Original Article

Proc IMechE Part C:

J Mechanical Engineering Science
Experimental investigation of damage 0(0) 1–11
! IMechE 2018

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combined energetic approaches DOI: 10.1177/0954406218771102

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Ahmed Samet1,2, Yi Hui1, Mohamed Amine Ben Souf1,2 ,

Olivier Bareille1, Mohamed Ichchou1, Tahar Fakhfakh2
and Mohamed Haddar2

Abstract
In this paper, an experimental investigation of damage detection in plate-like structure using energetics approaches is
presented. Two energetics approaches are developed to localize the damage in structure at low-, medium-, and high-
frequency range. The first one is the inverse simplified energy method, which is used for the identification of the
excitation source and the detection of damage in medium and high frequencies. The second one is the curvature
method, which is used for the damage detection in the low and medium frequencies. The main novelty of this paper
is to combine these energetics approaches in order to localize the damage in all frequency bands. Experimental examples
with different characteristics of plate were performed for the validation purpose. Results show that the presented
methods can detect precisely the defects location in plate-like structures.

Keywords
Inverse problems, damage detection, inverse simplified energy method, curvature method, low, medium, and high
frequencies

Date received: 15 February 2018; accepted: 21 March 2018

Introduction method was proposed by Xiang and Liang7 to

Damage detection in structure is one of the most
important subjects in many fields of engineering.
The knowledge of the structure’s state of health and
the detection of the defects in earlier stage before
structural failure are very important which require
the development of damage detection techniques.
Structural health monitoring (SHM) technology
can be considered in the last decades as a new field
of nondestructive testing in full development. The
identification of defects has attracted a lot of attention
since there are many techniques currently available in
the literature that used SHM technology. Two general
approaches have been used by several researchers to
detect defects. The vibration-based method is one of
them, which used the dynamic behavior of the struc-
ture such as the natural frequencies, mode shapes, and
damping to show the difference of structure response
with and without defect.1–4 In addition, the modal
strain energy method has been used by Hu and Wu5
to detect the defect in aluminum plate with few mea-
sured modes shapes. Pandey et al.6 used the curvature
method to detect the location of the damage from
change in the curvature mode shapes. A two-step
detect multiple damages in plate-like structure. The
2D wavelet transform was applied to the modal
approach to detect the location of the damage in the
first step and a particle swarm optimization algorithm
was applied in second step to assess the severities of
the damage at the identified locations. Zhang et al.8
proposed a new damage detection method for struc-
tures like plate based on the curvature method using
the measurement of frequency which improves the
precision. The finite element method (FEM)9–12 was
also used for SHM and defect detection using the
structure dynamics or static responses. Ratnam
et al.13 have combined the finite element approach
and lamb wave propagation parameter for predicting
1
Laboratoire de Tribologie et Dynamique des Systèmes (LTDS), École
Centrale Lyon, Écully, France
2
Laboratoire de Mécanique, Modélisation et Productique (LA2MP),
École Nationale d’Ingénieurs de Sfax, Université de Sfax, Sfax, Tunisia
Corresponding author:
Mohamed Amine Ben Souf, Ecole Nationale d’Ingénieurs de Sfax, route
soukra km 4, Sfax 3020, Tunisia.
Email: bensouf.mohamedamine@gmail.com
2 Proc IMechE Part C: J Mechanical Engineering Science 0(0)
natural frequencies and mode shapes of cantilever
plates in undamaged and damaged conditions.
The modal analysis based on the FEM has been
used also to detect defects in various structural mem-
bers, made of isotropic or composite materials.14,15
Yan et al.16 developed a new approach based on the
finite element formulation called the extended finite
element method (XFEM) which can predict the evo-
lution of cracks in structures. The boundary element
method is also used to provide accurate results.
This approach has been used to identify the single
and multiple flaws using the static and dynamic ana-
lysis of structures.17 Rus et al.18 used this method
in composite structure to detect delamination from
static data. Furthermore, several techniques have
been proposed for the damage detection in structures,
such as Fourier analysis,19 the spectral element
method,20,21 and the time series analysis.22 The effect-
iveness of these methods has been studied with numer-
ical and experimental investigations especially for
simple applications. The second general approach
is the guided wave approaches, which used the propa-
gation of the wave in the structure to detect and char-
acterize the damage state of structures.23–25 The wave
analysis tool like WFEM has been used to identify the
damage in the framework of guided waves techniques.
