Achieving Success in Second Language Acquisition BETTY LOU LEAVER, CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY FazSSi i & i i ‘2 -~ i Bud a 4| Preview i ‘This chapce will ask you to think about a aumnber of things that we associate with language sty With te exception of some “natural language leaner,” studess who sucezed at language study usually pla seir ema ip advance and chock theie progres along thew, fine-tuning as they go. They lok at language learning not ‘only as something tbat 3s accomplished inthe classroom duting & prtcnlar couse, hut os lifelong acdvty, if noc commitment, and as leaning that they can werk on in many places, even on their ov, Some of the questions you will be asked to consider inthis chaper sxe: ‘+ Why am I studying this foreign Language? You will benefit most rom language stacy if you orent your leming activities around your reasoo for studying the language. You may, ofcourse, overtime discover oer reasons for contiaing to saad. + What s foreign language study? You probably know wht foreign Janguage couse i, in general, but have you hough! of foreign language stody in txme that go beyond tho classroom and he toxtbook? + How is studying a language as an adult different from studying i 28 2 ‘eile? You may tnd that your experiences in your schcol classes dif quite radically fom your uivesityexpeviences, Some ofthat i because of ‘edacatonal level. Thee aze other zearons, 00, including, fr example, the fat that in many ways adults lear differently from children, + How should { plan my language study for this course? This is 2 very Important question, because planning i often at the rot of your sucess. Poe planning results in effersthat~ while not wasted ~ could have been pt to benerwe, + How long should I study a foreign language? The answer to this question depends on your sswers to many ofthe previous questions, The beter you need ce want wo know a foreign language, te Jonge you will nee fo study it ‘There are some statistics tht show how long it takes a speaker of English io -eech various levels of sil (we call tut proficiency) in varios lengueges. Youcan use those sass as a yardstick, or you can make a decision based on some otter crievion more closely related to your plans for furure lengua + How do make language earning 2 part of my life in the future? One Jnguage course is not, usurpesingty, sufficient for language learning, but ‘even acolection of courses less helpful, in general, han fully thought-out\* and cohesive progrem that inchudes such varied components s3 coursework, sud sbroad, independent study, onside reading, Internet suppoxt se of 4 native speaker, practic, foreign work assignments, nteraships, and arange | of other opportunitie and activites designed to improve your language | proficiency ecorerecninncinceasaoem en eciamnimaey he nutepoge oP iatiadage study = Why are you studying a foreign language? There are probably neary ss maty aver to tne question asthe ae Sade in your asso, Take UG soe ef the eaten ether sdect ave gene scying 9 fig «mgt Vary ely, your eons) eos be found among them Gaining skills fora job Gaining access to foreign bodies of knowledge ‘Traveling abroad Studying abroad ‘Working abroad ‘School sequicement Personal edification Interest in linguistics Parenial influence Becoming farmitar with your bertage ‘Understanding people in your neighborhood : Maintaining knowledge Gaining job skills ‘There are many different kinds of jobs that require forcign language oils. The number of jobs that regnice language skills is growing as the world ecomes smaller. Moreover, many jobs that do not require language skills do tenefit ftom workers wo have them. In other words, having a high level of ‘foreign-language proficiency can sometimes help You get tie job you want over ‘other bighly qualified candidates. Some of these jobs ure in your own country; ‘other ae abroad. Jobs in your own country Some obs in your own county require alow level ofan guage kills ‘ese might be jobs that require you to ask repedtive questions apd undetstand nge of standard enswers in & second language. One example woul be tbe esiton of socurty guard fn a setting witha diverse language population. Otter jobs reauire a vey high level of language sks These might be jobs tia ask 00 to lnterpret what someone ftom ancthor culture really means ot Planning frsign language study interact with native speakers in cosstantly changing situations. An example of the former would be an interpreter at un intergovernmental negotiations table; an ‘example ofthe latter would be a secretary in the headquarters of an international company. ‘Some positions do not require foreign-language skills, but the employers con- sider the skills to be of value to the company or organization. In these cases, the employee with language skills is more likely to be promoted or given coveted sssignmenis. Sometimes, too, the employer considers Ianguage skills important ‘enough to pay a bonus of some sort to employees who reach specified levels of language proficiency. Jobs abroad ‘While some students decide take foreign-language courses because they want to study abroad, others learn of work-abroad opportunities once they ae in foreign-language classes, Historically, a number of companies based in English-speaking countries have offered internships abroad, and a number of foreign companies have opened their doors to interns who speak their language sulficieaily well to assist with various business activities. More and more businesses with foreign offices are requiring that an increasing, portion oftheir personnel be fluent in the local language. General Blectc, for ‘example, considers foreign-language skills to be very important for its employees and language proticiency can often he the key ingredient as to why one employee ‘ges hired over another (Mears. 1997). Learning 2 ‘anguage to enhance performance ona job mieuns hat the language willbe a tool for you to use at work. Such a reason for language study is one cxample of “instrumental motivation” (see chapter 3 for more information about ‘motivation in genera). Gaining access to foreign bodies of knowledge “Traditional foreign-language majors often end up in literature o€ lin uistic racks. For both of these areas of study, language skills are needed. If you really lke foreign liceraruee, you will find your enjoyment much enlzanced and your understanding greatly refined if you can read the literature in its original language without iespediment. If you enjay linguistics and the science of how languages are constructed and evolve, you will find greater understanding and a stronger base for generalizations if you have a very good understanding of the structure ang evolution af atleast one language other than your own, If you ca also speak thst language, you will gain insights into linguistics that theory alone ‘il aot give yous Non-majors who have studied a foreign language in depth are students who ‘want greater insights into foreign research, theory, and contributions in any num ber of disciplines. Future scientists lke to know shat their counterpars in other ‘countries ate doing without having to wait for articles and books to be translated6 LEaaNne: or cited. History, political science, and are ar felds that overlap very closely with foreign-language study. Being able to read about these areas in original works, talk to foreign practitioners, and/or publish your own views either at home or abroad have beea motivating goals and experiences for many foreign-language students, : ‘Traveling abroad While many people do travel abroad without knowing the language of the countsies that chey will be visiting, most will tell you that they wished they had leamed some of the language before going tere. If you are simply « tourist abroad, itis often possible to get by with English alone, given that English is typically the language used for intemmational business and tourism, However, ander such circumstances, you will see mostly the surface phenomena ofaland~its architecture, its museums, and perhaps some of its customs. Needing sn interpreter to communicate with citizens signf.cantly reduces the amount of communication and kind of relationship that is possible. It is having a shared language that leads to a true understanding of a country by a foreigner, Further, even the person who is only interested in tourism may stil find the need foraccess ‘othe local language from time to time. After all, aot everyone everywhere speaks English, and unforeseen circumstances do swallow up a tongue-tied tourist from time to ime, ©" Studying abroad Anyone who is planing to study abroad ina non English-speaking country is very likey to bea student of foreign languages already, tough bere aus cases in wich stents go abroad to insruions and programs where they can “squeak "without te loca anguage. This tater group i nssing Out on tenieadous opportinities, They wil not ave access tothe loal cuit, They ‘vill spend much ie ina place enc come back knowing litle about Shidents with lover levels of foreign-language profisieney do not make as many relative ins n proficiency from study abroad experience as do students ‘ith higher levels. Up to a point, the higher the language proficiency when one 30% abroad, tbe more one can learn about the culture and achieve in improved language skis inthe same amount of texe~ up toa professional level of pro ficiency (Brecht, Davidson, and Ginsburg, 1993). At th highes levels of pro- ficiency, however those asocited with professional-tevcl ability ~aditional sty abroad creed out in the typical fashion of being in a clssroom wit other foreigners doesnot sem to make significant iference in reir to measurable proficiency gan and the sciocutural value can be obtained trough finmer- sion work with immigrant communities at home (Bembard,cifed in Ehren 2002), Rathe, study abroad needs to take the form of foreign-depree work Plasing foreign langue study (Leaver, 2003a) or instructed study at home with targeted, short-term assign- ‘ments abroad (Shekhtman, 2003b). (More information on issues of the nasite and valve of study abroad for high-level leamers can be found in the epilogue to this volume.) ‘School requirements or recommendations Some programs, for obvious reasons, require students to smdy a for- cign language. One example might be a degree in intemational relations, Per- hnaps this is the zeason that you are studying one, What proficiency you will acquire in the language, in this case, will depend on how many semesiers your Institution requires, how well you succeed in the courses, nd how interested you are in exploring the use of the Janguage outside the classroom. Even if you did not want to take a foreign language and feel that you are being forced into it by your institution, advice om language learning provided in this book can help you bee successful and gain some enjoyment from your classes. Personal edification Some students ate very interested in foreign cultures. The more they study these cultures, the more they realize that in order to understand them, they need to have access to their literature, at, music, and other cultural mentifects and sociofacts (and maybe even to plan one or more tips there). The desper you 20, the more you will need foreign language skills, Knowing about the word and tke people in it can be fascinating in and of itself. In this case, iis difficult to say whether the language is tool (instrumental mouation) or a inechanista for understanding and being accepted by natives of | ‘the foreign culture (integrative motivation, Integrative motivation pushes students {0 bond with members ofthe foreign culture; itis, in many cases, a desire to act like and be accepted as a member of the culture, Interest in linguistics Some stdens are facia by lingincsandangusges. They sy one language ter another, develop eally good language learning kills and with timetrecome plygiis. Ofcourse, sme angagesofpolyglts wl estrone od ober languages wil be weak. woof the authors ofthis volume are polyglot. One has studied seventeen tanguages, has been tested at professional fluency (Gnd highes) ig ive of thers te other languages range from nascent oUmiled srorking ronedge as typical ofa poyglon. Se does much wodk overseas her kxowiedge of many amgunges opens doors of al sorts, The ster bas worked vv aoghages fom allover the world Boh as a nguit and n helping etersJeam them. Her understanding of how languages are learned is enfianced by hee ‘experience with a wide range of language types. Parental interest Some students study « particular foreign language “because my pars ‘ents made mne doit.” Parents have a number of reasons for wanting heir children ‘o study a foreign language. These include the enhancement of career options that comes with foreign language skills, the parents’ own enjoyable experiences in foreign-language leaming, and family heritage, among many other reasons. Even if you feel that you are being “forced” to study a language that wes “picked ‘out” for you by your parents, this bok can help you be a successful language Teamex. In the process, you might even find thaz you really do lke the lan- guage you are studying. (After al, you do have some of your parents’ genes in you!) Familiarity with heritage Students whose heritage is other than that ofthe country in whick they are living are often interested in learning abovt their relatives and ancestors. While ‘one can feam much from the study of culture alone, acquiring high-level language proficiency can help tremendously in understanding one’s heritage. These skills ‘pen doors tothe liteatute wl uke people ofthe parent nation, They also provide 8 conduit to a culture thet, if you are a heritage learner, belongs 10 you and has shaped who you are today whother you are aware of it or not Studying the language provides insights not only into te foreiga culture but ito youe own Kia clare, as weil. The history of your relatives and the eultare from witich they ‘emanated becomes more alive, understandable, and rich when you can access i, using the foreign language, ‘Understanding the neighbors Some students tive in neighborhoods where a foreign language domi- nates. For example, in Selina California, Spanish can he heard in as many estab- lishments as English, and on the eastside of town English is sometimes iarcly useful at all for communication. A great many students study Spanish, then, 0 understand their neighbors, Another example is Secretary of State Colin Powell, who learned to speak Yiddish while working in a ewish-owned baby-equipment store in New York City ci Being in a two-language community often dictates what a student's second Janguage will be. (Additionally, tere are lots of opportunites to practice the Janguage outside of ciass.) This is equally tae for students who live in border towns in Burope, Frequently, borders and languages ere permeable. Without the Planing fosige-tangoage stody CASE STUDY Probiem Saron has just earned that she must take a foreign language in ced o complete ‘her university requirements. She had two yeas o Spanish in seeendary schoo! and absolutely hated it~ and she barely passed, What is se (© do? Possible solutions 7 (4) Tecould be that Shaton and Spanish just id ot get shong. Ta that ase it night De beter to stat over with «new language and anew atitude. Sho could choose French, lalan, or Portugues, if she thinks part ofthe problem was her aptitude for languages. fn his way, she will be able to make use of some ofthe common lements between these languages and Spinish: the genet graramaticl structure, some cognate word, andthe like, Ths wil give her itl bit ofa head stat and ‘nay be just what she needs vo succeed this ime. (2) Sharon can decide to continue with Spanish. There are some good reasons for this I she can remember some of her Spanish, she will already havea basis fr continuing and if she rememsers enough fo skip a course or two, it will ake her Jess time to get through the requirement dan If she starts over with & new language ‘Sharon should analyze what Mppenelin high school. Pechaps hex problea as 8 leaming syle incompatibility withthe teacher; tis may aot be te case with bee inivesity teaches(s). Maybe the problem was lck of learning sstegies; she can ‘hea lean some learning strategies (like the ones presented inthe volume) and sot herself up for success ths time around Figure 11 second language, everyday living becomes more complicated. In some cases, some of the second language is acquired through osmosislike processes (see also chapter 4, ego boundaries); ia others, either tis aot leamed, or leasing must be done the hard way, by classroom. Maintaining knowledge Anyone wo studies @ language has invested much time and effort into acquiring knowledge and proficiency. Ths is even more te ease for thse ‘who begin studying foreign langueges when they are young children. One reason to continue studying a foreign language is to protect this investment. Its far 00 ‘asy to forget a foreign language and re-learning does not always come as easily 4s e-learning some other subjects. 2 mens ae Sages a ER The nature of language study ‘The second question that you can ask is: what is foreign language study? Some experts consider that language leaming consists of acquiting four0 nuaawive He skills ~ reading, writing, listening, and speaking — and four sets of enabling knowledge ~ grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, and cultural understanding, ‘The former ate the means for developing communicative competence, or the ability to use the language for communication with native speakers io authentic situations. The later are the building blocks that you wil! need in order fo acquire any one of the fourlanguage sills. Some learning strategies wil work forall seven of these objectives. Others will be pertinent to only specific skills or enabling knowledge. 80, let us look at each of the skills fom the point of view of what it is, what the sols of enabling knowledge are, and what Kinds of strategies can be best used to become proficient at that skill (Specific srategies are discussed in chapter 3.) Reauling is termed a receptive skill; the other receptive skills listening, (You might have heard reading and listening zefeced to as “passive” skills. That {s a misnomer, There is nothing passive at all about learning to vead and listen well: both require active processing skill.) What “receptive” mteans is that the ‘ler ceecives input from a writer, Rarely does the reader have the opportunity te question te author about what he or she really had in mind when writing @ text. However, in reading, «reader can, at least, sead he text multiple times in order to make sense oft Reading consists essentially of decoding and imerpretive skills, Decoding at 8 simple level is a matter of matching symbols (esters, characters) © sounds andlor words. At a very high level, decoding is 2 matter of interpreting social consciousness from words, Jn ordes to read any kind of text, readers must decipher symbols. English speakers genenily have an easier time decoding Latina alphabets (eventhough Some letters may look a litle different than non-romaa alphabets, such a3 Arabic, Georgian, Cyrille, or Chinese, There are about three dozen different writing systems in the world, including alphabets, syllabares (a set of graphic symbols cach of which cepresents a syllable inthe language} and other kinds of waiting systems. Some writing systems encode from left o right, others from right to left and yet others from top to bottom. Bach new script can pose acallenge to. brain already habituated in one or another type. Decoding takes many forms. One decodes letter into meaningful sounds. One dovodes foreign-language words into the things and cetions they describe, One slecodes full sentences and texts into interrelated units of meaning. How difficult message decoding is depeads on how saturated the message is with sociocuttural Schemata, hew sophisticated the writing of the author is, Bow much the author {implies rather than states directly, and how dliferently text organization differs from one's native language text structure (i.e, where the ideas come ia the text in the beginning or ‘ater, highly convoluted and cireuitous structure or one that : Planning foreign tnguage study js linear and stated up front, one with conclusions of without, with repetition of ideas or without, with introductions or without). To be able toread wel, you will need to know alot of words, and you will aged ‘to know the grammar rules. That is the minimum enabling knowledge. You will also need to know the soripts ofthe language (i. formulaic exchenges, such the ‘way people interact ina telephone call or what goes on and gets said ata geocery ‘store ~ while oral in nature, they are reflected intents writen in an informal style about everyalay life), Une way native exis are onyanized (something Linguists call discourse competence), and how texts differ according to gente-specific ways of. ‘writing, For example, newspaper articles are written very differently from science fletion, and so oa. ‘The list below contains afew tips for becoming good atreading, Following the list is an explanation of how to put these tips into action. Read a lot ‘Lear about text organization, [Learn writing conventions, Explore genre differences Develop kaowledge about the target culture (and the world in general). Extensive reading To become a proficient reader, you will need to spend a lot of time reading. One of the most important findings shout acquiring good reading peo ficiency ts tha time on task is Yery important. In short, the more you read, the better you will read, Im extensive reading, however, you will probably make the most progress if you carefully choose the level of text you are eading, Ite text too simple, you ‘may [eum some new factual information and gain some reading speed, but you will not increase your knowledge of vocabulary and structure and, therefore, will make limited progress in guining proficiency in reading. Likewise if youchoose & ‘ext that is too far above your level, you will also impede your progress in geining proficiency because you will be spending reo much dime :rying to gure out whet tho text means. The best text is the one that is just a lite beyond your comfort ‘ange. Then you will be able to use the text effectively to take the next siep in proficiency development. ‘Text organization You can improve your reading significantly by leaming all you can sbout how various kinds of written materials in your foreign language are orga- nized, Are they organized simileriy to American English, where one starts with a ‘opie paragraph and topie sentence that gets developed by adding details? Or are ‘hey organized lke tents in Persian, in which a topic is repeated seversl times in circular fashion, with each iteration adding new information? Or i the text orga nization unique in some other way? As new language learners, se often approacha exanwnse 4 foreign text with the same expectations we have for texts in our own Janguage, and it can be very confusing for us when there are significant differences in the ‘ways in which thought is eacoded between languages. ‘Writing conventions Punctuation isone writing convention, and whileit seems ikea simple thing. habits are hard to break. Even Very advanced students often make mistakes {n panctuadion. Just as earning (o punctuate in your own language meant leara~ ing to pay attention to details that perhaps did not scem entirely meaningful, so Teaming to punctuate in a foreign language means learning to psy attention to language-specific details ~ and to notice and remember where punctuation rues differ. For example, in American English, when making a citation, the final period gors inside the close-quotation mark. In most European languages, inclad- ing British English, it goes outside the close-quotation mark, There are similar Gifferences in the use of footnotes, dashes, placement of commas, and capitaliza- tion, ‘There are other kinds of writing conventions, some formal, some vey informal ‘These can be marks, omitted ferters, or ways io indicate an obscenity. Rorexample, {in American personal letters andi notes, the marks XxxO00 mean igs and kisses, ‘Omitted letters often occur ia words that we might not want to say aloud, e.g. dn and fk, Anoiber way of expressing the later obscenity is by use of a combination of marks such as !