Chapter 1

Introduction

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1.1 Introduction:
Optical fiber sensors have now firmly established their base in wide
variety of applications. Although optical fibers were originally manufactured
mainly for use in the communication industry, they have been adapted
successfully and effectively to optical sensing devices [1.1,1.2]. Fiber optic
sensor is a device, which uses light guided within an optical fiber to detect
influence of variety of stimuli such as physical, chemical, bio- medical or any
other parameters. Optical fibers have been envisioned for sensing physical
and chemical parameters since 1966 [1.3-1.5]. Much research and
development work has been done since then with real life and industrial
applications in mind [1.6,1.7]. From an industrial point of view fiber optic
sensors are attractive because they offer excellent sensitivity and dynamic
range, compact and rugged packages, and potential for low cost and
reliability.
The modern optical fiber sensors owe their development to two of the
most important scientific advances - the laser and the low loss optical fiber.
The optoelectronics industry has brought about products such as CD players,
laser printers, bar code scanner, laser pointers etc. The fiber optic
communication has literally revolutionized the telecommunication industry by
providing higher performance, more reliable links with ever decreasing
bandwidth at low cost. Fiber optic sensor technology in turn is driven by the
development and subsequent mass production of components from both
these industries. As component prices are declining and quality improvements
are being made the fiber optic sensors show a better potential to replace
traditional sensors and evolve newer innovative applications.
Physically an optical fiber is very thin and flexible medium having
cylindrical shape consisting of three sections - core with refractive index n-i,
cladding with refractive index n2 and jacket [1.8]. The optical fiber with a core
of constant refractive index ni and a cladding of a slightly lower refractive
index n2 is known as step index fiber. This is because the refractive index
profile for this type of fiber makes a step change at the core-cladding
interface. The refractive index profile may be defined as

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 n(r) = n-i r <a (core)
= n2 r>a (cladding) ....(1.1)
where a is the core radius.
Graded index fibers do not have a constant refractive index in the core but a
decreasing core index n( r ) with radial distance from a maximum value of n1
at the axis to a constant value n2 beyond the core radius a in the cladding.
This index variation may be represented as
n(r) = n1(1-2A(r/a)«)1/2 r<a (core)
= ni(1-2A)1/2 = n2 r^a (cladding) ....(1.2)
where A is the relative refractive index difference and a is the profile
parameter which gives the characteristic refractive index profile of the fiber
core. Equation (1.2) [1.9] represents a step index profile when a = oo, a
parabolic profile when a = 2 and a triangular profile when a = 1.
Within an optical fiber, light is guided by total internal reflection. For
light guidance, two conditions must be met (i) ni should be greater than n2,
and (ii) at the core cladding interface the light ray must strike at an angle
greater than critical angle (f)c where
(3)c=sin-1(n2/ni) ....(1.3)
Although many of the applications of optical fibers are based on their capacity
to transmit optical signals with low losses, it is also desirable for the optical
fiber to be strongly affected by a certain physical parameter of the
environment. Optical fiber being a physical medium is subjected to
perturbation of one kind or the other at all the time. It therefore experiences
geometrical and optical changes to a larger or smaller extent depending upon
the nature and the magnitude of the perturbation. In communication
applications one tries to minimize such effects so that signal transmission and
reception is reliable. On the other hand in fiber optic sensing, the response to
external influence is deliberately enhanced so that the resulting change in
optical radiation can be used as a measure of the external perturbation. In
communication, the signal passing through fiber is already modulated, while in
sensing, the fiber acts as a modulator.

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 A general block diagram of fiber optic sensor configuration is as shown
in figure 1.1. It consists of an opto-electronic source, optical fibers, a
modulating element, an opto-electronic detector, a signal processor and a
read out device.

Measurand

Pi
I
Opto-electronic
source t-SL Modulating
element -
Pout Opto-electronic
H detector

Optical fiber:
I
Signal
processor

1
Read out

Fig. 1.1: Generalized configuration of fiber optic sensor

In case of simple fiber optic sensor the measurand such as

displacement, force, pressure, temperature modulates the intensity of light
propagating through the optical fiber and the modulating zone. The modulated
light changes the detector output, which can be further processed and
calibrated to give the value of the measurand. The signal S developed by the
detector, to a good approximation, is given by the relation [1.10]
S = P(X) n T (A., I) M (I, ^or X ) R (X) ....(1.4)
where P (X) is the power furnished by the opto-electronic source as a function
of wavelength X, r\ is the coupling efficiency of the input/output fibers with the
modulating element, T {X, I) is the transmission efficiency of the optical fibers
and M (I, <p or X) is the response of the modulating element, which may
modulate intensity (I), phase (<p ) or spectral distribution (X) and R (A,) is the
responsivity of the photo detector.

