (t ) = Es Re{m(t ) exp( j (2π (ζ k + f c )t + φk ))}

= Es Re{exp ( j (2π ( f i + ζ k + f c )t + φk ))} where 0 ≤t ≤T
(5.90)
CH05-91 CH05-92
min{ζ k − ζ j } ≈ MRs k≠ j
5.11 Frequency-Hopped Spread

Spectrum
5.11.2 Slow-Frequency Hopping
CH05-93 CH05-94
• Same symbol is transmitted on multiple hops.

• For combining the outputs from multiple hops, two algorithms are:
5.11 Frequency-Hopped Spread – Majority logic detector
• Hard decision on symbol is made every hope
Spectrum • Outs of different hops are combined by choosing the
symbol that appears the most often.
5.11.3 Fast-Frequency Hopping – Noncoherent combining
• Soft measure related to likelihood is used for combining
outputs.
• It related to signal energy in a given frequency bin.
CH05-95 CH05-96
16
• Jammer: intentional interferer

• If jammer spreads its power in interference over the whole spread
bandwidth, the resulting interference density is J0=J/Wss
5.11 Frequency-Hopped Spread • Received signal-to-noise ratio

SNR =
ES
Spectrum =
J0
C Rs
J Wss (5.93)
C  Wss 
5.11.4 Processing Gain =  
• Processing gain J  RS 
Wss
PG = (5.94)
Rs
CH05-97 CH05-98
17

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Modern Wireless Communications Modern Wireless Communications

Modern Wireless Communications Modern Wireless Communications

Modern Wireless Communications Modern Wireless Communications

• 5.2.1 The Spreading Equation

Modern Wireless Communications Modern Wireless Communications

5.2 Direct-Sequence Modulation • Symbol-shaping function  1 0≤t ≤T

• For a direct-sequence signal, the symbol-shaping function is

Modern Wireless Communications Modern Wireless Communications

• For DS modulation, the pulse shape is a sequence of

5.2.2 Matched-Filter Receiver

• Optimum receiver corresponds to the processing T T T

• In AWGN, the transmission performance of DS spread

Modern Wireless Communications Modern Wireless Communications

• DS modulation advantage: reduced receiver sensitivity to

Modern Wireless Communications Modern Wireless Communications

• After multiplication by de-spreading sequence, the jamming tone

• The approximate orthogonality of gj(t) and gk(t) for different time

• Additional self-orthogonality requirement that minimizes a number of

Modern Wireless Communications Modern Wireless Communications

5.3 Spreading Codes

5.3.1 Walsh-Hadamard sequences

Modern Wireless Communications Modern Wireless Communications

• To construct a Walsh-Hadamard sequence, we begin with

• In general, we may construct orthogonal sequences of length

Modern Wireless Communications Modern Wireless Communications

• Sequences having properties similar to random sequences but can

Modern Wireless Communications Modern Wireless Communications

• Define the circular autocorrelation function

• Prevent transmission of long strings of zeros and

Modern Wireless Communications Modern Wireless Communications

5.3 Spreading Codes

5.3.5 Gold Codes

Modern Wireless Communications Modern Wireless Communications

• Gold codes are created by summing the output of the two

• For select pairs of maximal-length sequences, we can

• For random sequences, we define cross-correlation of two

• If we compute the cross-correlation properties, we can get

Modern Wireless Communications Modern Wireless Communications

• The average cross-correlation energy of 2 random

5.4 The advantages of CDMA for

Modern Wireless Communications Modern Wireless Communications

• Effect on multiple-access performance when

• Received complex baseband signal of synchronous

= α1b1 Eb + η1 + Eb ∑ α k bk R1k 0≤t ≤T

Modern Wireless Communications Modern Wireless Communications

Modern Wireless Communications Modern Wireless Communications

• Complex envelope of channel impulse response is given by

• With Rc=1/Tc, the chip rate, by the convolutional sampling

Modern Wireless Communications Modern Wireless Communications

Modern Wireless Communications Modern Wireless Communications

• The final estimate of data is given by weighted sum of output

• Assumption: Transmission systems are usually designed such that

Modern Wireless Communications Modern Wireless Communications

Important features in a multiple-access system

Modern Wireless Communications Modern Wireless Communications

5.5 Code Synchronization

• Assume spreading code is transmitted repeatedly

~ • To increase the confidenceof synchronization, we form a decision

Modern Wireless Communications Modern Wireless Communications

• In flat-fading channel, a frequency shift will be happened

Modern Wireless Communications Modern Wireless Communications

• The complex baseband received signal is

Modern Wireless Communications Modern Wireless Communications