*#l!, Similar marks oan also be used to express ‘omprise or hitting. The interpretation is eitutional, Other langusges aloo have these Kinds of writing conventions, and you will get to know them as you read ‘Yetotherkinds of writing conventions have todo with the way textis organized. For example, English is written from left right, Arabic from sight left, and (Chinese from top to bottom, Geare differences ‘You will become a competent reader, indeed, if you explore the var- ‘ous genres and how they diifer in specific ways from the general text organiza tion pattéms. For example, literary toxts ato typically structured difterently and use different grammar and voeabulery than do newspaper texts, Even within a newspaper, there are different genres: sports reports, weather forecasts, political commentaries, and so on and so forth Cultural and world knowledge We calf cultural and worid knowledge background seliemata (pieces of information that you kaow that you can use in learning new information). This is particularly important for developing reading skills. The more you know about the world, the better you will be able to understand factual information vitten aboutit, wells authors" opinions about. The same is true for thetarget culture, Planning foreign langue study ‘The more you know about the culture, the better you will be able to understand texts that are highly imbued with cultural values, ideas, and ways of doing things. Writing Writing is dhe opposite of reading Instead of interpreting audiors’ meanings, you become the autor and need 0 express your ideas in ways such that others can interpret your meanings accarately. This means that writing is a productive si, whereas reading isa recepive skill. In writing, unlike i reading, ‘ne doeshave contro over the speed of production andhe contentof the message. Of course, where tbe alphabets ciferent from tha of your native language, you will need a lor of practice writing inthe foreign alphabet before you can expect to have any kind of speed in writing. “Wiiting isthe opposite of readin in another vay, to, in tat good wlting is a tnatte of encoding yourthoughts into symbols, words, and texts that communicate ‘what you want to say, whereas reading required decoding, As with reading, the cnsbling knowledge for being able 1 write in a foreign Language consists of Koowing a Jot of words and having 2 good command of gremumas. I is also imposant to know what che script (formulas) ofthe language are so you can decide whether or not or haw to use them. Keep in mind tke Following . One learns to write by wniting . Weng lone is generally not enough. You will need to lear writ- ing conventions, style requirements, and genre differences for your Tanguage . Ove leams to write by reading, . Good reading strategies can be good writing strategies, Writing by writing ‘Writing in any language ~ your owa or a foreign one ~is a skill. AS with any ski, proficiency requires knowledge and practice ~ much practice. Use every opportnity you can to writ, whether it is ip wiking notes in class, leaving note for fiend, or writing to a pen-pal. Perhaps your course work will inclade composition, a task that is not as often required in foreign-language courses as perhaps it should be. You certainly do aot have to wait for your teacher 10 assign you a writing task, Write compositions ofall sorts, even short stories and poetry, if you are so inclined and so talented, and ask your teacher or a native speaker to correct them for you. In learning to write by writing, nach of the initiative is yours ‘More than writing alone Just as simply writing noves to your friends probably did not make {you a good writer in your ative language, 50, to, simply wating by itself will ot make you a proficient writer in the foreign language. Writing, infact, has6 LEARNING been reported by many high-level language users as being one of the most diff- cult skils to acquire. You will need to learn writing conventions (see the earlier section on writing conventions for your language), and you will need to leara the requirements of various styles and genres. Different genres (newspaper articles, journal publications, fiction} require differing kinds of annotation, as well as dif ferent choices im words and text organization. In English, there are some helps the APA Siple Manual (American Psychological Asscciation, 2001); the Chicago ‘Manual of Seyle (University of Chicago Press stall, 2003); and Elements of Style (Steunk, White, and Angell, 2000) are just a few. For most ofthe languages you will be studying, there may be style manuals for native speakers; some of these ray be adaptable for your use as a student of foreign iangvages. You may have noticed (or been taught) genre differences in reading. However, being able to recognize themt is not the same as being able to produce them. For production, tone needs muct practice, which takes you back to the earlier strategy: lear to waite by writing. ‘Writing strategies ‘The things that you Jearned in tho previous section about how to be.a ‘good reader will also work for becoming a good writer. in fut, the better a reader ‘you become, the beter awriter you will be, and conversely, the beter a writer you become, the beter a reader you will be because you will star to undersiand more completely the neture of text siructure and writing conventions in your foreign laagvage. Listening Like reading, listening is a receptive, though not a passive, skill In the case of listening, we have litte control over what comes our way in terms of auditory input. Moreover, more often than not, in real life, we have litle control ‘overthe speed at which we receive the input ot the numberof repetitions, i an, we ge: At home, though, we often have the option of replaying an audiotape. film, DVD, of interactive computer lesson. In this way, itis possible to gain ‘modicum of control over the input, at ieast temporarily. ‘There are a number of strategies that you can use to build listening skills, ‘More of these will be discussed in future chapters, when you can put thea into the contest of wat kind of learner you are. In general, chough, listening skails are aequired by putting yourself in positions where you can hee real lan guage in progress. For planning purposes, you might consider how that ean best . by making the most of study abroad; or . by looking for listening opportunities at home. Planning foreign-language sy Listening abroad If you have the opportunity for study abroad, especially once you have acquired a basic sot of language ski, take it and make the most of it. Go ‘out ~ anywhere and do anything). Go to movies and the theatet. Go to parties. Eavesdrop on fellow bus rders and make small talk with shopkeepers, Take 2 Jong walk with # new friend, Inerview e range of people an topics tha intexest ‘you, Watch television, Listen to the radio ~ and to muse. Listening at home ‘Whether or not you go on study abroad, then consider where you ‘might have the chance to hear authentic language use around you. Porbsps you can develop friendships in the local émigré community. Look for local thesters that show flms from countries where the language you sre studying is spoken, There is usually some way, given a litle thought, that access to authentic speech ccan be acquired. You can tse listen to radio via the Internet. Voice of America and BBS are also available on the Internet in dozens of languages. Some aniver- sities have access to SCOLA broadcasts; these are regularly televised shows of « variety of genres from around the world, Sometimes university departments have \weekly roundtables where the foreign language is used. From time to time, some Toreign-language departments bring in guestlecturers who make presentations in the foreign language. Speaking Speaking is another productive skill; as in writing, we encode lan guage, though more rapidly. We have few opportinites to slow down oF repent vitoout sounding uacertain or foreign In encoding messages into words, ea ten0es, and ents, webaveto use suficendy clear phonetic forms that imerloeutors understand us. ‘As with other skills, the enabling knowledge that supports good speaking Includes building 2 good lexical reserve (i. a lage vocabulty) and using proper _gremmatical formas regularly enough so that mistakes nd errors donot interfere ‘with communication. At higher levels, of cours, you wil need 0 exercise great precision in your choice of words and sophistication in your choice of sutures, nd cultural knowledge will become even more insportant. Specific strategies for developing speaking skills will be discussed in sub- sequent shapers. Listed below are a few that you might think about right . Speatea loi . Read voraciously : ‘Work on acceat reduction 1s6 Leaaning ‘Speak by speaking Muchof learning tospeak involves habit formation. Habits are formed bby doing the same thing over and over. In this case, talking about the same or similar topics over and over, and using some of the same terms and structures, ‘can do much to build smooth and easy speaking skills ~ at least, on those topes. Sinmiarly, using new structures and terminology over and over in a range of Afferent contexts will also build fuent speech. Read voraciously (One might be tempted (as we were, above) to say that one learns to speak by spesking, as we have said about other skills, and that would be true in general, However, research studies are beginning to show someting clse that is quite interesting, Many good speakers did not acquire theie speaking skills by ‘Jot of speaking practice; rather, they acxquired them by doing a fot of reading (Badawi, 2002; Leaver, 2003a), thea using what they had read in speaking. Accent reduction Listeaig to someone with heavy accent tlk can be very ising You have grobably ‘elt some discomfort in speaking to non-native speakers of English whose accents so strong that you have o work very hard to understand ‘hem. This canbe so sirng that afer a wile you just give up. The same i true in reverse. I your actentis strong, people will ge red ofHisening to ou, and Xf they speak English themselves, they may switch 10 Enalish, depeving you of speaking practice in your language. Develop « more native-likeaoceat. it may take alot of time in language lb, working with a natve spake, and comparing yu taped speech to that ofa native speaker, among a host of other stats. ‘he time, however, wl be very well invested. In working on acent eduction, our suggestions to start with trying to produce intonation that is close to native speaker puters. Often, books and tapes are availabe to tach intonaiona contours (peters of intonation within a specie Juguege~usully there are several piteras, depending cn hether you ar asking a.queston, making a statement, expressing anger or suprise ete; sce chapter 6 fora discussion of intonation). We recommend staring with intonation because incorect intonation has a greater impact on both understanding and perception ofa speaker a a foreigner than do incomect sounds here and there. Once you nave mastered intonation ~ dhrough listening totes an comparing ‘your own intonttion io tet of native speakers or perhaps throu week on int ‘akon in your elassoom ~ star to work on the sounds Find out exactly wise ‘© place yout tongue and how to move your lips fr each sound’ Many o these postons will fel very strange to you. Thats becatse your muscles are nol nsed to moving i this wy Therefore, once you know exatly how to make the sound {anda native speaker confirms that sounds close tothe naive-speakerveson), 400 will ned to practice making it over and over until your muscles do if you Panning orsign engunge study CASE STUDY Problem ‘Sam is experiencing dificulty understanding his teacher in clas, The teacher uses only Fas, and Sam just cannot understand what iti se says him. Iti even ‘worse when she speaks diretiy to him or asks him what sounds lke a question, is so embartasing when he eancot spond adequately! What can he do? Possible solutions ‘There area number of things that Sam ean do 1 help him survive & teacher who ses immersion techniques i the elateroon (2) He ace to build his sean skis in general (The pronunciation section in chapter 6 may provide sm hint.) He aseds to listen to many spoken eueatic texts ouside the classroom ~ ims, apes, lecture by and talks with native speakers, ‘te. Simply listening may not be eacuh, however and if might help him to ave (be Serips tothe texts so that he can star associating Words with how they sound, (One strategy thar has helped a numberof students hasbeen to have the teacher record tent that will be discussed in class later; that way students can listen to thest shead of time and be prepared to discuss them. This later appeosc isan example of advance organization ~ something tat i very balpfl to nese any student. (2) Sam neods to deveiop some good listening stataies. cis easy to get ost in a stream of sound, Sam will survive better ine lets the words that he doesnot know simply slide past his en. Ife listens fer Words he does naw an uses them to piece together the meaning of what the teachers talking about, he sul he ae ‘o igure out the general thrust of wh is being sad (3) Sam can prepare in advance for class, Ihe ows, for example, that eciuciional systems willbe an upcoming topic, be ean become acquainted with sch ofthe vocabulary and grammar in advance though reading aead nthe textbook or finding auhenti writen materiale on the top (4) Some sudents have found tat i they work on improving theit pronunciation, their isting sls improve comespondingly. Figure 1.2 ‘automaticaly. Pay special attention to sounds that do not exist in your language (uch as the Map sound that sounds like «lite of both /V’ and lf in Japanese or the yerih sound in Russian), as well as those sounds which are similar t9 your Janguage but made in a different way (such as long vowels in Czech and long consonants iiArabic). The latter will be the mest dificalt for you ecause your brain and mouth are used (¢ processing and interpreting dhe same sounds differ- cently, (Chapter 6 contains a moze in-depth explanation of phonemes, phonetic and phonemic difference, and other language features that influence accent) Finally, if your aniversity offers a course in phonetics, take it! Itmay be one of| ‘the best courses, long tera, that you will ever :ake. These courses often focus on uvwere and why sevens occur the diferences between how your language and the foreign language makes and interprets sounds and intonational pattems me AF you started studying 1 foreign tanguage when you were small or {nthe lower grades at school, you have probably noticed that studying it chon {was diferent from studying it now. Why i that, and does everyone experience the same reaction? How is studying a foreign language as an adult diferent rom learning or stdying it asa child? A aumiber of years ago, language teachers and reseatchers believed in acitcal period for language leering (Scovel, 1988). That period was said to end wih brain lateralization (ay theorists posited age five a the time of lateralization; fhe theory was ate amended to suggest that this occurs during the teenage years) speech, which is generally a eli-emisphere function, can be taken over by ty chen when ie ets danagin wouny la ies meee this cannot happen. Latealization is also considered to be responsible for tht {alization ofthe rang of sounds tha person cen hear or lam and an explen, ‘on foe why childen generally acquire frciga languages without an teseat nd ‘most adults bave a moderate to severe accent when they speak Chilzen tave also been said to have a Language Acquistion Device (LAD), oF “blsck box,” ia their heads (Chomsky, 1998). This LAD is envisioned og Gz aseen unchared pas) of he bran (or pechaps just a manner of synapde sieges that allows chitreno acquire the structure aud words anguage mint eanscios effort, Afer childhood, the LAD sets to esse functioning, THE ts that in childhood language acquisition, whether «native language o¢ 4 Foreign lenguage, is closely associated with a developing mind (Golinkoff ad Firsh-Pasek, 2000), winercas adult acquisition of language is associated with a Contrary tee carter suggestions, the of agen ange sous avery speed apes oflangugs eng heoy Some udu hese a do everything a child does ~ pronounce words with a native accent, ean language in conten andthe ike Bion, 199; Lever, 2038, Meier wate Sevaniage has been found orale knowing om npn ane Planning foreign langue study linguistic categories that are useful in learning 2 second language. Often, to, the ‘earning is fester because of this cognitive advantage (Schleppegrell, 1987). The discussions below explore the relative advantages of child andl adult language learning Pronunciation Researchers have found (and nearly every language learner has noticed) that children lear to pronounce words better in a foreign language than adults. Mast adults who learn a foreign language have accents: in some cates, the accent can be quite strong and noticeable. Children, om the other han, pick vp the sounds pretty much as the native speaker makes them, seemingly without such effor. Adults, aowever, can improve their pronunciation. It just does not generally ‘happen easily cr quickly. Typically, it takes much time working in language laboratories, with tapes, and with native speakers, There are alts with very ood language skills ~ you may be able to think of some famous ones ~ whose Speech clearly gives them away as foreign becanse they have aever mastered the sounds of the language or is intonational patterns, There aro other adults who ave been abie to master the sounds well enough to pass as native speakers, perhaps not al the time and in all circumstances. bat lrequently offen enough to allow them to do the Kinds of things that language leamers with stroag accents cannot dio, Psshaps you cau thiuk of yom adult learners who have fargely eltomeated their accents Now, think about those adults you know with strong accents, Is it somedimes lffcalt to understand them? Do you sometimes feel uncomfortable with them? Do they seem ceally foreign to you, ie. not someone you would choose to pal around with because they are so different from you? Do you sometimes have (o put out more effort than you aze willing to in order to get their point? For all these reasons and more, it js important for you to try your best to develop _z00d pronunciation ~ and the sooner the bette. Cole (2004) suggests that good promunciaton from the beginning speeds up language acquisition and that poor promunciation not only siovs down the acquisition by limiting tie amount of time native speakers are willing to talk with someone whom they have difficulty ‘understanding but also becomes fossilized, making the work of acquiting a good accent later uch more difficult. Sounds For produciag more native-sounding language, adult leamers