Kharrat et al.26–29 used a torsional wave to detect
damage in a pipe and determine its size based on a
database of reflection.
It has pointed that there is always the limit of fre-
quency range where the specific method works. In
addition, most investigations proposed by researchers
were usually limited on the low-frequency range,
which is characterized by a weak model overlap and
a dominant resonant behavior that present limits in
the medium and high frequencies.
In order to extend the frequency domain of ana-
lysis to reach the range of medium and high frequen-
cies, so-called energy methods are often used.
The most recognized method of this class is the stat-
istical energy analysis (SEA).30 The only information
obtained on the system’s response is statistical infor-
mation. To overcome this major disadvantage of the
SEA, other methods were developed. Let us report the
work of Nefske and Sung31 which leads to a local
energy formalism, which predicts the energy density
within subsystems. Many researchers have improved
this model,32–35 leading to the inverse simplified
energy method (IMES). In this context, the IMES
can be used for the damage detection. It can be
applied in the field of SHM to ensure the permanent
surveillance of certain structures. The inverse MES
has been first used to identify the vibration sources
acting in a plate from measurement data of energy
density field.36 Recently, this technique was developed
for complex structures to identify the structural
loads37 and for structure–acoustic interaction to esti-
mate and quantify the vibration source from acoustic
measurements.38
The main novelty of this paper is to create com-
bined energetics methods for which the identification
process could stay valid for a relatively long frequency
range. Generally, the IMES tells the sources position,
whether acoustic sources or vibrational ones. In this
paper, it is used to detect damage in medium and high
frequencies. For a comparatively lower frequency
part, the curvature method is applied to detect the
damage. The twin wall corrugated polypropylene
sheet, which was chosen as the study object here, is
widely used for POS displays, merchandizing displays,
and packaging due to its lightweight and environmen-
tally friendly properties.
The numerical formulation of the combined ener-
getic approaches is presented in the next section.
In ‘‘IMES formulation’’ section, the experimental
results for a steel plate and a twin wall corrugated
polypropylene sheet are presented to validate the pro-
posed predictive tools.
Energetics approaches
In this section two energetics approaches will be
presented in order to detect the damage plate-like
structure in low-, medium-, and high-frequency
ranges. The first is the IMES which was developed
to identify the structural source and detect the
damage in medium- and high-frequency ranges.
The second approach is the curvature method,
which is used to detect the damage in low and
medium frequencies.
IMES formulation
The IMES is a vibroacoustic approach developed to
identify the excitation sources in medium- and high-
frequency ranges. It is in line with the SEA by treating
the same type of energy quantities (the energy density
W and the intensity I) ~ but differ in considering the
local aspect of these quantities. The numerical formu-
lation of the IMES for plates was developed in previ-
ous contribution: Chachoub et al.36 developed this
method for a simple plate, Samet et al.37 developed
this predictive tool for multiconnected plate regarding
the reflexion and transition coefficients between the
plates, and Samet et al.38 developed this technique
of identification for structure–acoustic interaction to
identify the vibration sources from acoustic measure-
ments. In this section a brief recall of this approach
was presented in order to extend the field of defect
detection.
Consider a free, simply supported or clamped
edges plate excited by a punctual force F. In order
to estimate the energy density field W, two kinds of
fields are introduced, the first one is the structural
direct field in coming from excitation source s
inside the system s , and the second one is the rever-
berant field  located at the boundary p of the struc-
ture @s .
Samet et al. 3

Excitation
Ω Ω source

Reverberant Direct Damage

Field Field

Figure 1. Source description. Figure 2. Identification of the excitation source and damage
detection.

Using the notations in Figure 1, the energy density

Curvature method
at a point m is given by36
The curvature method is an energetic approach
Z developed for the purpose to detect the defect in the
WðmÞ ¼ in ðsÞ Gðs, mÞd structure in the low- and medium-frequency range.

s The strain energy due to elastic deformation of a
Z ð1Þ
þ  ð pÞ u~r : n~ Gðp, mÞd@ Kirchhoff–Love plate is given by the following
@
s equation

where  is the fictitious sources, G is the green func- Z a Z b " 2 2  2 2  2  2 

D @ w @ w @ w @ w
tion in two-dimensional space,36 and in is the U¼ 2
þ 2
þ2 2
2 0 0 @x @y @x @y2
injected power derived from the plate solution39 and  2 
2
written as in ¼ pF ffiffiffiffiffiffiffi, where F is the injected load, @ w
16 Dh þ2ð1  Þ dx dy
@x@y
 is the solid density, h is the plate thickness, and D is
Eh3
ð4Þ
the plate flexural rigidity defined by D ¼ 12ð1 2 Þ. This