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 The characteristics of the light, which may be monitored in sensing
applications, include [1.11] amplitude, polarization, phase, modal distribution,
wavelength or time of flight. Such modulation of light makes possible the
measurement of a wide range of events and conditions. In recent years Fiber
Optic Sensors have found major applications in sensor technology due to
inherent advantages of optical fibers [1.12-1.13]. Initial penetration of fiber
optic sensors into markets has been driven by performance advantages.
Some of these advantages are highlighted in table 1.1.

/ Table 1.1 Advantages of fiber optic sensors \

• Passive (All dielectric)

• Lightweight
• Small size
• Immunity to electromagnetic interference
• High temperature performance
• Large bandwidth
• Environmental ruggedness to vibration and shock
• High sensitivity
I • Electrical and optical multiplexing /

From the point of view of industrial application, fiber optic sensors

possess the virtues of excellent sensitivity, dynamic range, low cost, high
reliability, immunity to electromagnetic interference, electromagnetic pulses,
and radio frequency interference, small size, and low weight. Almost all the
parameters needed for industrial process control (e.g. temperature, pressure,
strain, fluid level, flow rate, displacement/position, vibration, pH, electric and
magnetic field, voltage and current etc.) can be measured or monitored by
fiberoptic sensors [1.11-1.14].

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1.2Aim and Objectives:
In view of the wider scope and increasing importance of the fiber optic
sensor technology the aim of the present work was to develop intensity
modulated displacement sensors using plastic fibers and explore their
different applications. The work has been carried out with following objectives:
1. To carry out a literature survey on intensity modulated Fiber Optic
Displacement Sensors (FODS), their performance characteristics,
different configurations and parameters influencing performance and
prepare a comprehensive report.
2. To evolve a generalized mathematical model and develop a simulation
software for the study of the behavior of fiber optic displacement
sensors.
3. To perform several simulation experiments for studying the
performance characteristics of different configurations of FODS and
study the influence of design parameter variations and fabrication
tolerances subsequently leading to optimum design.
4. To validate the simulation results with experimental data.
5. To design and develop a PC based test bench for characterizing the
FODS.
6. To study various applications of FODS such as digital micrometer,
thickness variation measurement and respiration rate measurement
and develop prototype units.
7. To design, fabricate and characterize fiber optic pressure and load cell
sensor based on diaphragm deformation.
8. To demonstrate the applicability of developed fiber optic sensors for
use on a mobile robotic platform.
Extensive literature survey was carried out at the beginning, for the
conceptual understanding of fiber optic sensor technology, different types of
FOSs their advantages and limitations and fields of application. Most of the
promising features of FOS lie in superposition of advantages arising from the
optical sensor technology and physical flexibilities and compactness of fiber.
The literature survey helped in understanding the basic principles and
comparative performance analysis of optical fiber sensors. The exhaustive

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report prepared out of this survey has been well referred during present work
and would serve as a reference for the future studies also.
There are various configurations of the fiber optic sensors, which are
used in the process of sensing the micro-displacement [1.13,1.14]. The list of
parameters characterizing the sensor performance is large. For efficient
working of the sensor, the process of the parameter optimization is crucial.
Device parameter optimization with experimental techniques is mostly carried
out by logical consideration, but it is not always practical. So by knowing the
theoretical principles involved in the working of the sensor, the design steps of
the sensor can be formulated as a function of these parameters. It is easy to
predict the characteristics of sensor for various conditions and with various
parameters by employing the well-known tool of mathematical modeling and
computer simulation. Simulation models are the most cost-effective way to
study such deployments. The present work involves the development of
simulation package for study of fiber optic displacement sensor. Different
modules of the package are based on the mathematical formulation
characterizing the sensor properties. The simulated results are validated
experimentally. For experimental work a PC based test bench is designed and
developed in the laboratory.
1.3 Work presentation:
The work presented in this thesis deals with the modeling, simulation
and experimental study of FODS. Simulation software and the test bench are
the two important tools developed and used extensively during this work. The
mathematical model developed for inclined two-fiber displacement sensor is
one of the original contributions and was very useful in the study of
performance parameter of sensors with different geometries. Number of
application gadgets like digital micrometer, thickness variation measurement
of reflecting plates and the respiration rate measurement units were
developed. Based on the FODS principle a pressure transducer and a load
cell that relies on diaphragm deformation were developed. Finally the
developed fiber sensors were used on a mobile robotic platform built during
the present work. The thesis is organized into seven chapters, which present
the complete picture of the work carried out.