have {0 chores: 10 leam fo ear sound differences that do aot occur ia theit ovm Janguage and to make sounds that donot occurin their own languege, Additionally, knowing the conventions of standard and dialectal forms ean help the foreiga- language student develop consistency in speaking that does not mark hima or her a foreigner: Some institutions offer accent reduction courses: these can often 192» eEARWiNe help. Where these are not available, noticing, taining te ear to heas, and practice will go along way. Words In developing berter pronunciation, thee are may things to consider, ‘Leaming to make aew sounds is aly the beginning. Thete are also word bound: aries In some languages, og. in French, words ae elie (or na togeier) in spociic ways. In some languages, eg. in English, parts of words are not pro- ounced by naive speakers, talking informally. If you are leaming a language ce a dialet ofa anguage that uses aot of elsion, you may haveto spend a good deal of time with authendc texts (those writings, broadcasts, o¢ speech events prepared ‘sy ative speakers fornative speakers) before youcan understand elded language, even though you can readily understand janguage tht is well enunciated. Chile dren in the process of language acquisition often can hear and process elisions «quite readily; agults may find tht hey need to work at this harder and spend time in deliberstely studying and practicing this particular aspect af language. (See chapter 8 for more infoumation about this.) Intonation Native-tike intonation is another ae that is often difficult for adult learners to acquire and that seems to come readily to a child, Typically, the into- national pattems that are present in one’s own language strongly infiuence one’s ‘nvonation in a foreign language. including, sometimes. even at pretty advanced levels of foreign-language proficiency. Often, the babbling of bebies sounds like ‘eal language, mainly because intonation is one ofthe enlist features of language thats picked up by babies. Tempo, pitch, and inflection ae all part of intonation; chapter 8 will explain chese features to you in more detail re As has becn mentioned in the discussion of aoquiting language skills (reading, writing, listening, and speaking), vocabulary learning is one ofthe sets of enabling knowiedge end a critical espect of developing the ability to use your {oreign language in useful ways. One cam never know too much vocabulary. One ‘should also know how words are formed in foreign language, what international swords (¢.g. radio, television, computer, if any, are available to make the vocab- ‘lary acquisition task easier, and where semantic differences in words oeeur, Chapter 6 will guide you through the specifics of vocabulary acquisition. Grammar and syntax Knowledge of target-language grammar, sometimes called. struc- ‘ure (or forms), and syntax (word order) is an equally imporant aspect of second-language acquisition. Words alone are not enough to communicate. The Planing foreign-language study ‘words must come, in most languages, ina certain order and take a cersin shape, orthey will notbe understood and your message will ot be conveyed, For exam- | ple. if someone suid to you, “the book sees 1.” you would not understand what the speaker meant unless you knew the context. 1 te speaker used core word order (syntax) in Eagisi ~ “sees the book,” you would understand much betes, but you might think he or she meant, "I size the book because “sees” is ot the correct form (grammar) touse with he word “L” Similarly, nless you understand the geamosar and syntax of ¢ foreign language you will miss the message (end, With more sophisticated levels of grammar and syotsx, tbe nuances, which can sometimes he very important, to). This is pat of language thatthe LAD, dis- cussed above, supposedly bes chikiren to acquire with lacvely small amounts of conscious effort. You will vey likely Gnd that as an adult you will need 9 spend much conscious effort to arn the grammar and syntax for your foreign language, beginning with the seme acvities we recommended foracquieing goad prononciation ~notieing and practice. Chapter 6 will explain aspects of grammar ‘and syntax to you im a more comprehensive format io spend time woticing (orto Took for ‘Some studies indicat that adults are better at developing ffteracy than children (Atwell and Leaver, 2002). What do we mean by literacy? We mean ihe ability 10 communicate inthe language in ways dat are considered educated, kn a foreign language, we often refer to a literate person in a foreign language as ‘communicatively compote. Although adults develop literacy as well as childvea, if not bewer and more uickly, they do lear somewhat cifferently from children (Schleppegrll, 1987). In developing literacy, adultshave some very important advantages over chien. Fits, they are already Uterate in one language ~ their native language; tis allows them to transfer some skills ino the second language. For example, it is uot necessary 6 learn how to read again, that is, to leamm that lettecs form words, ‘words sentences, and seatences thoughts, Similarly, adults already have cognitive processing skills - they know how to think analytically and critically, ané.they dave background knowledge they can upply to reading and writing tasks. S°pintine wEwwys ALE Planing tamguae study SS ya Plaging is perhaps one ofthe most imporatihings you cand ifyou aot 0 maks tis me f your language letming Opportunites in rouse of Zelestoom. Knowing Bow you ean (ee capes 3 nd) ow you feel aboot ‘ariouscmuion an kinds fneracton (ee chapter), andhow you work With oahers Ge chpter 3} is very important This volume wil elp you understand al of ese tng, and ha understanding wl ad shoul infueace your planingen 2 Laaanine CASE STUDY Problem Joba Seaytho stared studying Fronch retetively le ~ when he was fileen years ‘old He hus found cdiicute since ten to develop a goed French ecceat. Some of his ends, who stares stadying ax younger ag, have accent that are much ‘beer than his, and this makes him embarassed 9 speat French with them. By How much do you want to learn? . Where do you want 1 learn? + When do you want to study? . How do you want to lean? How much can you take inst once? (The lower your proficiency, the faster you will experience language fatigue, of lk of ability, after tion, and strength in continuing 1 speak aad isten to the language.) Your answers to the above questions and others like them can help you do effective language-learing planning. You will have a chance fo try this out in the practice exercises atthe end of this chapter, Planning foregn-Inguage stay CASE STUDY Problem Susaa i studying Afikaans, She is cureatly at an intermediate evel of protciency and wants o get ‘oan advanced level as soon as possible. She is quite Nexble as io ‘where she studies, and if necessary, she ean study Foreign language ful time. The problem is she Gees 6% know how she should go sbout geting othe aext higher level of proficiency. What should she plan as her next step? Best possible solution Given Susan's personal flesibility ander desir to reach higher level a fast as possible, along withthe fat tht she is cuzeady ata Jevel ou which study abroad bexpedienoes can havea strong infivence, Susan's best plan wil bot ake a semester abroad (ora year if she can manage i). Figure 1a “ES Dianatidn Of Tanguiage study, Sometnes students want to know fr how long they’ shoul staly foreign language, Musi depends on what evel of profeeny they want each and how quickly they eam, Mu denen 00 on whether one hey wil bave acct tothe foreign county andor naive speakers; ind of access usualy ‘nsease the level an the rate of Ieaming, racing tho over amount of ne needed for study. ‘Te US government has gateed statin over th past thy or more yee, anit no bas «good idea of how mach tie ad apiade) take ear a0 ‘o°peak like 2 siplomat” (or soi), The char below provides information oa ow long iakes typical US govemment employe to reach te Superce evelia a progam with Mv osixeacher contact hour daly and a lassie of 1-6 (US Depertent of State} othe Advanced Level wih si easter conta: hows ly andacias sizeof ten Deparment of Desens) las size bas vee shown to 8ave {circ nd proportion influence on th lee of profeteney ha caa be reached in specie period of ime. The term Superior reer to the American Coun on Teaching Foreign Languages (ACTEL)procieney level sae (avaiable on the Internet at sor act.or) This level as oer names, depending on which Seti tong ised The Federal Ineragency Language Rouncable (FIER) sole (also avalsbie one fteme at wwe: govtres) cals this vel 3rofessional Led Profiienyand the Cour of Europe (se wea cr) als this Level ‘Competent Use The sffering lng of ine ae ot esc of he ine catty” of any parca angus, but ofthe “language distance” fom Enplih In other words, in Abi, ee re many more nee things ear for @ native English speaker than there are in French, and, therefore, it will take 2s26 LEARNING Table 1.1 Jength of seudy (goal) ategory sample languages ‘6 months /720 hones (FST) r ‘Alias, Basque, Danish, Duteh, ‘French, Faitian-Creole, Icelandic, 6 months / 720 bours (DLD, Italian, Norwegian, Portuguese, Spanish, Swedish n Geman, Indonesisn, Malay, Romanisn, 6 montis /720 hours (FST) ‘Unto, Swabil 8 months / 960 hours (DLI) am Albeaiaa, Armenian, Belarusian, 1 year! 1320 bours (FSD) Bengali, Bulgarian, Burmese, 1 year /1440 hours (DD ‘Cambodian, Croatian; Czech, Dari, Finnish, Georgian, Greek, Hebrew, Hindi, Hungarian, Lao, Latvian, ‘Lithuanian, Macedonian, Pashto, Persian, Pols, Russian, Serbian, Slovak, Somali, Tagaog, Turkish, Ukrainian, Viewamese v Arabic (at dlalect), Chinese 2 years (2640 hows (SD {all dalers}, Japanese, Korean, 18 mons / 2160 hours Lp longer for most English speakers to acquire Arabic than to acquire French. ‘The chart reflects the relative language distance and, therefore, length of time required 10 acquire the language to a useful level for most of he major lan- guages (USMC, 1998; USAF, nal). (We would note that the categories reflect the Department of Defense organization; tne Foreign Service Institute wsesathree- category sysiem, in which Category I and Category IL above are collapsed iat Category 1) i) Dlaiaiig forilblong lansnage aiming: 1 your oly goa in taking you cont fo language comin isto complet a reuiement the his tion sol for you. you staat odo few coursevto gtafel forthe sounds anda ene oe culte oa angage of your ancestors et nt one spoken in yourbome aay. then agli seton {snot for you, This etons or ose language students wh ave seal made the decision tat guage mst bea part of the peeve! profesional es (Geshaps for carer eons Having made such decision (o determination), is mpeiant to inden that anguage eumingisaotaone couse city. Novita sheer activ you vant obese tly proiet ina feel language, you wil neediest Zmany yeas end michelin he endeavor, This me wil e spent any enue the case is oly a sat Ineactions with ave spears nay Planning foreign anguage stily ‘environments and for many purposes will be necessary to achieve higher levels of proficiency and inescapable for those who plan to use high-proficiency language in their carers. Independent learning will also be critical. In other words, plan- ning for lifetong leaming is like malking a strategic plan for the language portion of your life, While many people do not bother to do this, among language learn- ers who reached neat-native levels of foreign-language proficiency, a significant percentage did, if not formally, then informally (Leaver, 2003a, 2003). ‘The frst stage ofthe typical student’s language learaing endeavors asually, but not always, takes place in the classroom, Classroom leamaing caa come at neatly any age, but there is some advantage, particularly forthe development of good ‘pronunciation i starting at a younger age (as you will recall from the chapter 1 discussion of age differences in language learning). Besides, the younger one starts, the more years one has for learning! Courses and class work are not only helpful for language learning; they are uually essential, even at very high levels of foreign language proficiency (Leaver and Atwell, 2002), However, a collection of courses is less helpful, in general, than a fully thought-out and cohesive program that includes multiple activities, lie those listed in the next section How do T organize lifelong language learning? Formany, the most important ‘colo use in lfelong language learning ie an Individualized Study Plan (SP). 1809 can take many forms, They cas be in a date book, as a checklist, or in some form of diary that you keep. Whatever \works for you isan adequate format forthe plan. ‘Your ISP should reflect your objectives, leaming experiences, desires, style of learning, and financialtime possibilities (Leaver, 2003). While essential for advanced students who wish to exceed some ofthe possibilities of language study ‘na classtoom, they can be equally important for serious language students from te very begining of language study. SPs should elso_be cotesive. That means that everything in them should reflect another step toward your wlkimete gosl. There should also be a mechanism (or maybe more than one) for assessing your progress on periodic basis; otherwise, the plan will be much less effective, ISPs take into aecount some or all of the following: . Courses : Study, work, and travel abroad, : Independent study . Reading Use of the fntemnet ‘Work with a native speaker Friendships with speakers of the language ‘Writing to pen-pals (and/or itiends and relatives) Practica and internships 228 EARNING Watching television “Listening (othe radio and tapes Becoming acquainted with ars and art forms Foreign assignments Periodicsl assessment of progress Making the most of the classroom No two students get the same results from the classroom. Somé stu- dents lear far more in asemester or year or two than other students, Somie reasons for this may include motivation (see chapter 3 for a discussion of motivation), aptimde (aptitude will be discussed tater inthis chapter) and knowledge of how language works in general (an overview is preseated in part II, Another rea- som can be learning styles and how they interact with teachers’ and classmates’ learning styles, and withthe teaming strategies selected for use. Most important, some students simpiy plan better how fo use their classroom time experience and choose their courses more selectively ‘While you may not be able to change your aptitude, you caa certainly change your attitude, This means not assuming that you can’t leam just because learning is hard for you (see the discussion on self efficacy ia chapter 4). A “can-do” attitude can go ¢ long way toward overcoming aptitads handicaps, Furthermore, aptitude isa’t a monolithic barrie. There are various components to learning aptitude; some people may have better memories, for example, whereas others _may be better mimics. So it's possible that you can compensnts For your wesie areas through your stronger ones, Course selection, witese an institution allows it, can be more important than ‘many students realize. For exampie, if you want to learn a language to use in an ‘overseas jeb, you probably shouldn't take a large number of literature courses because the language of focus in such courses is not as usefl for daily work as more business ~ and daily life ~ oriented language would be. When making ‘course selections, think ahead to what knowledge nnd skills you need to develop in order to reach your ultimate goals, ‘Making the most of study, work, and travel abroad Simply being abroad is rarely enough to improve language in and of itself. What you do when you are abroad is very importent, Whether you will stucy, work, oF travel abroad, itis important ro engage in chat all-importaut planning (thinking about what you will do to lea and how you will doit), It ‘is also vital that you put efor imo your language learning. Just being there and Jetting it wash over you simply doesn't work for mest people. Tips on nov to make the most of your ont-of-classroom learning are found throughout chis book. For starters, however, you will need to seek out learning opportunities while abroed. Im addition to the experiences which can be handled by fortnulaie language, such 1s buying food, mailing etter, and the like, find some friends with whom you can discuss a wide range of ideas. Do things together with these friends and leave Planing fereign anguage study ‘ime for sharing opinions and thoughts. Students wivo have actively sought out ‘opportunities while abroad to learn their language and who have spent more time ‘ith friends have been shown to bave experienced greater gun in their language proficiency (Brecht, Davidson, and Ginsburg, 1993). ‘Making the most of independent study Independent study can, and probably will, occur at a number of dif ferent times during your language-learning ceresr. [tis a key to geting the most cot of your homework when you are taking a class; it is equally essential if you are truly on your own without access to a teaches, or atleast to a trained, experi- enced teacher. In either case te kinds of things that you do independently can do such fo improve your language learning. For example, reading as much authentic tiveratare as possible iacluding not just newspaper articles, but the classical iter- azure ofthe culture you ae studying) builds reading stamina, adeepec lexical and srammatical bese, and greater cultral understanding and knowledge. Extensive ‘reading bas been shown to be the single best thing that one can do to improve ‘one’s reading skills (Krashen, 1993) and general forsign-langusge proficiency ‘Badawi, 2002 ‘What kinds of things should you read? That depends on your proficiency level and your personal interests, Generally, find things that you think you'd enjoy zeading and lake every opportunity to dip into ther. Ia geaecsl, you might start with the same kinds of things that you read in your own language ~if there are parallel materials in the foeeign language. Carry these materials around so you ‘can read on the bus orf you are stuck on an elevator. Atthe earliest stages of yourlearning, you may not be ableto get much meaning froma passage ora text; n that case, se how many words you recognize (such as ‘words borrowed from English or languages you already know) and how many you can guess. Later on, you are likely to know most of the words in a given passage; in that case, try to figure out wit the unknown items are before you look (afew of) them up. Rarely should you look up every word. At the higher proficiency levels, i¢wil he more important for you to develop precise understanding; atlower levels of proficiency, a general overall understanding is sulicient. Once you have more than a few words at your command, you will be able to get this general lundecstanding from the passage itself. Until then, select passages on topics that ‘you know something about. That will maki far easier to guess from context; you ‘will know what the likely possibilities are, and you will know what is absolutely not possible, Making the most of Internet programs ‘The Tnternet has given quite a boost to language-learning ectivities in a number of ways. I offers access tw up-to-date texts in a wide vaciety of languages. Most countries have sites in the language of the country, and so do many enterprises and groups within them, Ifyou havea hobby, you may be ableto find target tanguage site about the hobby. The Internet is also a very convenient0 EARNING way to develop friendships and find “‘pon-pals” who will exchange email or ever cat with you in real Hime. You can also often find on-line dictionaries and many ‘other resources Gust type the name of your Language and the words “online dictionary” into Google, Yahoo, or other search engine). If you ere studying @ language that uses a foreign alphabet, you may even be able to sign up fora free ‘email account on a site that fe located in a country where your foreign language ‘is spoken, making it easier to weite to someone in the Foreign scrip. (This can he a problem with some American Internet service providers.) For example, for the ability o.use the Cyrilic alphabet, www.mailra is @ very good source. We cannot, of course, provide a complece list of sites forall languages with a foreign alphabet. However, you roacher or some of your teacher's colleagues are likely to know about sites, so if this is something that interests you, ask your teacher about it. You can also check on www.mindsolutionsintemational.com (click on the foreign language page). Making the most of native speakers ative speakers may know very litle about language teaching, but they oan serve as models of various kinds of language use and can provide practice to language learners, Some of hem will be able to answer your language questions lrectly in other cases, you may have fo (ry things out and see how they react, ‘Some university programs use native speakers who are also students (and gea- erally without teaching experience) to wach languages that would otherwise have too low an encollment to be offered the Critical Languages Program (CLP) in the United States is an example. This program care into being inthe late 1960s; it's less widespread today than inthe past but cam sill be found at such leading universities as the University of Pennsylvania and she University of Connecticut Originally, te CLP used foreign graduate students and others to help indepen dent and self-motivated stadents to develop foreign-language skils; today's CLP formats are more varied. Most cently years, university, government, and private soliool