equation can be discretized to provide the following where w is the transverse displacement,  is the
Eh3
matrix34 Poisson’s ratio, and D ¼ 12ð1 2 Þ is the plate flexural

rigidity. For the response at a particular frequency k,

8 9 2 3 8 in 9 the strain energy is
> W1 > S11  S1ns > >  >
< = 6 7 < 1 > = Z a Z b " 2  2 2  2  2 
.. . .. .. 7: ..
> . >¼6
4 .. . . 5> . > ð2Þ
Uk ¼
D @2  k
þ
@ k
þ2
@ k @ k
: ; : in >
> ; 2 0 0 @x2 @y2 @x2 @y2
Wnm Snm 1  Snm ns ns  2 
@ k
þ2ð1  Þ dx dy
@x@y
where fWg is vector representing
 the energy densities
within the plate, Pin is vector representing the ð5Þ
injected power, ns is the injected sources, nm represents
the measurement points number, and ½S  is the (ns , If the plate is subdivided into ðNx  Ny ) subdiv-
nm ) matrix sensitivity operators. isions as shown in Figure 3, the energy associated
The IMES aims to invert equation (2). The input with the subdivision (i, j) at frequency k and its frac-
sources in the plate can then be identified from the tional energy40 is defined using equations (6) and (7)
measurement of energy densities of the structure. "
Z Z 2  2 2  2 
Then, this inverse approach is defined as follows D yjþ1 xiþ1
@2  k @ k @ k
Uk,ij ¼ 2
þ 2
þ2
8 in 9 2 3þ 8 2 yj xi @x @y @x2
 > 9  2   2 
>
> S11  S1ns W1 >
< 1 > = 6 7 <
> = 
@ k
þ 2ð1  Þ
@ k
dx dy
.. ..
¼ 6 .. .. .. 7 : . > ð3Þ @y2 @x@y
> . >
> > 4 . . . 5 >
: ;
: in ; ð6Þ
ns Snm 1    Snm ns Wnm
Uk,ij
where þ is the pseudo inverse. The IMES leads to Fk,ij ¼ ð7Þ
quantify and estimate the excitation source in the Uk
plate. The existence of damages in the plate leads to
a modification of the energy density repartition. Similarly expressions can be written for a damaged
In addition, a secondary source will appear in the plate. Considering a particular frequency range which
damage location as seen in Figure 2. includes k studied frequencies, damage index in
4 Proc IMechE Part C: J Mechanical Engineering Science 0(0)

subdivision (i, j) is expressed as Equation (7) can tell us the location of damage in
the plate with a fairly good resolution of subdivisions.

k Fk,ij
A refinement based on first results can be taken to
ij ¼ ð8Þ obtain more accurate location information. The par-
k Fk,ij tial derivatives in the equations are calculated by cen-
tral difference approximation.

Experimental results
This section deals with experimental tests for the pur-
pose to validate the ability of proposed approaches to
quantify and estimate the defect in the plate in low,
medium, and high frequencies.

Figure 3. Subdivided plate-like structure.
Experimental configuration
The experiment consists in measuring the velocity
field of the structure as a function of the frequency.
The experiment configuration is presented in Figure 4.
The system of measurement is composed of a laser
scanning head connected to a data postprocessing
Polytec PSV-400.
Figure 5 presents the experimental signal flow.
The signal of excitation is input into the shaker,
which generates the vibration of the plate. The laser
head measures the plate velocity and transfers the
information to the vibration analyzer, which studies
the vibratory behavior of the structure.
The flowchart of the numerical methodologies
for the combined energetic approaches is presented
in Figure 6. The energy density field obtained by the
experimental measurement is used to implant the
IMES method for damage detection in medium and
high frequencies. The strain energy is used to implant
the curvature method for damage detection location
in low and medium frequencies.

Experimental validation for a steel plate

IMES validation. This part deals with an experimental
Figure 4. Experimental configuration. validation of the IMES method to identify the

Figure 5. Schematic of the experimental signal flow.

Samet et al. 5

Experimental
measurement

Energy Strain
density energy

Inverse Simplified
Energy Method Curvature Method

Damage localization Damage localization

in medium and high in low and medium
frequencies frequencies

Figure 6. Flowchart of the numerical methodologies.

Experimental Extracted Inverse simulation

0 measurement data IMES Figure 8. Steel plate without defect.

Input Estimated
sources Comparison
Sources

Damage
localization

Figure 7. Organizational chart of the experimental

methodology.