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 Chapter 2 presents the literature review on the concepts concerned
with fiber optic sensors. A detailed survey on the fiber optic displacement
sensors and their applications is given in this chapter. The different
geometries of the fibers used to carry light within modulation zone are
presented. Intensity modulation suffers from fluctuations in light source
intensity and variations in the optical attenuation of the fiber and sensor
coupling. The referencing techniques used to overcome these problems are
summarized in this chapter. The chapter ends with the present scenario of
optical fiber sensors.
For the conceptual understanding of FOS there was a need of
developing a model for two-fiber sensor. Several mathematical models of
displacement sensor consisting of bifurcated fiber bundle are reported in
literature [1.13,1.14]. The use of large diameter fiber with some angle of
inclination is also suggested as FODS [3.15]. However, there was no model
reported to study extensively the performance of inclined two-fiber
displacement sensor. Moreover there has been a requirement of taking into
account various practical deviations likely to be introduced during
manufacturing / fabrication of the sensor probe as well as its subsequent use.
Hence a unified mathematical model was developed for inclined two-fiber
intensity modulated displacement sensor and is described in chapter 3. The
model takes into account the geometrical parameters such as separation
between the transmitting (T) and receiving (R) fibers, offset between T and R-
fiber tips, relative inclination (either designed or induced) between T and R-
fiber, and the reflector tilt and fiber parameters such as core radius (a),
numerical aperture (NA). Further based on this mathematical model a
software package has been developed for the simulation of sensor
performance. The details of the software are described in this chapter. The
effects of these parameters on the performance of FODS are studied using
this developed package. FODS incorporates the displacement of reflecting
target in its operation. One such application of FODS, which takes into
account the deformation of reflecting target, is the load cell. The second part
of the chapter deals with the principle and the structure of fiber optic load cell.
Finite element modeling was used to analyze the deformation produced in the
diaphragm and a ray-tracing model was developed to estimate the resulting

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intensity variations. Details of both these approaches are also given in this
chapter.
Chapter 4 deals with experimental studies on fiber optic displacement
sensors. A PC based test bench has been designed and developed.
Technical details of the test bench including optical to electrical and electrical
to optical converter circuits signal conditioning, interfacing and driver and
display are given in the chapter. Experimental studies on different
configurations of FODS are included in this chapter. A comparison between
the simulated and the experimental results is presented. Several prototype
gadgets based on different applications of the fiber optic displacement sensor
such as digital micrometer, position and thickness variation measurement and
respiration rate measurement were developed during the present work and
are described.
Chapter 5 presents the structure of fiber optic load cell, its design
consideration, experimental setup, effect of material and thickness and testing
of FOLC based electronic weighing machine is presented. In the second part
the chapter design fabrication and testing of fiber optic pressure sensor probe
for differential air pressure measurement is presented.
For in application testing of the sensor, a working environment in the
form of a mobile platform has been designed and built. Chapter 6 presents the
details of the sensors mounted on the mobile robotic platform and their
performance. Finally the thesis concludes with summarizing the achievements
made during the research and application potential for the developed sensors.
Directions for future development are appended.
With this brief introduction to the work done, the next chapter gives an
account of the literature review on fiber optic sensor technology.

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1.1 Eric Udd, "An overview of fiber optic sensors", Rev. Sci. Instrum, 66(8),
August 1995, pp.4015-4030.
1.2 K.T.V. Grattan, Dr. T. Sun "Fiber optic sensor technology: an overview"
Sensors and Actuators 82(2000) 40-61.
1.3 Menadier C, C. Kissinger, H. Adkins. "The Fotonic Sensors", Instruments
and control systems. Vol.40 (1967) pp.114-120.
1.4 Frank W.E. "Detection and measurement device having a small flexible
fiber transmission line'" U.S. Patent No. 3,273,447.(1966).
1.5 Kissinger CD. "Fiber optic proximity probe"' U.S. Patent No. 3,327,584.
(1967).
1.6 Friebele E.J. Askins C.G., Bosse A.B. Kersy A.D. Patrick H.J., Pogue
W.R., Putnam M.A. Simon W.R., Tasker F.A. Vincent W.S. and Vohra S T .
"Optical fiber sensors for spacecraft applications'" Smart Mater. Struct. 8(
1999)pp.813-838.
1.7 Berthold J.W. "Overview of fiber optic intensity sensors for industry", Proc.
SPIE O-E / Fibers87-88, San Diego, Calif., 1987.
1.8 Ghatak Ajoy, Thyagarajan K. Introduction to fiber optics. Cambridge
university press (1998).
1.9 Senior John M., Optical fiber communications. Prentice Hall of India
(1998).
1.10 R.P. Khare, Fiber optics and optoelectronics (Oxford university press, New
Delhi 2004).
1.11 B.Culsaw and J. Dakin, Eds, Optical fiber sensors: Principles and
Components, Vol.1. (Artech, Boston, 1988).
1.12 B.Culsaw and J. Dakin, Eds, Optical fiber sensors: Systems and
Applications, Vol.2 (Artech House, Norwood, 1989).
1.13 E.Udd,(edited) Fiber optic sensors: An introduction for Engineers and
Scientist, (Wiely,New York, 1991).
1.14 G.L.Mitchell, in Fiber optic sensors: An introduction for Engineers and
Scientist, edited by E. Udd (Wiley, New York, 1991).

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