programs have begun t use focal immigrants o supplement ther clast- ‘room activities either by inviting these people o class from time to time tw interact wit students or pairing students up with them for the completion of out-of-cass tasks. In all these cases, motivated students can take advantage of this Kind of ‘access to native speakers io improve their own language tremendously. Additionally, some very successful language learners who have not been able to travel abroad for various reasons have sought out local immigrants on their ‘own for practice and language improvement. You can often find immigrents who ‘might be willing © help out in various aspects of language-ledring endeavors. We wonld add a word of advice here. Leam all youcan about how interpersonal interactions take place in your culture before proceeding in developing ftiend- sips. In some cultures, effusive, wart, and touching betiaviors are expected in. others, they create estrangement at worst and misunderstanding at best, Knowing and following the rules of interpersonal behavior in tbe eulture you are studying will make friendships develop thst much more rapidly. In this way, your native Pruning foreign-language study speaker(s)can become your fiend(s), which will provide you with very important lnsights into the culture you are understanding beyond those you can Jearn in & book. Developing foreign friendships Asmentioned in the section aboveon study abroad, foreign friendships can bea very powerful tool for building language proficiency. Developing foreign fiendships is not easy, but itis possible. Perhaps the snost traitional way is ‘through finding a foreign pen-pal, a person to whom you write on a regular basis Pen-gals can be located through a number of sources. The Intemet is 2 very good resource for developing foreign iendships. It provides esources for chat, email, aud instant messaging with frends and e-pals. Some URLs you might want check out for pen-pals axe the following: ‘Youth Vennure: worldcomputerexchange.org/schoois/international.pen pal. program. him People to People International: www tpi.org/programs/stident program. jsp We would add a few words of caution, however, when using the Interet for this purpose. Keep in mind that here is much scamming that takes place over the Internet. Even if everything seems above bout it is alvaye unvvse to give out ‘personal or financial information to anyone over the Inve ‘You might also expesiment with “tandem learning.” This is an attempt by two native speakers of different languages to teach each other their L1 via email, You can find out more about it here: www.shef.ac.ukimltcftandeny. Ifyou are studying a heritage language (a language originally spoken in your family), fiends and relatives who live in a foreign country can be a very good source of information about the culture and an excellent resource for practice in _usng the foreiga language. They are even better than pen-pals because they may ‘know a ot about you and your family and may know what wil be interesting and usefil for you ‘The same words of caution apply to pen-ftiends and Intemet pals as to making {rend among native speakers. Learn and follow the rules of culturally appropriate ‘behavior, and you will be much more successful in your efforts at making friends, as well ab at language learning ‘Making the most of praetica and internships Lie study abroad, «good practicum or interaship ina foreign country can be extremely valutble, The difference between a practicum and an Intermship Js that with @ practicum you will probably be guided by a teacher in your bome countzy, as well as averseen by a teacher in dhe foreign country who is connected ‘with your home university, and you will have specific requirements ‘ mest as a resultof caring outthe practicum. The course of your study i, in part, controlled by these teachers. aa caannnsa Internships, on the other hand, are often simply arranged by the home institw- tion or study abroad program through standing agreements with various foreign businesses or agencies, Typically, what you gain from an internship depends very ‘muci on you. The better your longuage skils on entering an internship, the more likely the organization i to give you a solid learning opportunity where you can ‘use and continue to improve your language. If you have a specific reason for taking a practicum or interaship, explore all aspects in advance. For exemple, fad out whether you have access to the level of society, the amount of interaction with native speakers, and the kinds of language use thet you want and need, Ask questions ~ lots of them ~ before making the ‘inal decision. Sometimes you can get an intetnship or practicum changed onsite, i you find out that it i not what you expected. However, this is not always the case, 80 it is better to resolve all issues in advance, Making the most of television, radio, and tapes For listening comprehension, many resources sre available nowadays. Satellite tlevision froma wide range of countries is available in many largo cities, those broadcasts can include a wide vasiety of genres —news broadcasts, movies, game shows, tik shows. You do not have to be in the country of broadest; many are available in your home country, either through satelite broadcasting of in the ‘oem of videotape or digital media. Enclaves of spealers ofthe language you are sradying are likely to have shops where such media are available on sale or for real Radio and television and other forms of media will also introduce you to the popular culture (what is often called “pop culture") of a nation. Pop culture sheds light on mindsets and gives us common topics of conversation, Much “pop culture” derives from the US and westem European media; it may be of interest ‘ad use to you to observe how it has been assimilated into the host culture. Pop culture includes the movie a jour, te Jatest “in” expressions and clothing styles, and the lke, Depending on your ge and the kind of people you want to interact with, you may want differing levels of acquaintance with the popular culwure of ‘your target language. Becoming acquainted with arts and art forms Low culture refers to the everyday ways of behaving that make one set of people dierent frum another, such as shopping, riding on local means of transportation, and eating out. You will quickly become familiar wich artifacts ‘of low culture through study abroad, friendships with émigrés, end other actions that are listed here as part of a good ISP. (On the other hand, high culture ~ the masic, sts, dance, philosophy, religion, and literature of a nation ~ is different from everyday culture, and not every ‘member of a soviety is thoroughly familiar with high culture, Nonetheless, high culture is a good entry into understanding the mindset of people who speak your foreign language. High culture reflects everyday life, as well a the values and Planning forign-tanguage sy thinking of native speakers ofthe language, in its art forms. Likewise, everyday ife Incorporates citations from literature and references to various forms of art into its aphorisms and ways of expressing ideas. ‘Making the most of foreign work assignments Foreign work assignments, if you ae hueky enough 1 get them, can bea huge boon fo your langvage-learing efforts and iead tna grest dea af suc cess, Some possibilts incluée work asa diplomat, diplomatic ataché, foreign business offices, the Peace Cors (or United States residents), non-government omperizatons,o¢ a8 a acher of English abroad ‘Unfortunatly many language learners who have had the epporsnity to work broad bave not made the most ofthat oppornmity and have actually ended up losing foreign-language proficiency even daring the time that they vere living mong native speaker (Goodison, 1987. This happeas when langage leamers associate with people fom their own coutey and do not force themsees to par- Seite in the lege, local community takes adsiberate effort to become apart, ofthe foreign community, bat your lengeage sil wil improve immeasurably i you do. Periodic assessment of progress NoISP canbe fly effective unless you periodically stop and measure where you ar. In measuting your progress, there area number of Ways to assess ‘your current language skis. These are discussed below. After you have assessed your progress, you may find that you have a different set of leaming needs. At that point, you will need to re-evalusie your ISP itself 1 make sure it reflects these needs. Keeping your plan current is a good bet for -eaching your goals How do I assess my progress? ‘There are several ways wo assess your progress. Some are formal, and some are informal. Once you have decided on one or more measures for assessing your progress, you should probably stay with them throughout your languege- Jearning smdy in order to be able to compare your ability before and after any Point. (nsiraments can measure somewhat differing things and define levels in Slightly different ways, soa consisteat standard is a good idea.) Each dime you assess your progress, you will need 10 make a derermination of ‘whethec or not You are on target for your objective. If you are moving too quickly to assimilate what you need or too slowly to meet your goals in a reasonsble time, you may want to adjust your pfan to optimize your learning experiences, based om evidence of your strengths and wenknesses to date, That means that assessing your progress also means assessing your own language strengths and ‘weaknesses. 2o LEARNING: Planning forega-language study CASE STUDY Problem ‘Macy is in the peooss of developing Uifelong learning plan for herself and is lost, in the details. She just does aot know where to stat. What ea she do? A possible solution Before Mary can take apn of this seope se needs to know where she stands ‘ight now — wit sls does sho have anc which ones docs she stil need to develop? She ean find oUt tis information by cocking 2an-do statements online ‘She could also ask s teacher to provide an assessment or she could take a formal test. (She also need 1o know how sbe personally goes about leuring - something thar wil be discussed laterin this volume) Figure 35 Formal measures ‘There ao anumnber of tests that are available for measuring progress. [ot all willbe available to you. Te all depends on what your persona circumstances are and where you are studying or working, ‘Formal proficiency tests can test ether some form of global, that is, overall, proficiency (through representative activities) or specie proficiency (\rougla pefurmaues eyaitenienis) Exanples of formal proficiency tests exe those given by the Federal Interagency Language Roundtable (available to anyone work- ing for the US government) and the American Council on Teaching Foreign Languages (ACTEL). The ACTEL test is considerably less comprehensive than the government test, but it is available to students enrolled in foreign-language programs at US universities, as well as through Language Testing Interns- tional (www.languagetesting com), Other kinds of proficiency-otiented foreign- language tests in the United States are available through the Center for Applied Linguistica in Washington, DC (www.cal.org)-In Europe, the Assoviation of Lan- guage Tosters Europe (ALTE) has established its own set of testing rubrics for tse with foreign-language leamers, Informal measures, ‘There are aiso a number of ways in which you can get an infor- ‘mal assessment of your language skills, One way is (0 ask a teacher or other ‘knowledgeable pecson o give you feedback. & second way i take note of your successes (and failures) in actual language use orto keep adiary of your progress. A third way is to compare your skills against an established seale, You can use the ACTEL scale for this (worw.actforg), the Federal Interagency Language Roundtable (FILR) scale (www. govtilrorg),or the Council of Burope/ Association of Language Testers Europe scale (Warw.alte.org) 10 see bow you measure up. purpose(s) of language study alimate objective coursework (and approximate dates) planed ‘out-of clas activites planned (and approximate dats): activities abroad (planned, with approximate dave) mechanisins for measuring progress (vith approxiaate cates) Figure 16 Checklists are a very helpful way to assess your progress, For example, using the FILR proficiency scale, the Defense Language Institute has developed a series of “can do” statements, By answering questions about what you can do (and, of course, cannot do), you can get an idea of your proviciency level, These can- ddo assessments exist at a nutnber of sites. Examples of can-do statements can be foundat the LangNet sie (wwsangnet.org) and at the ALTE site (www:alte.org), among other places. O 7 Pideicd whakwolaveteana 97 R 2 E Lowen purposes oftnguoge sy an yo think? Use thelitin ths book 2a Saning pont. nerve some ends who are sttdyng Forigslnghager ober han the one you are stuying and fn ont therveacont fr studying frign language and fr choosing We aruaranguae( tha hey ae staying Compare our respontes fin ose one by you sane Tes dome woo lansing yourlongage sty To bei, sewer te following gurtons a hy do jou watt t sty a fooign language? OF the reasons hon i hs chapter, wich ones ath you 8008 Do yeu », Whats your amar objective? Based ont ke ist of be ‘and of courses and ovis ha you vil need ato oe. Wen adhe il you ass Your progres? Now il he sont shown in Spore 1. You may wat 10996 the chart into your computer, so that you can keep a record of it via @ ting poprme changeit lr pon nec. This dacuentcan be amend nary vay and te caeyoces used aro sara! "Toucan include yourowaetegnc, aswell ine oneson th foro insca ofthe oes on the for If you decide to change the categories, explain wy.36 LEARNING ‘Try avery sketchy and informal self-assossment. Ifyou already know something ofthe language you are interested in, assess where you are ow, looking at * Vocabulary. What content domains (eg. geography, history, politi- cal science, everyday life, ec.) can you express yourself in? What tthe content domains would you like to be abic totale ebout? «+ Structure. Which constructions can you bandle easily? Which give ‘you trouble? Which have you decided you area’t ready fo work on vet? + Discourse. Can you speak in connected sentences? Can you tela story or make an explanation? + Pronunciation. How much wouble will most non-teacher native speakers have with understanding your pronunciation? (You may have some experience in talking to native speakers and know the answer to this question; if aot, you might want f0 ask your teacher or & native speaker you know.) 4 Analyze your local newspaper. How many genres (e.g. Jeers t0 the editor, spors items, news items, advice columns, et.) can you find’? ‘How is the text organized? Ifyou were to write alettr to the editer or ‘a news report, how would each ofthese need to be structured? Where do the main points come? Where are the supporting details givea? ‘Now, with your teacher's help, do the same witha newspaper in your foreign language. How many differences can you find between yout local newspaper and the foreign one? Review In this chapte, you considered a number of questions. The answers to these Avestions can be suramarize as follows The purpose of language study (2) Obaining a job ar peering a job beter £2) Gaining access to foreign bodies of knowledge ‘Traveling abroad (4) Sundying sbroad (5) Working abroad (6) Schoo! requirements (7) General edification and inerest a Hngusties (8) Understanding your heritage (9) Parental infuence (20) Understanding eopie in your neighborhood (LD Mainaining knowledge ‘The nature of language study (2) Developing sii nlstesing, reading, writing, ad speaking @) Acquiring enabling inowtedge of grammar, vocabulary, peomaciation, and cxltere Planing foreign-anguage say ‘The diferences between child and adult language learning ‘The iferences beuween how children and adults acquie languages ure, a8 minimum, che following: (G) Children have a beter “ear” ond can spend rare neon teak. @) Acie already know one language and eam more ecient. So, the station s noe one-sied, at all. Adults do have some savantages of their own, Planning language study Planniag language study includes developing (2) goal and objectives for smdying; (@) pans forthe classroom and 6G) plans for ouside the classroom Duration of language study Based on goveruent studs (ee the chart in his chapter), we can say che following (0) tn general, Romance languages ate more quickly Jeamed by adult native speakers of English than ze Slavic languages or Arabic. (@) in general, Germarie languages take somewhat more time than do Romance Fangueges for adult speakers of Boglish to lear, (@) In general, Slavic languages take (vce as ong to ear to the same level of profiiency for native adit speakers of English as do Romance Iangages (4) in geno, Azabic andl Alc langage take four mes a5 Jog to eam tothe same level of protcieny for native aul speakers of English as do Romance languages. 1 you want wo Jear more about the topics inthis chapter, consuit the following sources: AATSEEL Publications Commitice (2001); Champine (1999); Councst ‘International Educational Exchange (1994-1995); Frantz (1996); Gliozzo and Bishop, eds, (1994); Krannich and Krannich (1994); Leaver (2003b); Leaver ang CChampine (1999); Modern Language Association (a.d.); Shryock (n.). aPreview ‘This chapter intouces you tothe science of larning~ in his cso, a applied to earning foreign languages. While we do nat yet know everything about how the bran processes frei langage and builds proficiency, much is nowo and much tore is being discovered every day. Topics that this chaper will address include + Cognition. Cognitive procesces wil dfs, depending ov whether frst, second, of third Tangnage. In any case, you will face beter in your Jnguage-Leaming actives if you understand such concepts a coding and cncoding and the differance betveea knowledge snd protcieney. 4+ Memory. Memory bes» number of components. These incuse sensient memory (or wareness, short-term memory long-term menor, and working (or etivated) memory. Activated memory i important for cognition, call, st werqnstnotion af other aepeszions and sonstastion of our oh (om) ‘coressions, Good memory depends on memory stuatepes and body chemisiy; oth ofthese can be imgroved by learners + Aptitude, pide refers to the chility to learn «foreign language, mach of ‘which may be innate o atleast developed avers longtime. Some stents Just seem o learn languages more easily than other students. There are 2 ‘umber of components of apt, and even sudents with low apltode ca Jeam a foreign language by being avare of thir srengths snd knowing how to compensate for their weaknesses. + Metacognition. Meracognition is tha: wich is “above" cognition. Ta other ‘words, iis “thinking about thinking.” Being aware of one's own progres, actions, and thinking processes con do muct to improve language Yearing your Cognition, simply put, means thinking. There are many"peovesses involved in thinking, and all of them are considered pact of cognition, Some ‘examples are noticing, paying attention, making guesses and hypotheses, moni- toring what you say, interpreting what you read or hear, and so on, 8 ‘Understanding cognion nthe leacning process Cognitive processes wil differ, depening on whether this is your firs, second, cr third language. In any case, you will fare betier in your language-learning sctviies if you understand the concepts behind the leaming of foreign ianguages, “Aspects of cognition: second language vs. third language “There are some advantages that accrue in learning a third (or fourth or ith) language over learning a second language. Students who are aware of shat these advantages are can exploit them wisely. 