Table 1. Characteristics of the plate used in this study.

Parameters Unit Value

Length L m 0.9
Width l m 0.8
Height h m 2.5103 Figure 9. IMES experimental source–identification
Young’s modulus, E Pa 210109 extraction.
Poisson’s ratio,  0.3
Solid density,  kg/m3 7800
The vibrometer laser head is located at 4.8 m from
the studied plate to measure the plate velocities on a
selected surface of (0.85 m  0.75 m). The measuring
structural source and detect the defect in steel plate. surface is discretized into 400 measuring points (20
Figure 7 presents the experimental methodology used points in the x-axis separated by dx ¼ 0.0425 m and
for the validation purpose. It consists of the applica- 20 points in the y-axis separated by dy ¼ 0.0375 m).
tion of the IMES approach using an experimental In the first step, the damage is not added to the
measurement of the energy density field as input structure. Thus, the estimated power obtained by
data, in order to identify first the excitation source the IMES simulation is compared with the exact
and second the approximate location of the damage value of the injected power to identify the location
in the structure. of the shaker. Figure 9 shows the estimated power
In this study, the structure is composed of a steel distribution that can be obtained for each one-third
plate whose mechanical characteristics are presented octave band and in this case for a central frequency
in Table 1. The structure is excited by a shaker with an equal to 1500 Hz. It can be observed that the input
injected power equal to in ¼ 15,585.107 W/m2 in power is correctly identified for both location and
position s given by X ¼ 0.485 m, Y ¼ 0.45 m as level, which proves the validity of this predictive
shown in Figure 8. tool to estimate the source of excitation.
6 Proc IMechE Part C: J Mechanical Engineering Science 0(0)

Figure 12. Damage index of steel plate around 300 Hz.

Figure 10. Steel plate with defect.

Figure 13. Maximum of damage index of steel plate in the

whole frequency range.

Figure 11. IMES experimental source–identification and

defect localization extraction.

In the next step, the damage is added in the plate. It

is a mass of 220 g located in the position Xexact ¼
0.26 m and Yexact ¼ 0.28 m as shown in Figure 10.
In this test, the plate is excited with an injected power
in ¼ 86,824.107 W/m2 located at position s given by
X ¼ 0.485 m, Y ¼ 0.45 m. The displayed result was cal-
culated in an one-third octave band with a central fre-
quency fc ¼ 1500 Hz. In this frequency band, the modal
density is high which allows using energetic approaches.
Figure 11 shows the distribution of the identified
power within the structure. The position and the level
of the estimated source are in good agreement with
the injected source. Additionally, a secondary source
is detected in the plate due to the modification of the
energy density repartition caused by the defect.
The damage in plate is well detected and clearly
appears in the exact position, which confirms the abil-
ity of the IMES approach to identify the damage in Figure 14. Polypropylene plate without defect.
Samet et al. 7

Figure 15. Frequency response in points: (a) P1: (X ¼ 0.4199 m, Y ¼ 0.328 m) and (b) P2: (X ¼ 0.169 m, Y ¼ 0.104 m).

Figure 16. IMES experimental source–identification extraction: (a) fc1 ¼ 650 Hz and (b) fc2 ¼ 1500 Hz.

the plate at medium and high frequencies. In the next

section, the damage localization in low frequencies
using the curvature methods will be presented in
order to verify the reliability of the presented methods
to detect the damage in all frequency bands.

Curvature method validation. In this section, the valid-

ation for damage localization in low frequencies is
carried out with curvature method. The one-third
octave band is chosen to define the frequency range
in equation (8). The damage index values are calculated
at each location of measurement point, using the mea-
sured strain data. Figure 12 presents the damage index
values of steel plate around 300 Hz. It can be clearly
seen that there exists a maximum around the damage
position. From Figure 13 we take notice that this value
is also the maximum in the whole frequency range.

Experimental validation for twin wall corrugated

polypropylene sheet
The IMES. In this section, the structure is composed
of a polypropylene plate (E ¼ 1.15 GPa,  ¼ 0.45, Figure 17. Polypropylene plate with defect.
8 Proc IMechE Part C: J Mechanical Engineering Science 0(0)

 ¼ 946 kg/m3), whose dimensions are L ¼ 0.8 m, measuring points (20 points in the x-axis separated
l ¼ 0.6 m, and h ¼ 0.01 m. The structure is excited by by dx ¼ 0.0385 m and 20 points in the y-axis separated
a shaker with an injected power equal to by dy ¼ 0.028 m).
36,557.107 W/m2 at a central frequency fc1 and The first step consists of comparing the estimated
22,693.107 W/m2 for fc2, at point s given by power obtained by the IMES with the exact value of
X ¼ 0.45 m, Y ¼ 0.32 m as shown in Figure 14. The the injected power. Figure 15 shows an example of the
vibrometer laser head is used to measure the plate frequency response of the velocity in two points
velocities on a selected surface of 0.77 m  0.65 m. P1: (X ¼ 0.4199 m, Y ¼ 0.328 m) and P2 :
The measuring surface is discretized into 400 (X ¼ 0.169 m, Y ¼ 0.104 m).