'A titd language may be related toa language you have already studied (either ‘your native language or your second language). If so, you have quite a head start, especially if you do not overgenevalize. For example, the L3 grammar may be very elose to what you already Know in Li or L2 grammar. In this ase, your greatest challenge will be not to make the assumption that ai the grammar isthe same and to keep your eyes open for subtle, as well as gross, differences in the linguistie systems of L1, L2, and L3 (or 4 and/ar LS). Lats consider a concrete sation: In Spanieh and Postuguese tenses ae generally the same, yet some ofthe iicut moments for students of English who ae studying bo languages, suchas the choice between twa different verbs expressing ob, ser andestar, sc intensified in that Spanish and Portuguese sometimes use these verbs in ‘the same way and at other times where Spanish requires estar, Portuguese reguies ser Te endency of eats who hslearoes Spanish nsw second language and is learning Portuguese as a this lenguage iso overgenerlize the Spanish mus to Portuguese ~ ard in tis way to make some kinds of mistakes that lamers of Portuguese as a secend language tight zt. Simi lary, students of Portuguese can make th same erconeous overgenecaization \whea learaing Spanish Another advantage in studying a third language that is related to a language you already know is that some of the vocabulary will look and sound simiar, ‘ereating a sense of instant familiarity. However, you may tend to overgeneratie and use words from the second language in the third language, marking your speech as anglicized (if English isthe source of influence), gallicized (if French isthe source of influence), and so-on, To avoid this, ook for generalities you can make about the differences; these generalities will allow you to acquire a lage reserve of vocabulary very rapidly. Again, Jet's take « conerete example: “Many Freneh words ending in rl are the sare asthe English words, except “or pronunciation. (This i= a result of istorical influences of French ox English dating from L066 andthe days of Wiliam te Conqueror) Similarly, you tight notice tat seze words aze often the same in Spanish, bu that bey nd in-cidn, However, not all Egish word that end in -ton end in tion in French orn in Spanishaderstending cognition inthe learning process 4“ 0 Lraanine Table 2.1 Language family Languages Afroasiatic ‘Amharic, Arabie, Berber, Bzyptin, Hausa, Hebrew Altaic Altay, Azeri, Bashkie, Chuvash, Tapenese, Kazakh, Koreas, umyk, Kyrgyz, Manchv-Tungus, Mongolian, Tatar, ‘Turkish, Turkmen, Uyghur, Uzbek, Yakut Ausitoasiate hmes, Vietnamese Caucasian Chechea. Georgian Dravidian Tamil Indo-Buropean Afrikaans, Albanian, Armenian, Bosnian, Bulgasian, Catalan, Croatian, Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, Flemish, French, Oennan, Greek, foclandl, tian, Lithuanian, Norviegian, Polish, Portuguese, Romanisn, Russian, Serbian, Slovak, Slovenian, Spanish, Swedish, Yiddish Indo-Iranian ‘Baluchi, Bengali, Dari, Farsi Persian), Hindi, Hindustani, ‘Kurdish, Ossetic, Marathi, Panjabi, Pashto, Unda Maieyo-Polynesian _-Hawaian (Polynesian), Indonesian, Malay, Maori Niger-Congo Dinka, Fufulde, Ganda, Gikayu, Shona, Swahili, Te, Yorube, Xhosa/Zalu Sino-Tibetan Amdo, Burmese, Chinese, Horpa, Pao, Pui, Sajlong, Tbewan ‘TifDaie Lao, Nung, Tho, Kam-Sui, Shan, Thal (Siamese), Yuan Uric ‘Endzya, Estonian, Finnish, Hungarian, Ingrian, Karlin, hanty, Kola, Komi, Lapp (Saami), Livonian, Mansi Mar, ‘Moksha, Mordvin, Skolt, Udmurt, Veps, Vote ‘Yoa will encounter more items in common, including basie roots, if you study 8 Tanguage in the same language family. Thus, if you study Russian and already ‘know English, both of which are Indo-European languages although not closely ‘elated, you may not immediately recognize similar words, bat you can use the roots of Words fo your advantage (roots are often similar throughout the language family, even though the wort themselves have developed diferently in each of the languages). Thus, knowing that video in English has to do with seeing something wil help you understand the word vider’ (to see) in Russian, Simiarly, the English word viswal shares a root wit the Russian Word vizhw see). Table, 1 ‘identifies some basie language families and their members (it is not meant 1¢ be inchusive ~ there are over 100 language families with, in some cases, many embers ~ but to show you some of the relationships that you might encounter jn your langwage study), Within indivicval language families, tere are branches, forexample, the Romance brunch (Latin, French, ltalisn, Pommiguese, Romanian, ‘Spanish, etc.) within the branches, the languages are even more alike and, in some eases, amutually intelligible, [Even if your third (or fourth or fifth) tanguage has litle in common with any ther languages you have ever studied, you still have a head start because you lzeady have developed a setof strategies to use in anguageleamning. For example, . ‘You know how to figure out the meaning of new words based on the context in which you see them. . ‘You know how to figure out grammar rules by seeing specific forms in several contexts . ‘You know how to ignore what you don’t know yet and use What you 4o know in otder to decipher meaning, . ‘You iow the kinds of actions you need to take in order to remember vocabulary aud grammar rues. . ‘You know shat to doin order o communicate with a native speaker both when you know all the expressions you need and when you do ot ‘This is just a litle of what you already know if you have studied a language before. Hf you think about it, you have quite a full toolbox of impfements for use im lesrning yet another language - and the more languages you study, the bigger ‘bat toolbox of strategies becomes. (See chapter 3 for more information about learning strategies.) Aspects of cognition: knowledge, accuracy, and ttuency “There is a considerable cfference between knowledge and speaking accurately and fveally, For example, you may welt know a lot of grammar ries and words. This information is considered knowledge. Its in the background of your ability 0 communicate, bu it racly results directly in communication, ‘The amount of information you have does not determine your level of fluency, or even accuracy, in a foreign language. In other words, tis not what you know ‘hat counts in foreign-language proficiency, it is wat you do with it, There are people with very limited knowledge of a language who ate able to negotiate all Kinds of things bv the language with native speakers. Other people know a lot about the language, but fail miserably if asked to accomplish something that requites real communication, such as negotiating a contract, because they have almost no Ruency. You probably have met both kinds of people ~ those who know 1 lot and can accomplish litle and those who know litle but can accomplish alot. ‘For proficient speech, knowledge is justa stepping stone to being able rouse the language ~and some leamers actually develop the knowledge from the experience fusing the language and not vice versa. What i specifically needed for proficient speech (anc understanding) is a combinstion of accuracy (saying things correctly and understanding them the way speakers or viters meant them) and fluency (speaking with a normal tempo).2 Lanne Unéerstaning cognition i he leasing process 2 . ‘episodic memory (remembering events, sued as wnat happened at a CASE STUDY party you attended two weeks ago); Problem . procedural memory (developing habitual processes, such as driving a Jacqueline has studied Japanese for « numberof years. Now, se is studying car or riding a bike) and ‘Korean, and she gets confosed alo, When the Words and grammar are simile, but . semantic memory (remembering content information or linguistic ele- ot exactly the same, she forgess whichis which, and Japanese begins co encroach upon her se of Korean. As a esult, Jacqueline has decided to ty to forget bet “Japanese eile learning Kovean, a8 she i afraid tha it wil terre. Possible solutions ‘The eal problem is that Jeoqulie is wsing her knowledge of Japanese in a negative vay, nota positive way: Instead of trying to eam Korean a an independent inngvage and, thereby, starting from serach ~ which allow Japanese {0 sep into the leasing process in distactve ways, Jacqueline should consider her knowledge of Japanese to bean asset and begin o look for ways in which ita help her with Korean, She ean contol the negative inuence and boistes the positive influence of Fapanese by doing the following: (2) Change the way she looks at Japanese fom being a auisance and soutce of confusion to being an advancage; (2) Find the pater of similasity between Tapanese and Korean words anc ‘arammar that se already knows, then ty appying these to new Korean ‘ommnuaications to see if tase pattens ean be generalizes (©) Analyze th situations where she has overgeneralized ~ determine whether there ae commonalities amemg them atthe ean avoid in Ue futur nd (@) Accept the fact that ovesstonally she wil overgeneratize, applying patterns ‘om Japanese to Korean not only in easos where the twa languages match but also fn cases whare they donot match that this snot a fatal mistake (and often may not even interfere witb being understood) igure 21 ‘Aspects of cognition: memory eee Researchers and cognitive psychologists have doveloped a number of classifcations of memory that can be eipul io the freign-languaye leamer Farther, 8 Gime.goes on and more research is accomplished, we gain better insights into how memory works, what role chemicals play, and what happens to {information once it enters memory Payctologistsfook at memory in several ways and atthe possible taxonomies of memory types. Some ofthese taxonomies ar discussed below, Episodic, procedural, and semantic memory ‘One way of looking at memory is based on what kinds of information the memory works with. In this taxonomy, there are ments and their meanings). All three kinds of memory play 4 role in language leaming, with semantic memory usually considered the most important, because itis in fact memory for language, However, you need episodic memory to store learning events and procedural memery tomake what you learn automatic (a key to fluency). Remem. ‘ering grammar rules and developing a knowledge base about your language will require semantic memory, All ofthese kinds of memory work together to make ‘you a good language leamer. Attention and awareness Adtention and awareness are olten referred to as sentient memory. This is the very ficststep in the process of stosing information in memory and making it available fr ateruse (Cowan, 1997). For example, if we do not notice something ~ ‘such as the color of the sky as we walk to class ~there is no way that we are going to be able to tell someone later about it (.e. to reval it from memory) because it never entered our cognitive system to be stored (D. Broadbent, 1982; D. B. Renadhent, 1952, 195R). (We will seein chapter 3 that there are some leartiog styles that take advantage of an ability to absorb some such information without conscious knowledge of doing so, but usually there needs to be at least awareness thatthe phenomenon to be picked up exists and is of some importance.) Beyond simply noticing (paying attention), we normally have to understand something we hear or zead in 2 foreign language in order to remember it later Ge, we must be aware of what it means). Yes, we can sometimes repeat stings ‘of words we do not understand in choral drills, and we ean sometimes remember, ‘even for years, a word that we did aot understand (and years later some situational ‘context finally makes the meaning clear), We cap, in fact, remember many things ‘without unserstanding meaning: intonation, sounds, riytom, sometimes entire songs, Taese are, however, isolated moments.and no more than the Up of the iceberg in language acquisition. Generally, if we do not understand someting in other language, we are aot able to remember, let alone reproduce, it later. Sinoe there is no understanding, there are very limited ways to store the information, ‘which generally needs tobe linked with other knowiedge and schemata (systems ‘of knowledge) thst already exis in our heads (Piaget, 1967; Piaget and Inhelder, 1973) How sentient memory works and whether itis a prelude to short-term memory store or whether there are two parallel initial entry ports into long-term memory ~ seatient memory for information thet can appeal to the senses and shortterm memory forthe abstractions, both of Whicharealso referred toas transient memory(Cowan, 1997) ~ are arens that neuroscientists do not yet agree on. What kind of sehearsal is needed, how much, and is effectiveness are also holy debated by psychologists working in the area of memory today. What seems to be clear is ‘hat sensory memory is very short from afew milliseconds up totwenty seconds and cues directed toward information perceived via the senses can creste recall of the lnger picture, whetber perceived visually (Turvey, 1973) or in an auditory manner (Massaro, 1972), So, what does this mean for you the foreign-language learner? Until we learn ‘more, it would appear beneficial o do all of the following: : ay careful attention to the environment in which you Tear language celoments; . pay attention to as many aspects as possible of the language you hear and see; . ‘ty to use as many senses as possible in learning a new language; and . attempt some sort of rehearsal ‘The latter, rehearsal, is something you do all the time, For example, you may “rehearse,” by repeating a telephone number aloud or silently a few times in order tox it in your head. The same ticks that work o store general information in your brain (i. to move it into long-term memory store, which can last from ‘minutes to months) can work when leering a second language, ‘Short-term, long-term, permanent, and working memory ‘Short-term, long-term, and permanent memory ae whatpsycologists call memory store, They are less a “place” than an “action.” Usually, cognitive ‘processing that involves these three kinds of memory is considered to begin with sentient memory, as described above. ‘Once information isin some form of transient memory, it is either lost forever oF transferred to long-team memory through a two-step process (from sentient fo shorterm to long-term) or a one-step process (from sentient or short-ezm to long-term), depending on the view of memory processing. Losing information will be discussed a litle [ser in this chapter. "The important things for you, as a Janguage lesmer, to know are that . some informatiow/language can and should be lost (otherwise you ‘will be overwhelmed with too much information that you cannot sort through), and paying selective attention to the things you want to be able to recall ‘will do much to make sure these items reach your long-temm meniory. ‘Then, for memory to “work,” these memory stores must be activated, That acti- vation is accomplished via working, or activated, memory. Let's look at each of these in a lite more detail. ‘Understang cognition nthe Ieeming process Short-term memory ‘Short-term memory is a holding tank of up to twenty seconds, ia ‘which information is rchearsed long enough to be sent off to long, term memory. ‘An example would be holding a phone number in your lead long enough to dial it after which it is forgotten, Another example is listening to a teacher give a brief explanation of an add word. Once the teacher moves on to something ese, the information about the word will be forgottea ualess i is moved to fong-termn or permanent memory. Moving tiformation from short-term to long-term (or permanent) memory ‘Moving information into longer-lasting wemory sie ean take place in several ways, Sometimes an association with other information in long-term oz permanent memory will be made, and this “binding” of new information with old [information can become a short-cut permanent mentory or the new information (Terrell, 1986). Here is an example: ‘One ofthe authors wondered for many years what ayguch was in Russian. ‘The cranslation alvays was “prime move,” but she did not know what ‘4 prime mover was in English. So, while she was able to translate these ‘words beck and forth becween te languages, sbe ad no i6ea what she was ‘saying ~ until one day at an espon, she saw ove of the litle machines, «| line moves pushing the plane away from the gata, That eae an “Ahab” thar she will aways remember and be able 1 retrieve from memory easily because the experience connected brand-new information (a visual send tion of prime mover) with the veral information already in permanent senor. (One of the reasons that cognates (Words that are similar in wo languages) are ‘helpful in learning a new language is that they connect short-term memory 10 permanent memory in one fell swoop: if I am an English speaker, for example, {will be easier for me to remember the word for information, informacion, in Spanish than it will be for me to remember the word for city, ciudad. The fist is lost che seme asthe word I already know, and if Tread iit will be even easier than iT hear it because Tamay aot yet be familiar wih the differing sounds ofthe phonemes (see chapter 6 for a definition if you do not know what phoneme is) ‘nd the differing pattems of stress between the two languages. Similarly, learners can help create a shortcut to permanent memory by associating sounds of new ‘words with soutds that already have meaning for them, even if the grammar is not equivalent. Thus, in Arabic, someone named John could introduce himself, saying Lome Johor My name is John. Trying to rememsber ismee (name) will be mutch easier if John associates it with similar sounds in English: (it) is me. “There is no end to the ways in which such associations can be made in order 10 improve memorization. 4s4“ panna Long-term memory “Typically ones memory fasts yp to ee years example of tong-eemmesnoy isthe torsion you ler oa estan forget he ext dey or the nex semester Long-term neory general olds nfrmation tht you nead {ight now and forthe next ite bt, fuk nies tere is farther we and epeiton (Le fhe ned for as) this infomation wil nt say with you fo a cine Information abe lost om anger memory thouphtac ceca (one loeec ted of the information), stoke, ad oer ngs hat imeem wienoon (ie wil aiscuns some of there nd of interference Inter n ls cnantes ‘What this means for you asa language lens that you need ssuse Gat you tre lured and you ned have many opomnies or eating thesane hc, of tings. earing them, speaking them, and ortng ther over slave seed ot time. You have probably heard some of these sayings: a Ueto Anrep) Fovmetie a Moe fut ace meton ie e mote of ai (Russian proverb) * tenis! You can cat on orn cpporuaies repetition nd prevent anguage tho nating convenatons on similar anes wid eee oh tis. You can so iad some tps af inert o you tnd sel eee ‘sen on those topics, then write a letter to someone about wiiat you have been teaiing or wrt a rope ont or jou clas Coneansely asi ee "umf pies you he zt Concent an in swale ca oe vosablay and gemma mould wih hen feh gous nee a 8tsome point, sey wil become part of your permanent memors ea Permanent memory Permanent menor less theoretcally frees, though tna ten requting reiting ndactvaon bea ees Thisatintheree rg ‘rowledge you hav noted uta while bit wich never ely goes say) ‘What reruns an wha disappears may be very sitaind and very ch dep deat apo individuals. The see informant gets ino perma iesery owevet, the easier it will be to recall the information you need even after ats in using it, Research, fr example, as wel 2s mach personal eperence Of teachers who work with sales Who hve high levels 6 fon negocns roflney inci hat suds who supa poesia evel of rofeny aud sporosch near-astive levels can tring back tet silk ny, way sug Gren if they seem neatly tongue-tied ducing the fst hour of to tha they ty to or write Leaver, 20039), (Recepdve sls ~readog and lsening ee mot ecesible than do the productive sil, nd tht makes some sss levee Pe cat iden a bie some ine, hea sou esd agi you may ned dno eke: he ae eel ow tt Understanding cognition in the leaming process ‘We talked about how association of new information with permanently stored information can move the new information into permanent memory faster, The reverse is also crue. New information is more accessible and shortierm memory ‘tasks more readily accomplished if some ofthe “new” elements ae similar to oF the samme as elements in permanent store (MeCauley, Kellas, Dugas, and DeVillis, 1976). What this means is something thet is probably good commonsense: if you tend of heat a passage in which you already have acquired 80 per cent oF moce of the words, :t will be easier to leam the other 20 per cent than if everything in the ‘passage is new. This is another reason to do extensive reading and listening on a limited range of topics. The more you read within one topical domala, the more likely itbecomes that each new reading will contain relatively fewer new words or grammar points. Activated (working) memory Activated memory is sometimes called working memory, Activated memory is the activity of pulling together information from short-term, loug- term, and permanent memory store for the purpose of processing information. Processing activites generally consist of one or more of the following recognition recall reconstruction or construction of information, In order to tecogaize words, grammar, o¢ ideas, we need to have related infor- ‘mation about them stored in memory already. Activated memory pulls up this information so thet we can use i in a variety of ways, such as using context 10 ‘guess the meaning of new word ar using background knowledge about a topic. to figure out the gist (general meaning) of a text. Activated memory pulls together he pieces of information that we need at the time, is prety rare that we recall information as a whole. This is because information is not geucrally stored some place as a whole. Rather, specific char- scterisios are “peated off” and linked to similar kinds of infomation. Thus, information about the color of an object would be more likely tobe linked with information about color about ather objects. Size information would more likely be bound to other size information. Or, a leas, so contend contemporary psychol- ‘ogists (Reiser, 1991). Even in sentient memory, for immediate recall, categoriza- tion sezms to be significant (Greene, 1986; Greene and Samuel, 1986; Moston, ‘Crowder, and Prussin, 1971). What this means for you as a language leamer is ‘hat it will offen belp you to group lexical items for learning by different char- acteristics. Multiple groupings will provide multiple associations to help them Stay in long-tecm mmory~Also, thinking about related things can sometimes stimulate recall. For exémple, if you are trying to remember the word bail, you ‘might group it with other words for toys, with words chat start with the letter 3, ‘with words that snyme (jail, hall, mall, etc), oF, even beter, all of these, a8 Leaning Jn processing language, we do something beyond simple reconstruction. We make up new sentences and even occasionally new words. That would be con- sidered constraction, or generation. How does this happen’? We recombine stored information in new ways. Aspects of cognition: forgetting + Understanding way we forge is every bit as importantes understand- ing why we remember. Both lielp us become beter learners. In fact, forgetting is, suprisingly, essential to good learning. This is because if you forget something you have lesmed, you can releam it in a somewhat new context, and it will be ‘combined with traces ofthe previous learning, Forgetting is also necessary when Yyou are overwhelmed with new material to learn, I's ikea storm drain: it prevents Aooding. ‘There are number of things that can go wrong in the storage, recall and ‘reconstruction process, When they go wrong, we simply do not have access to the ‘information, whether we know it or not (the “tis right oa the tip of my tongue” Phenomenon) or knew it and lost it. Some of the things thst can go wrong are exieval cor, lost data, and overwritten information. Each is described below, and the reference list a the end ofthis chapler provides adtitional reading for those interested in more detail Retrieval errors Retrieval ors ooear whea you know someth (0 remember it, You have probably expesienced retrieval exons before — not just foreign-language classes but in other subject areas, oo, The answer may be oa tue tip of your tongue, but you just cannot gett to come out right. This is prety normal, and while its austratin, there is ile tht you can do about tat least uot psychologists do some more research inthis area and come up with some sid), so you might as well shrug it off and find an alternative way to say wht itis you had in mind. Since the expressions are in your memory somewhere, if you do not obsess about what happened, you will most likely be abe to recall the “orgowten” item the next time you need it. Ifyou just cannot let go of the fact tbat you do know the word or information you are aftr, sometimes association will help: whore did you hear tbe information, what else is related to that information, vwhat even might sound lice the information? All the ways in which you use association to store information in long-term or permanent memory can work in reverse to help you recall it If you are in the middle ofa conversation, however, you will ned to decide whether itis worth the ime and trouble to do that sight ow or whether a circumlocution oc paraphrase would work best to keep the conversation fosting. If you know che information, it will come :o you later {isn’t that always the way? ~ and you can reinfore i forthe next time by using it ina number of new situations so that there are even mote associations that you ‘an make when you next need it Understanding cognition nthe learing press Lost data Sometimes information really is lost. This may be because it never ‘made it into permanent memory in che fist place. Perhaps it did not stay long ‘enough in short-term memory and the “trace” of the information decayed to the point that became unrecoverable. Perhaps it did make itto 1ong-term memory, but was not used enough and had ao associations to place it into permanent memory. In any event, lost data must be relearned; it will uot show up again in the future on its own, In some cases, part ofthe inforination may be remembered, ‘Then the releaming is muck faster than the original learning, You will lose data from your language banks from time to time: that isto be expected. Just take this situation in stride and releam the information, Even the best language learners ‘experience this situation from time to ime, If you do not study or use your foreign language for a long period of time, whole chunks of data may seem to be lost. In some eases, they are lost, and they ‘ust be relearned, but relesening rarely takes more than a fraction of the time of the original learning, In other cases, the information isnot lost at all, but the pathways for retrieving via activated memory may be hard to find because they have not been nsed recently. Once found, however, more and more intersecting paths wil become accessible very quickly. Most language learners who hac good proficiency in a language that they have not spoken for a number of years can reclaim that language in pretty short order, ‘One of the authors of this book had this experience. Having achieved native-Hike proficiency in Pronch, she 4d not speak, har, write, or nae a word af French for twenty years, Suddenly, she needed good French proficiency almost immediately. ft took only fourteen hours of intensive study with a native speaker to open up ‘almost all the closed pathways ~ at east, enough of them for her to beable to use Pench ata professional level. Another had a similar experience: decades after Yearning French and Spanish in secondary school, se was called on to travel (on separate cevasions) to France and Spain, In both cases, she wes amazed st how ‘much returned when she spent fewer than ten hours in conversation witha native speaker, She was able to Function comfortably in both counties ard continue leaming. Overwritten information Memory researchers have found that human memory has & number of characteristics in common with computers. One characteristic in particular is unforwnate: new information can overwrite (Le. eliminate) old information. Some well-known studies have been made of people who witnessed accidents of historial events bor laler changed their testimony without even realizing it ‘What caused this wes the inttaduction of distorting information, for example, fa question such as: what did you see next to the white house? (Only there was ‘no White house.) Later, people remembered « white house that never was there. ‘Human memory is now considered so unreliable and so prone o being overwritten oEd Leanna, memory proveses scanty 1 | ‘ soem mony —~ ong tm mary =m perme S eel T T ‘rece deeay overwrite association iniomatin faze Figure 22 that many states will not allow the testimony of eyewitnesses alone to Serve as evidence in court cases (Luns and Wells, 1991). 1 some of the information you learn in language class is overwritten by sew information (€.. ater you lessn the past tense, you find tat you have forgotten present-tense forms) there is nothing to be done except ro relearn the old infor. ‘hution ~ without blaming yourself fer having a bad memory: The memory itself fs rot at fault here; it is nocmal for related information to overwrite information that aeady exists. One say t9 prevent this from happening to you in language classes is to repeat old information (e.g. continue t0 use the present tense on ‘regular basis) while leering new, related information. That way, your brain ‘Should perceive borh elements us distinct ploces of information and not overwsite one with the other ‘We would be remiss not to point out a positive aspect of overwriting infora- sion, [tis fortunate that ths phenomenon bappens, especially inkenguage Learning, because we ean contisually overwrite previously leamed inaccurate or inadequate language on our way to being more precise. 7 Aspects of cognition: memory strategies “There area numberof strotogios that can help the brain function more ceticienly. These include directed stention, repetition, association, clustering, key words, and mnemonic devices, to list just few. All of these have beea dliseused above, bot we will Jk at them in greater detail ere. Directed attention ‘Directed attention, sometimes called selective atention, ets you focus conly on the information that you need. This is a blessing becanse if you are reading an article or watebing a film in your foreign language, especially'when ‘proficiency isnot very advanced, there are probably many words and expressions that are simply meaningless to you. Geiting “stuck” on each new sword is not fan efficient use of your time, Nor is using the dictionary 10 look up everything you do not understand or know. Using the strategy of diected attention requires ‘Understanding cognition nthe etming process that you decide ahead of time what you want to learn from what you are hearing, ‘of reading and to look for that information specifically. It also lets you pass by ‘whatever you do not understand and focus on what you do understand, Piccing together the elements that you do understand can often help you get the gist of an entire passage, Practice and rehearsal Sometimes you just cannot get past the fact that memory needs ‘ebearsal and proctie, Before you go 10 meet a foreign conversation partner or coffee, think about the things you might talk about ~ and practice them in advance. You may end up with somewhat different topics, but some taings will be similar or even the same, and the conversation will be much easier for you. ‘You will also be improving your memory for these expressions. "There are tines too, when you just cannot seem to remember a particular word, ‘no matier how you try, You see it in a passage. You recognize it os something {you should know, but you cannot recall its meaning. In fact, you cannot even tivine its meaning! Or, you hear it im a television show, and even the context does not help. In fact, you may need that word, in particular, in order to’ make everything else make sense, Or, someone asks you a question in which that word is the most important clement, and you just simply cannot respond, Here is where repetition, repetition, repesition may help out. Repeat the expression at every opportunity. Make a game of walking to a rhythm and repeating the word or expression — especially if movernent helps you leam (see chaster 3 for more Saformation on kinesthetic lenming). Come up witha rhyme for i¢ that you then repect ad nauseam, There is 4 funny poem about just this approach. A little gil had studied her “tables o'er and o'er and forward and backward, too,” bat she “couldn't remember six times aine and dida’t know wiat to do.” Her mother tells her to call Mary Ana, her favorite Goll, “Fifty-Fout” for a while. She does it and learns the answfer to 6 x 9 with no trouble ~except that when the teacher asks het tho answer to six times nine, she unthinkingly responds, "Mary Ann” —obviously, by association, (See Fig. 23) Association ‘We have talked much about association earlier, This may be the strongest strategy you have for getting information into memory, It works faster ‘nd lasts fonger than other strategies. Moreoves, other strategies, such as clus- ‘ecing, key words, end mnemonies, have aspects of essocintion. So, whenever ‘you want to remember something new, find as many associations for if as you ‘ban. Listed below are afew kinds of associations that you might make. You can probably think of dozens more. : Does it look (spelling) ike anything you already know? : Can you put a picture with it in order to eemember meaning? . Does it sound like anything you already know? su2 canning: Fifty-Poor 1 studied my tables oer and o'er and forward ani backward 00. ‘But! couldnt remember six times nine and dat xa0w what (9 do ‘Till mother sald to play whtb my dol and not to bother my hea. “if you callher Fifty Four fora while, youl learn i by heart” she sai, Soll took my favorite Mary Ann though I thought ita tebe shame “To give such a pertecily lovely doll suc. perfect hori name, ‘Bott called her my dea ite Pity Four a hundred times till Tnew “The answer io six tines nine a5 wel asthe answer fo two pes 10, Next day Blzabeth Wigglesworth who alvmys act so proud Seid sx ties nine was Aity-b7o, and 1 aarly laughed out oud ‘But! with [hadn't won teacher sais, “Now, Doro, ell me ifyou can.” ‘Aga I thought of my dol, ang sake's alive, I answered, “Mary Ana!” ‘Author unkown Fie 23 : Do you alzeady know any parts of the word or expression’ : Can you make up rhyme or ditty that would go with it and use part ‘of that ditty for recall? . ‘Are there any connections with other languages you know, including your native language? . . Cam you aasoviate it with « persca, place, oF thing that aaight assist recall? Clustering Clustering lets you remember whole groups of information by treating the group 88 one piece of information. For example, the numbers 18396745062 ‘would probably be pretty hard to remember. There are ton separate mumabers in & specific order, Research shows us thet to remember this number, then, is beyond the capability of the average person, in that most of ws have memories that can handle seven digits, plus or minus two (Miller, 1956). However, if you were to longanize these siumbers into the structure of a telephone mumber, it would be Imuich easier to remember the full string: 1-839-674-5062. Now, there are only four pieces of information o remember, and within any group there is never more than a string of four nurmbers to cemember. This makes the task possible, What imalkes the task even easier is knowing the “script” cr format. Ail long-distance aumbers in the United States start with 1, so that mumber makes sense end is already part of every American's permanent memory. Recall is immediate and cfforless. OF the remaining three groups, 839 is an area code. It is pest likelt that the person memorizing this number is either familiar with this area code or Lives init. Agnin, this represents [arly effortless recall from permanent memory. ‘The remaining seven autobers exe a litle harder, but often the ist three of them are similar for an entire city, ané if the person memorizing that number lives in Understanding sogiin in the ening process tat city, this is once again an effortioss retrieval from permanent memory, $0, the real task boils downto remembering four numbers, and in this case, even that iseasy. One really nly has to remember 51 and the fact tthe ast two numbers ate pus one: 6 (+1) 2 (+1), So, often mmbers, the real memory skis two numbers anda formula! Plece of cake! Not all numbers wil be this easy, and not al inforonation wil be this easy to cluster, but much wil be. Let's now take verbal example, for which there are many epproaches. To remember the word ball, you might clustr it together with words that sound slike: all, all mall. You tight even make up a dity thats somewhat mnemonic in natuee (See Ninemonic Devices below): “I wil call the mall in the fall shout a bell.” Similarly les say you want (0 remember the following ten words ‘amiote, antecedent, antipathy, anteroom, antenatal, deformation, demobiza- tion, defection, and aniphon. You could cluster these into the groups: ane ant, and de-. You could even reinforce the meanings of those words, by seeing ‘which ones can use synonymous suffixes, as in antenatal and prenatal antecedent and precedent. You could also emave the prefixes, in your atempls at manip lation and clustering, to see which words exist without their pref and whic do not. Which ones can use the opposite prefix to change meaning? An exam- ple would be posinzal. Which ones take other prefixes that cause their specific ‘meaning to change, wise the basic meaning stays the samo? Exarples would be immobilization, inflection, and the like. You could go on and on with these kinds ofelusters; as you play with the words, you will lear not oaly these words but also something about how your foreign language constructs words aloag with pany new related words. Key words Key words is a popular device for remembering long speeches (Lorayne and Lucas, 1996). These are words or short phrases that are used to remind the speaker of whole passages of text. The same kinds of things can be used tomemorize speeches in a foreign language. Letus say, for example, that you need ‘oialkabout your biography frequently. Youcan memorize the phrases, sentences, and even full paragraphs of information, ‘hea recall how fo siring them together through the use of guiding key words, like “bors,” *school,” “work,” “travel.” Mnemonic devices ‘We have seen some forms of mnemonic devices already. These ae the use of chytning words or aliterative words (those that start with the same letter) ‘o remember things. If for example, you want to remember to bay five things at the store: cookies, bam, ie, potatoes, and sugar, you could scicet the word chips. ach letor in chips stands for one of th iter that needs to be purchased. ‘You can use a similar strategy in learning words, Let us say that you need 10 remember the words inockout, baxing, score, out. Using the frst letters of each of these worts, you could use the nonsense word boks to remember these four ‘words. Some learners find mnemonics complicated rouse. If tat is you, use other 38 Leanne strategies (described here and elsewhere in tis book) to help you remember what you need to remember, Many people, iowever, nd mnemonics fun and useftl- “Try using mnemonics fora while. You may find yourself inthe group that really likes asing this strategy. ‘Aspects of cognition: state-dependent learning “The research that has been accomplished on stae-ependieat learning can be very important information for language learners. What state-dependent Jeaming theory (and research) teil us is thatthe context in which we learn new information can be iosportat in. helping us remember it (or preventing us from remembering i), For example, some students have problems taking tests if they te moved to a new sect. Part of the “state” in which they had leamed the wsted information was associated with the desk at which they were sting whea they ‘were learning it, Similarly, those who have spent much sime in-country will ‘fen claim that they speak better language in-vountey. They may well be sight in that perception: part of the state in which they learned a rich and complex Set Of vocabulary was the in-country environment and the everyday realia. If you understand state-dependent learning, you can use it to advantege by recreating, fs much as possible, the state under which you learned tbe new information cxiginally "Aspects of cognition: taking advantage of the chemistry of memory Chemistry ceally does play an important rote in the efficient function- ing of activated memory, Putting the situation in simple terms, memory is moved ‘out the brain thanlcs to glucass. The production and use of gincose (blood ‘ugar is facilitated by the chemical epinephrine, which is eleased by potessive, among other things. What does this mean in concrete, useful terms? If you eat a banana, your now-potassiumrich memory might improve. Any food that is rich in potassium (for example, potatoes) is «better choice for breakfast before atest than those foods tha give you a quick energy boost (often, the enerey disappears before te test is oves). Ifthe food you eat is high in sugar, i will temporarily increase your glucose level in an intensive way, insulin willbe released to deal ‘wth it, and then the Blood sugar level will drop ~ leaving you in a “crash,” just ‘when you need to be at your most alert tis much better to eat foods that contain the chemicals that facilitate the efficient use of blood sugar, rather than fo raise the blood sugar level itself, especially ona roller-coaster basis, In the same way, i isbetier io eat a complex carbohydrate, sich as a bagel, Unen something that will release sugar immediately into the blood stream, suc as chocolate, Al eating excessive amoutts of glucose-ich foods in the morning is not an eficest sey to handle your memory-rlated glucose needs; the best way is to eat moderate amounts throughout the day. Undersaeing cognition nthe lamang roress CASE STUDY Problem Sally always does pooly on tess, Altbough she really as sued in each case and really does know the new vocabulary and new grammar rules quite well, when she get int the txt oom, she forget, When she walks out she door, however, she ‘ean asually remember wit she sold have answered onthe test. ow can Sail hep herself do beter on tests? Possible solutions ‘There could be more thn one reason for Sally’s predicament. Sally might be ‘experiencing test ansity; se also migat have an inefficient memory. n either case, ‘there are steps that Sally cas take (4) There are x amber of ways tha Sally can overcome rst anxiety; one of these is knowing that she has done all she canto make her memory ecient; anober is 0 Jearn all she can about the format ofthe test and practice that format seed of times yet another is now ora Fe te et the night before but rather 1 study ale bit ‘very night 9 chat she develope good contro over the matariis wo in advanco of the es ad can ge 8 good nights slp right before the tes, allowing her body und memory t9 Fimetion a peak evel (2) Sally cam asot bor memory by eating a benana or potatoes before her lest, aibbling on a bagel daring the tet, anc avaiing foods, such as chocolate, hat a> ‘er blood sugar rapuly and db sen i crashing, and vofTe tht provides temporary stimulation that wea of rapidly. (6) Sally can use mnemonic devices fr belping recall specifi information. Figue24 (One thing chat many learners forget is that chemicals ~ and one’s body ~ react to the intemal environment. Processes slow down when tired. Cramming for an exam might make you feel that you are gaining important last-minute information but all too often that informacion will not be accessible to you on the day ofthe test because you are too tied for your brain to process the information efficiently is much beter to get some good sleep the night before a test, even if you do ‘not feel ready forthe test, so that your brain can make efficient use of what you do know. Of course, it goes without saying, thatthe best way to prepare for atest is to start on the first day of class and learn a lle every day! Then, right before the exam, al you have to do is to review, te Mptiniie Eee eS LA ee ‘How tiny people have you heard say,“ have ao aptitude for foreign- language learniig"? Maybe you are even one of them. Before you can cvaiuate the truth of such statements, it is important to know more about aptitude. ssDefining language aptitude ‘Language-learing aptitude is often thought of as what is assessed by Janguage apttode tests (more about these below). For the