Figure 18. IMES experimental source–identification and

defect localization extraction. Figure 20. Damage index of steel plate around 150 Hz.

Figure 19. Evaluation of the energy: (a) measurement points, (b) x-axis, and (c) y-axis.
Samet et al. 9

Figure 22. Damage index of steel plate around 31.25 Hz.

Figure 21. Maximum of damage index of steel plate in the
whole frequency range.

As shown above, it is clear that the modal density

becomes high from 400 Hz and the uses of the MES
assumptions are allowed for the experimental valid-
ation. Figure 16 represents the estimated power dis-
tribution that can be obtained for each one-third
octave band and in this case for two central frequen-
cies fc1 ¼ 650 Hz and fc2 ¼ 1500 Hz.
From the first view, it is clear that the excitation
source is well identified for both position and level for
the two frequencies. For example, for a central fre-
quency fc2 ¼ 1500 Hz, the estimated power position is
in the right place (X ¼ 0.42 m, Y ¼ 0.315 m) with an
error of 6.67% along the x-axis and 1.56% along
the y-axis.
In the next case, the defect is added in the plate. It Figure 23. Maximum of damage index of steel plate in the
is a mass which represents 3% of the mass of the whole frequency range.
plate, located in the position Xexact ¼ 0.205 m and
Yexact ¼ 0.225 m as shown in Figure 17. the frequency band in equation (8). Figure 20 shows a
In this test, the plate is excited with an input power maximum around the damage position at a central
in ¼ 71,274.108 W/m2 in position s given by frequency of 150 Hz. But this is a vertical maximum
X ¼ 0.45 m, Y ¼ 0.32 m for a central frequency zone which coincides with the direction of structure’s
fc ¼ 650 Hz. stiffeners.
Figure 18 presents the identified power repartition From Figure 21 we take notice that this value is also
within the plate. From a first glance, the excitation the maximum in the whole frequency range. To obtain
source is well identified for both position and level. a more accurate damage position, we refined the mea-
However, the damage is not detected and this is due to sured points in the zone (0.09–0.36, 0.10–0.30 m),
the high damping of the plate. where the same analysis was done. From Figures 22
Figure 19 shows the energy evolution as a function and 23, the damage indicator shows successfully the
of x-axis and y-axis at the level of the estimated source. accurate position of defect with a refinement process.
It is clear that when one moves away from the source
the energy becomes very weak. This is due to the large
damping of the plate under study. It can be concluded
Conclusions
that when the vibrational energy is damped very much, The goal of this work has been to study the IMES and
the IMES is only able to detect the source of excitation. the curvature approaches in detecting defects from
Therefore, this can be considered as a limit of this experimental measurements within the structure in
method. all frequency domains. In this work, the damage is
presented by an added mass. This type of defect influ-
The curvature method. The validation for damage local- ences both the mass and stiffness term in the damage
ization is carried out with curvature method in this zone, but the effect of stiffness is not as much as a
section. The one-third octave band is chosen to define traditional damage. It could be represented something
10
unperceived impacted onto the structure, like the mud
hidden inside pipelines. The combined energetic meth-
ods are first applied to a homogeneous steel plate. The
IMES indicates the information of excitation, but that
of defect as well, at the medium- and high-frequency
level. The curvature method indicates the position of
defect in a lower frequency range. For the twin wall
corrugated polypropylene sheet, the inverse simplified
method tells successfully the excitation but not the
defect. The defect position is detected by the curvature
method with a refined measure mesh at low frequen-
cies. In future works, sensibility analysis of damage’s
severity will be done to investigate damage’s mass
effect. In addition, the combined energetic approaches
could be applied for a laminated composite structure.
In other words, the detection of the delamination in
thin laminated plate using the combined energetic
methods is currently being investigated.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with
respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of
this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research,
authorship, and/or publication of this article.
ORCID iD
Mohamed Amine Ben Souf http://orcid.org/0000-0001-
7271-5660
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