most part, these tests address sich cognitive abiities as making correspondences between sound end symbol, auditory discrimination (between sounds), native-language vocabulary, memorization, and linguistic analysis, especially infers grammatical patteras from information provided on the est. These is incveasing understanding, bow ‘ver, at curent forms of tested language aptitude are only part ofthe picture ‘whe predicting learning success in foreign-language leering, However, there appears to be more to effective language leaming than the ‘actors that ar tested by apiude instruments, Some ofthese non-tested factors are related to personality, leaming style, and emotional factors, which are eated in subsequent chapters in this volume. These are aot traiionally considered aptuade factor at all, yet they have much to do with ianguage-learning success, “Among these, tolerance of ambiguity (especially comforig in situations where ‘you cannot undeistand everything) is a major element in language leaming both inside and outside the classtoom, For example, ina situaion tat demands rapid comprebension and response, oven a learner who does very well en an aplitude test might ficeze or pane a the ist new words, missing everythiig tat is said thereafter. With a greater tolerance of ambigaity, that leamer would be more Tieely to keep listning until more information comes in and permits a good guess atthe bicely meaning. Smlarly, a learner who wieraics wabigaity would be more likely to try outa response even mowing that it might at be exact ‘There is consensus among some experts (Ehrman, 1998, Sternberg, 2003, Robinson, 2002) that more investigation is needed of variables representing & broader definition of language apttade In addition to tolerence of ebiguit, they could include such factors as previous leering history, modvation, and learning style. They recommend that these be investigated to supplement traditional testa ‘nd especially for use in counseling and advising students on how to make the rost oftheir strengths and work around their less strong points as earners. or the purposes of this book, the most general definition, which takes into account all the curent and potential uses of languaye-learing aptitude, is that Consists of elaively stable factors within an inaividua that promote successful enguage learning. Language aptitude testing “The best kagwn test for language apt i tho Modem Language peiade Test (MLAT, Cael and Sapon, 1959; i sed in universes and in the government for a vty of porpees, including selecdon for ciasss. Other tplitad ets that sou night encounter icloe he Defense Language Apt Battery (Peterson and Al-Haik, 1976), the VORD (Parry and Child, 1989), the Fimsevr Language Aptie Baty (Pinsent, 1966, a language aptitude test 7 prepared some years ago ty the Modern Language Association five language apt- tade tests produced by the collaboration of the University of Wales at Swansea and Leonardo da Vinci Programme of the European Commission in Brussels (Meara, Milton, and Lorenzo-Dus, 2000), and the Oxford Language Test, which ‘was prepared by the colleges of Oxford University and is available online at ‘worm sun.thbne.ac.ak/Classice/ cucnvtest html. You should be able to find infor mation about these tests online andlor in your university library, Aptitude tests provide Valuable information about learner ability 10 cope with Janguage learning, especially in classrooms, Aptitude tests can provide consider- able data about an individual's learning skills and leataing sty. The MLAT, for example, evaluates skills and abilities related to auditory memory, making infer. ences, focusing oa whats most important, cognitive restrictaring of information, sensitivity to grammatical structare, and effective rote learning. This formation has proved very useful in helping leamers (Harman, 2000). ‘Language aptitude and you In looking at your language-learning ability, think about ai! of your asses, not jast the ones that show up on aptitude and classroom tests. Do you think fast on your feet? Are you good at making-others understand what you ‘want to say, even if itis not completely grammatically accurate? Do you listen well? Are you confident in your ability to solve problems, practical as weil us sscademie? 1 you have alow tested aptitude and no previous language-learning experience to indicate thatthe test score isnot indicative of your ability, you may need 10 ‘work closely with your tescher or other guide. Together, you can pat your learning Jnto a format that fakes advantaue of your strengths and compensates for your ‘weaknesses (or builds the lacking skills) what theseare, in particnlar, will depend ‘on your learning style and your study skills in general. Your teacher shouldbe able to analyze your answers on whatever aptitade tet you have ken andhdetermine the areas in which you will need help. Language leaming isnot an arcane science, but itdoes take thinking, work, and planning. “The important thing to remember is that 2 language aptitude score is not an infallible diggnosis of whether or not you can or stould lear a foreign language. Look at the skills required to do well on an aptitude test: holding sounds in short-term memory, comparing sounds and letters, anderstanding how grammar works, understanding how words are formed, and the like. All these things can be learned. Almost invariably, someone who has studied four fo five languages does well on aptitude tests. Why? Because they have acquited these skills while learning the various languages. Not having these skills can hold you back, so finding out Which of the skills you lack and developing that skill will go a loug way not just to increasing your splitade score but also and more important 10 Jmproving your classroom and out-of-cluss performance. Many of the topics in this book are aimed at belping you do just this.s LEARNING CASE STUDY Problem ‘Ronin is srageling with he fst uemester of Swedish. On ive advice ofthe teaches, Robin bes taken the Moders Langvage ptinude Tes, to see what the problem ‘might be. Trams out that Robin's sweats are in auditory compreension, woré Tearing, and matching sounds fo symbol, On the oder hand two parts ~ (L) word ‘oogtition nd wssignment ofa synoaym and (2) gammancal sensitivity ~ were ‘very low, What ean Robin do about i) Possible solutions (2) Robin should examine the strengths dhe MLAT hes revealed and wor with the teacher 9 ses HOW she ca take advantage of these. (2) Knowing tht she hata weakness in spotting and mien seorguning whats Jmportan, Robin should work with the teacher o practice doing his with easy ‘nus at rst enc as cfferences in word ufixes and prefises,builing up 10 sare eificult ones (spellings that are in free varistion, reading between te ines ‘ven finding the topic Setence is u text ~ Its ao always a the begining i some Fanguages, 3 tis in Rags, 2) Whon she fees overwhelmed, Robin stoalé nd things about he Tange sn jes stady that maintain her motivation, peahaps keeping a ary tbat licis postive selfalc and records er successes. ‘Metacognition, ¢s mentioned in chapter 1, i “thinking about think- ing.” Itrefes to being aware of your language-learning behaviors and progress, self-monitoring, and planning, Metacognition plays a very important roie in Tanguage learning. Notonl is it important for the long-term planning of teaming ‘otivties, perbaps even throughout your career andor life, bt ts also important fog ensuring the most successful use of your time during courses of study. ‘When we discussed planning in chapter 1, we were describing one of the most important metacognitive activites, Planning, or forethought, is just the frst etacognitive step. In addition to planning, you will need to monitor and set priorities, «wo more important metacognitive strategies ‘Monitoring 7 “Monitoring refers o paying attention to what youare doing while you ‘are learning. Tracking what you are doing permits you to remember it when it ‘comes time to evaluate it, (The tracking doesn’t need 10 be intensive, but you ‘Waderstancng cognition ine Iearaag process have to pay enough attention to be able to recall something of what you did wer) For example, when you are sitting inthe classroom, are you paying attention to what the teacher is saying? What do you think the teacher will do next? How are you doing? Are you keeping up? Are you having problems? ff you are having problems, what are you having problems with? If you can identity your problems, ‘you can plan to workon them as par of your homework or you can ask the reacer {or some additions! help, ‘Monitoring your progress can provide tremendous insights info what you can and should do to improve your own success in language acquisition. Done well, it usually provides wonderful insights daat you can use in any planning that you undertake, What should you monitor? Everything, including, but not limited ‘0, the following: Your overall progress Your specific successes fand any lack of success) ‘Your learning-stratepy use ‘Your materials Your use of time . ‘Your feelings Progress ‘As mentioned in chapter I, there are expected rates of progress in acquisition for individual languages. How does your progress siack up? If you do not know, arrange to take a proficiency test. Slower than the average? See if you can find ont why. What aspects of language learning are troublesome for ‘you? Talk to your teacher. Determine whether your progress really is slow or ‘hot when you compare it to that of your classmates. It could be that de class is ‘moving more slowly as a whole, On the other hand, if you are moving faster tan ‘thers in your cass and/or than the average expected, do not just pat yourself ‘on the back. Find cut what has helped you be successful and become even more ssuccassfil Specific successes Besides overall progress, itis important to know in what aspects of language learning you are succeeding well ad where you ae not succeeding as vel, Evaluate the success of the language items you are working on. If you are focusing for now on the past tense, evaluate in general terms tow fend and bow accurstely yoirare using it. Ata higher level, you might asses tow well you -2e using the sight register (Socal style level) for the people you ae talking co. ‘An advasood language user should not be using o register implying familirity ‘with high-sates strangers, or instance 2Learning-strategy ase Feary 30 often, you should evaluate the leaming stragies you ae on them ny be no longer sf beease you have eared ons sins. $0 vou have reached a level of proficiency where they no longer help OE ee pmo ones. For exemple a Jower rss, you ey need ye pe words in a oitionary or guess their meaning from context. At Look us owever, You might be able to igure ont the meaning based on the er your Kaowledge of word fwrtion, andor compaisoa ay that Yoo sed) pens sine Materials eae aril you are sing. Can Yo nd eter ones? Are ing ito safe and using things that ae 100 easy for you? Or are they sou ing 06 noe fo mosh ener or ging ngs otc kg tard 5 he diotonay when, with diferent materials, yoo would need ia for these activities and coule ‘spend more time on the information itself, jt oti and tlre ear oh plain of pat you aay OW? se of time ‘rs oot at how much ime you ate spending on your langue ae ar gr ht wnt Kee a lary fora werk inode teaming pe use beter. Total time is imporant, of course. 8 you are spending ea ie en en os Yay eed eit ang te. eo npran to. Wire docs the grees amcant of ie <7 On yorabulary? On grammar? On application? If you ae spending Be on og (rane esr man) a f= aD oe eo might Want to Teasses and see you can ind ore opportunkes oe ton. al] you time is spent on knowledge activities ant by eee but by sepa en your overall progress in Teaming the language may be affected, necessity ET examine wht hong you bck. Take aok atthe foor sls yyy spend more sve spesking, Zeading, writing, or Rstening? [the rela. 10. D090 ea works for you? Would afferent mix woe beter or You? ea paw mat ne yu spend sing at mater arabe: Sop ie Feelings “Assess your feelings, Are you feeling discouraged? If so, take 2 look thank abont how you can get yourself out of the doldrums. Are you sed and eucoessful? Tf so, find ways to give yourself more of the same. wuself for Your suecestes ~ oven when the successes are small ~ can ational oor bo ‘specie at why and seating plo Rewarding ‘pebibly moti Undecsanng cognition inthe esring proses CASE STUDY Problem ‘Alex as been struggling with homework. The teacher is very helpfl in clas, {guiding him and bis classmates through the matenal presented, but he assumes that ‘be students wil know how to stuy th ext and what hss beea done at home on thet own, The teacher seldom gives explicit astiguments and Alex is sure be sn ‘sing his time well. He fees he is dtnwaing in sew things fo leam. Possible solusions (D) Alex needs 9 develop som: metacognitve skis He needs to work on planning ‘Suggestions fisted above will help im 101. (2) Anespecially important metacogntive stvty is examining the whole Geld of ‘hate has to do every dag and selecting only the cost important things He should select he three most imporant things, and then the next thee. When he Finishes dhe first set, be can then move on tothe next st (©) Even fe isa leamer who Hikes to crgenize things for himseli and feels restricted when forced to learn things ina step-by-vep manner, he may benefit from taking a reiaiely sequential approach here Because he necds to Limlt what he attends to and stick to one thing ata time, (4) While he is developing these skills, te should sonst with bis teacher to conte his proves. Figure26 Setting priorities, Setting priorities is just as important in language learning as itis in many other aspects of your life, Setting priorities will be far more effective i you base your priorities on che resilts of monitoring and evaluating. If you find, for example, that you are weak in speaking and yet you spend less time on speaking than on the other three skills, you might waut to make opportunities to speak a higher priority in your learning pian. Setting priorities may also lead to redoing your learning plan. This.is not bad; this is good. Leaming plans should be redrawn periodically. In fact, Af you apply the metacognitive strategies described here, you will find that ‘metacognition ig the key 10 independent learning. It is the essence of what 's called “self-regulation” in chapter 9. A self-egalating learner plans, moni- tors, evaluates, and replans (setting priorities, in that process). There is alist of specific self-regulating strategies you can use in the ection on self-regulation in chapter 9. ae LEARNING eS Rev ag youcomidred a mimerof nes, The cont of bee hanes can be swmatized 88 follows «+ Coppition; he peocest of thought 1 Memory: tbe sorage of infomation 1 Language aptitude: the abil to leer a foreign language 1" Metacognition: thinking about sinking Contagion erro langage eng tbe Seco eae ou say, he me sem You have os Your sage trnag ot ote Sony; on aso J ih bow mic oo ee er wh ow Quek yu can eal Meno Meme syns sein a ay lasing nem 1 piste, procedural, and seantic memory 1 sttenonawereness 1 Shor-irm, long-term, permanent and working memory forge © peri cue Seating in fe ong zun 1D paemory va be ovornmiten, Shen memory of previcusTy known information fais, ican be because tones mettory his been overwriten or because aciveted memory ‘momentarily cant rexore the ifomaticn, (@) Memory can be assed i several ways ' Proper auton 1+ Proper rst + Repetition + Association Aptitude {Qy Apttide nota single, monoltbie construct. ) sete locas leaned Bs role ompente nok es. Metacogrtiton (Q) Planning {@) Setting Prcrtes £3) Monitoring (@) Braluatng { i | } { } Understanding cognition lade fern process & : peasant ~ ogists So Pikclict hat fod Nake learndal 2S SD ‘You have a foreign-language fst tomoerow, std unfortunately you tave not kept up with your assignments. Which ofthe following steps might you tke tn improve you chances of epassing gradeon the test? Exactly how will you doit? Explain why you decidedio take a specific approach or not to take it (Think about your ova personal strengths and weaknesses, as you enower and explain where they mater and ‘where they donot) T's never to late ~ stay up late, cramming &. Review whatyou do know and make sure thats solidly under your contro «©, Learn s much of the new materia as possible in time to get a good nights sleep. 4. Got up eaey to study and review. Drink a strong cup of coe before heading off to the exam, £ Fatahslanced breakfast to include bagel nd ana, before head- ing off the exam. Assess whether you willbe reviewing oral or waitten materials, so that you cam play to your owa stengths. 2 Do you consider your language learning aptimde good, bad, or middling? _ Ce what grounds? (Ruperienva? Comparison with others? ete) 'b Aptitude isa compiex thing. Consider what you do weil in language Teaming and what isa’tso easy with you, Listibesein two columns. ce. What do you doo cape with te items inthe weaknesses column? ‘What can you de that you are not doing now? 3. (Quickly assess your tolerance of ambiguity a What do you do when you hear or read word you do not uider- stand? »b. How do you react when you come across @ wort thit looks like one you already know but means something either a ile or a ot dierent? ©. What is your response to grammar that is completsly diffrent from what yon are used to, such as aumber classifiers or politeness levels in Asian languages, or different kinds of passive voice in Indonesian or Philippine anguages? (You might need to take tip ‘othe ibeary and finda grammar book ona very different language tobe blero answer this question; you ight doth in combination with task 4 below.) 4 ‘Tage a look at the language family chart in chapter 1. First, find a Janguage related tothe one you are studying and find aut four or five ‘things ithas in common with your language. Thea, select a language from another fanmily and find outa least three ways in which itdiffers from your language. 638 LEARNING 4 eeamnawa 1 you ‘vant to' lean more about che topics in this chapter, you might consult the following sources: Carroll and Sapon (1959); Eheman (19989); Golinkoft ‘and Hlirst-Pasek, eds. (2000); Goodison (1987); Leaver (19998); Leaver (19990); RRestale (2002); Restak (2003); Robinson, ed. (2002); Robinson (2002); Schachter {2002}, Skeban (1998); Skehan (2002); Stemberg (2002); Stemberg (2003); Stoviek (1996), Preview “This chaper introduces you to the concepts of learning styles and lnting stiiegies. These are important concepts that we sill refer to throughout this book and have, in fact, made allsion to in chapters Land 2, Leaning styles snd learaing seategies afect the nature and quality of learning, whether or notte leaner knows anything about these concep ora. Therefore, is Detter to have an understanding of ther, so thst you can consciously use tis information :o good advantage. Tops in ths caper include: Definitions of learning styles and learning strategies, + Learning styles. Learning styles are habivel pater of perceiving, processing, 0 ecting to information + Learning strategies. Lesroing strategies are the specific actions one takes andi techiqus one uses in order to learn, ‘Kinds of learning styles. Ths chapter civdes leuring styles into the following categories ‘+ Sensory preferences. Sensory preferences refer to de chuunels rough whic we peosive Infornstion which consist of visual, auditory, and motor modalities, s «minimum. + Cognitive styles. Copntive styles refer to ineividualized ways of processing of| information. Maay modi of cognitive styles have baan proposed. This chapter presents the BA Constrec in detail: this particular model organizes most ofthe work on cognitive styles into one system of cognitive profes. + Personality types. These are another kind of leaming syle. Since they involve aecive (emotional) factors, hey ate discussed in chapter 4, along With other affestve variables “Learning strategies, In addition to memory strategies, which wee discussed in chaps 2, and couumonicetion strategies, which willbe aiscussed in chapter 10 there are compreersion strategies and production seatgioe. This part ofthe chapter is cvided int the following subtopics + Deep and surface strategies. This dichotomy includes strategies that require maximam thinking (he. much cognitive activity and attention); these are celled deep strategies. There are also other stages that reguice minim thougat; these are called sue strategies + Taxonomies of learning strateges. A numberof authors have attempted to onanian the myriad of possible learning srtegis into systems, or taxonomies. Several ofthese are verviewed here; fr the learns who wants more information about learning styles, ay ne of tse ixoaomies Is worth exporing on one's own,6 EARNING Te gies afr aleig er Tampon ree Specie st anc acs hele Se thw ‘eau cae 1 uuton rap Scie sta tren oc nv Snes ow pena nth au and. ‘There is a close relationship bet ply een sles and stg Te tlt reap eee Fare au ncn ff aH PDAS) WY sa ene what to ue te cng roma Tu non xo oa Do et Te eStats, Sth nd 10 seo aids that ‘when youu info woubien comping an ignment xin mang sin aaa ingnng grfclensy in your fori langage, it oer nar ouaredng when ule, Tectia eben eh pa ale agai, These args en fal ta areconidretoreressta ore asset of nde Xan ses Lening ss ae convenient shel fr ling {at ea dl iyo prefer tale. For exa, si foo asim ot ebak hape by sapere bes sore Fas approach is refered 10 a sequential syle because people with tis ses asec of retloe orpelte-mind wep et Wee Se tae eaeastg si clad roo: penle wth nao eye ead oper oollow wher deat of auing ee ert lean ike ne. Tet sequent: bat pele, oe 28 en 1 cab sefuentl ae sys, or bbiual, genta aproaches fr ahem, Sons ble vier ane crain Spore ang sates, sch 84 ch te stern iin eas of afomatn (dom) rmemberag ees Sohn rim cron re Geena or ay fe EMO 2 a iver pve i cha |ab Ne rao one ea Aa He eating sl, Hed, eo ae teemts hve someting i common and we feral. The sme bev np invarios yes weisoarntischape For cy reading over lng cn det asa sl abet reser or novi (fr extareson) 3245 exampl shan auditory) newscmuenat, ical eo eS “Leaming styles come in several avors or, using adifferent metaphor, sve might sey that there are a number of ways to slice the earning style pie ie are useful for achieving success in spesking and Learning styles end lamin saegisn Leaver (1998) suggests that we slice it in atleast four ways: sensory preferences, ‘cognitive styles, personality ypes (see chapter 4), and envizonmental needs, For some people, one of these categories may be more important than others. For other people, the categories have more or less equal valence. so uname aoneme ae Sensory preferences Sensory preferences are sometimes called Kinds of memory (08 in “visual memory”), KAV (refering tothe types of sensory preferences: Kinesthetic, auditory, or visual), and perceptual styles. They are the pysieal channel through ‘which student iake in and perceive new information: ear, eyes, and towed, and directly relate to the perceiving (or aitenional) aspects of cogeition. The typ cal categories used by spevaliss in learner differences are visual, auditory, and ‘motor ~ these ee deseribed below. Sametime, though, you might also ear the ‘word Naptic. Haptic leamess use their hands and thei sense of touch to learn ‘hrougi how things fel to them, Examples include wocking on 2 foreign alpha- becby racing sandpaper eters, using block eters to spel out words, ang forming leters with clay. There are also catgories for sense of sinell and taste, bu these ae minor styes. We describe the most common ones here. ‘Visual learning Visual ieamers acquire new vocabulary primarily through sight; they understand grammar better when they can read about itn a DOOK. Leaver (1998) Gefines two kinds of visual ieaeners: imagists and verbalists. ‘When imagists hear or reed something in a foreign language (or in their native Janguage, for that mates), they see a picture of what they have heard or read. In other words, thoy make an image of it. They understand through that image, and ‘hey typically store the information in their memory as an image. The image, then, is more likely to help them recall the words or grammar than isa vecbaf prompt. \Verbalists,on the other hand, see words. If they hear the French word, sole, for example, they will not nevessarily see a picture of the sun; that is what the lmagisis would do. Rather, the verbalists will see the lewers s-o-be-i1 in their heads. Verbalists store tbe letters, and when they have difficulty remembering & word, they can usually zemember the initial leter or some ofthe leters init. They do act associate the word with an image but with the letters that compose. For veshaliss, eading is a key to remembering - much more so than with imagists, ‘Verbalisis, not surprisingly, are much better at correct spelling (and very likely the winners of most spelling tees are vesbalists or people who have leamed the kinds of memory strategies thst come naturaly to verbaists). ‘Visual earuees ean cope wita and even take advantage of non-visual activities ‘hat come in the classroom by applying strategies that are used by auditory and ‘motor leamners or by turning en auditory activity into a visoal one, An example ofthe former is using raythm or ditties (as mentioned in chapter 2) to remember new vocabulary words, An example of the later is remembering phrases for aseaman se phases onthe ceiling, then eadin roleplay by auginng that VoH.cae se the eee 7 them aloud. earning pattae fers acquice new inforraation through sound; they hear Ems nin provide he with hes te eanng ow ven pit 2, ge very quskto eam to mak these dre of whatthey are hearin, OCT" con language, Leaver (1998) divides audvory when they are speak rl leamess and orl earners Jearaers io v0 OUP ening to others. They tend uct take nots incest Sara eer eas gy ea Ty wal pe Bod because ey esully Tun gure otter the essence of broadcasts and “serng noes rrined in tem ~ or both, depending on thelr leaming style; mes she de accents. and bave generally re ing hres Cal eames, hen, Ike to tak “Thi at arog tbomselves alk is often esse tir daly recone ean bearing gore it in memory. Whereas aural Jeamers n y end information 2 or pu, ich becomes their input, Simply pa, inp, ora earners Net g wea they hear themselves speak. As classmates, they they gettoTenmby bene ruptive because they talk “all the time.” However, if cat be prosived 10 96 quantity and quality oftheir learning would dinish ‘hey wereto top aie gamer you may ecome confused or impatient if you To ce ain os ey een Va ateasked earn at, Since much of language learing is visul, with 2 tolerances for visual tg that students are asked to accomplish being reading. od a coi tS re oer cope WA non-aory and writing, chances Osis by using some of the same strategies tht visual sequiements, You ca sual equirement into an auditory ne. An exemple Ie er iS rani tes ne of ome wi 9 0 OK OR ever oF 9 aie speaker eso ay wo nl xt fr you~ then ed hem as ou sen. Tom some of Your easing O88 Fading aloud or subvocelizing (saying the words _ctivitis into auditor); you can use tis Latter strategy not only when you to youn ens ane cree sing Me wwii ets aig Whe he oa a rart pean so tems ar soit oration, Kiet referees ae only sate description of Ig Quite obviously, given the tenninology, motor Jears~ ‘one kind of eae vavion through movement. The differences among motor rs acquire new Hi Leaver (1998), are based on the kinds of ravscles being tena co (as les me body) o fe mor mee (agers or hands). “Learning syes and leering seis CASE STUDY Probiem Marilyn is wally alert ane imerested, but sometimes she finds herself drifting off in class, She i vaguely aware of the need todo more than ead and speek, but it wasn’ unit she heard about Zeamng tyes that she started fo Suspect tai She & ‘motor leamer. Now that she may have discovered at leatt ane possible cause for her lapses o attention, what can she do about ic? Possible solutions () Marilyn can voluntese for movement asks, fom the mundane job of passing ‘ut papers o gong to te brary to research a sputed word, (2) She can work on lash cars, aking her own cards rather than buying ther ready-made. (©) Mariya eight take the iniative in proposing and organizing exeursions cr role plays (4) She would do sll o enlist ber teachers support forthe occasional change a routine to enhance the leamting envievoment forex Figue 3. ‘Kinesthetic leamers are in perpetual motion. They use their entire body for Jeauing, In laguage Classes, role plays and total physical response acuvties (hose that require some kind of physical response, such as carrying out com- ‘mands) help them lear and remember new vocabulary and grammar ‘Mechanical leamers like to write, They also like to draw and doodle. tn lass, their fingers are rarely ide. They lera by taking notes, writing compositions, and even copying, ‘Unfortunately, most classrooms are nct well setup forthe motor leamer. Much work is done in the same seat with oply occasional breaks. If you are a motor Jeamer, you may need to find ways to move while seated. One way you can do this is by using your hands, Some kinesthetic learners, while preferring fo use their arms and legs. find that taking copious notes can provide enough activity to keep them ftom fidgeting. (By the way, doodling really is okay as am assis to learning for mechanical and kinesthetic learners ~ but Keep in mind that some ‘eachers do consider it rude.) Let your teacher know that you like eld trips and role plays. When studying on your own, fd ways to move with the rhytim of the language, even to the point of dancing a litle to sentences. “Cognitivestyles ie A ‘The terms learning sryle and cognitive style are found throughout the literature on learning. They ere often used interchangeably, though some researchers make a distinction between them. In this book, we treat lesming style °0 EEARKING 4s'a mote general term. Cogaitive styles, then, are specifically preferred forms of activity associated with information acquisition and processing. vAs with other kinds of learning styles, cognitive styles are habitual patterns ‘of processing information. In this case, we are talking about thought processes {as opposed to perceptual ones, as with the sensory prefereices, oF to emotional ones, a8 in the case of personality types). Interest in cognitive styles is n0% new. Dating from the days of Hippocrates and his protégé, Galea (tsines, 1996), tbe differences in individual approaches to leeming have fascineted researchers. In the twentieth century, many flew con cepts were introduced to the tield of cognitive styles research, and a number of ‘ends of pies (learning styles consiructs) have been suggested. Some of your teaches may have introduced you to brain dominance (Torrance, 1980), Leacn- ing Styles Inventory (LSD) and being a master student (Bilis, 2002; Kolb, 1985), AMAT (McCarthy, 1980), Gregorc’s Information Acquisition Inventory (Grogorc, 1982), Sternberg’s mental government model (Sternberg, 1994). and. the E&L. Construct (deseribed below). The later incorporates many of the ele~ rents of the previous style models und is the one that is used throughout this book. ‘The E&L. construct "Tae Esl. model originated irom dissatisfaction with existing epprouches to cognitive styles, which were leading to misdizgnoses and confusion tout the meanings of terms, Eheman and Leaver (1997, 2003) selected a variety of cognitive syle scales, most of them from the research and models mentioned fn the above section, chat were informative to them in their work with students, ‘Looking for a way to organize the many concepts that had been floating about ‘over the past twenty year, they sought ~ and found ~ overarching categories that ‘ould organize the various proposed cognitive styles into a screamlined model. ‘They called these overarching categories synopsis (adjective ~ synoptic) and ecta~ ss (adjective - ectente), using the Greek words for a process that is holistic (synopsis) and extended and atomistic (ectasis. In foreige-language leaming, synoptic leaming is eliat on inaition and subconscious control whereas ectenic Teaming geaeeally occuts under the conscious control of the learner. Bach of these “poles” is composed of ten cognitive scales that are subscales in he B&L Construct. Thus, the E&L Construct can be graphically portrayed as shown im table 3.1 “As seen in the diagram, the urabrela scale is synoptic and ectenic learning. This scale is composed of subscales that reflect various aspects of synopsis and ectasis, [Each subscale contributes different and important information to a learnec’s profie, ‘Descriptions of the ten subscales follow: they are listed in alphabetic orden, ‘with the synoptic pole named first, Consider yourself and what you are most comfortable with a8 you read the desctiptions LLeacing sys and leaning stregioe a en a con etndfcat Sale bgt Smad ~~ ESS alanis ft etal ett ieee ett Bom eno Sets eae eat ee a eg at ace i eee Ss Ste sooec Ce pect ttt tte fendi; iteag seule ams Ramin and en Sea Ete leet ese se ee Se ee tere ote eee a ee Co en i etna me 2 = ier = Sa eed eel et Al eae (tote oe fee ||| Pere a fpr eu seer Uf ee mnie ate mew: Toemg aie ing Ea wholes f (1) Analogue digital scale. Ehrman and Leaver (1997, 2003) also introduced {his scale. Itaddeesses the degree 10 which a learner tends to seek connections of meaning among words, structures, or other units of, of the other hand, the degree to which a leamer prefers to work at a more surface Level. . Analogue learers gravitate to the use of metaphors, analogies, and ‘conceptual litks among units and their meanings. These learners tend to have a clear preference for learning material in icaningful context : Digital leaner ako a more surface approech, dealing with what they ‘can see or hose directly, Their understanding is generally teal and under the kind of conscious control typical of ectenc learns,taal 2 Examine Sometimes, iis important to vse metaphoric approaches: tls can be especially Sevortart when Tearing in county where synopticlandlog leamers may hve iavrejact advantage. There are also times when iis appropriate to use teal aches. rote memory strategies. oe peer ef. Tis ele Wa node by Grego: (982) se swgguned an interelatonshp between the coneete-absract seule and the AB dour sequential sale (see below). The B&l. Construct, however, seas these ramctaies 2 separate and sabordinats to te greater, overarching categories of ope and etic Icering. Tbe consrte-bsract scale in genet considers ‘remount of hands-on experience that an individual learner prefers. Concrete earners use real materials and examples for learning. They ‘ue hands-on, experiential learners. The learning {inpat, materials, Srecedures, te.) are generally consciously controlled either by the leamer or, snore frequently, by the eacher, “Abstract lamers, on the other hand, prefer pictares arc explanations. ‘They learn throug lecture and concept. They secept theory well ‘They are, in essence, “book lamers.” Some are sble to apply the book learning t real ie easly; others have more cificlty doing 80, he ves of where youre earings foreign language will atoning whet cere eee at eamis prtrenecs wl be avanageous of dnvanay ay sal sans wall a or ftps oyb once aaa a sanidenble advantage On the oer han, When working ca ey ith texto, au eteicebaeact sl ean have a sin ae a ndepndent-felddependan sae The concpto ietindependencs reer or ong tine (kn sd Goodenough, 198). The scl aia ase id inpendence i atest hat look at bow api a inte sail geomet od wins mowecompls diagram he ak raises ona larger object, own as "be Bel). The more an a eng he bjt you we seeking rom te Hed aout si ndepenten you are You ay av ken such "hidden igre” ta moe een cel dy, Hyon dot, Youneyhavebad chance to ne eer eene fr these sles by doing any aunberof ze tat a tnt tiddon iets or nna i aicure. Fgwe32is an example a tna Look ate shape o the le and Bad i hese on at ioe by Win and Goodetough wer aerated 0 sr ee at oign languages Mote reel, some rescues bye ee eatonhip been he Wikn- Goodenough concept and svo=s eign engage ein Ses, 198) instrument ‘Leaning sys and earning sag Figure3.2 Sample Embedded Figur Test tem: Find the simple shape onthe et ‘in the complex figure onthe ight : Field independence, in foreign-language learning, means being able to select something of importance or interest for focus, The process ig automatic. . Field dependence. following Ehrman (1996, 1997), is construed as the absence of field independence, Let us take some examples 10 see how field independence and field depen- ence infiuence language learning, Pechaps the study of plurals is on the docket in your class syllabus. If you are a synoptirfield independent leamer, you will probably instinctively notice plural forms wherever you encounter them, without consciously searching for them. Vou may also find yoursetf unconsciously select- {ng plural forms that are new to you from among all those that you encounter and then organizing the different forms so that they are easier to deal with, If you ae feld dependent, then you may rely on your textbook, teacher, or syllabus to ‘organize these forms prior io your seting about learning them. One of the most Jnportant functions of syllabi and instructional guidance ist point out te things thet watter, if you are an ectenilfield dependent learner, you caa use these items ‘0 good avail, ‘More than the other dimensions, field independence is often considezed tobe an bility andi tested as one through hidden figure instruments, For purposes ofthe Ehrman and Leaver model, however, we are testing itas a processing preference. (To be sure, preferences often lead to abilities through frequeat practice) (4) Field sensitive-feld insensitive scale, Inan effort to avoid the apparent pejo- ative implications of the term field dependence, Ramitez and Castaieda (39744 LEARNING coined the’ term field sensitivity. Ehrman (1996, 1997) built on preceding work ‘on the feld independence-dependence construct to unpack field dependence ito ‘vo Seales instead of one, These scales ae (1) field independence vs. the absence of field independence (called jield dependence in her system, presented above} and (2) a separate approach, for which she adopted the term field sensitivity, with the resuitant scale being fcld sensitivity vs. field insensitivity. The difference between the two scales ean be summarized inthis way: whereas afield indepen- dent Jeuoner focuses ona part of the whole, afield seasitive learner stays aware of the whoie learning environment, including social relationships and background phenomena, and absorbs a great deal from what is around anc in language, i. ‘rom what is heard or read. : Field seasitive learners use the full language envionment for com- pretension and learning. : Ficld insensitive learners do not focus on the language environment butrather pay aitention toa particular language element being studied. Classrooms tend to be information-poor environments. This can be a problem for feid-sensitive earers I you are afeld-sensitivetearner, you can ake advai- ‘age of your earning preference by finding opportunities to overhear the teacher ‘alk to others, listening to native speakers talking on tapes of videos, reading, noticing posters, overhearing the questions and conversations of other studeats, and the like, All of these opportunities will provide you withthe rich source of Information, eplote with all kinds of additional detile and content, ia. a field” of information, that you may need for understanding new words and grammatical ‘usages that you have not seen before. Field-insensitive leamers will probably fare beter in classrooms that teat language as isolated grammar rules and vocabulary items for rote memorization ‘haa they will in classrooms where the teacher uses « communicative approach. If you are a field-insensitive leamer in a communicative classroom, you might asic your teacher or peers to help you develop the kinds of strategies that you will need to take advantage ofthe weaith of additional information that accompanies the authentic texts and tasks that are typically used in communicative classrooms. For example, you might ry © become adept at the strategies of applying back- ‘ground information, hypothesis formation and confirmation (for confirmation, ‘you may aced to look at the bigger picture), and finding supporting details for your hypotheses (looking for these will also help you stat io use surrounding information on a regular basis). (5) Global-particular scale. Toe global-partcular dimension was first sug- gested by Ehrman and Leaver (1997). Ie efers tothe learner's breadth of Focus. . LLeamers who prefer global processing attend to an image as a whole (as opposed o its parts). For them, tae most important thing is seeing and understanding the “big picture.” Informally, we often distinguish between people sho “see the Forest” and those who “see the res.” Learning sys an feacringstegies ‘Global learners ar the ones who see the forest and may miss the tres, ‘They process information ina “iop down” mancer, focusing on overall, ‘meaning frst and details ater ~if at all I they miss enough details, the meaning that they “invent” can stray quite far from realty, . Students who display particular processing are attentive to discrere ‘tems and details. They are aware ofthe various kinds of “trees,” rather ‘han the forest per se. Their processing of information is “bottom np,” seeing the form frst and the general meaning second, Sometimes the details become important to them independently of any relationship to larger concepts, creating a different kin of ditficulty for them. If you area global learner, you are likely fo went to sat with aa overview of the materia, an, i ory extreme in preference for global processing, fee! thatthe job is done wien the main ideas are understood. First, you should always ask for the overview since it wil help you understand better. Second, having eveived ibe ovecview, spend some tine thinking about te dtlls and how they work together to build the big picture. For example, in writing you may want to re-read your ‘work more than once beeause global eamers often look at their own mistakes and see as they should have been written, not as they have bean written. Sometimes, itiseven beter odo your writing at night nd check it overin the morning when itis no longer fresh in your mind In contrast, if you area particular leames, you will probably plunge into dhe specifics of the material at hand, focusing on the words, sounds, o grammatical components. If exteme, you may not take the details to & moze abstract level ‘where they ar@ instances of generalities (e.g. you may ty to lam the conjugation of each new verb you encounter when you could learn just 2-3 different pattems that would account for nearly all the regularly conjugated verbs) or relate them to laiger context (e.g, treaing the sentences in a passage as isolated examples vthout understanding what they contribute to the meaning of the whole text). One thing you might like todos prepare ar outline ofthe content of any passage you se reading; that wll force you to pat the details int alrger format so chat you will begin to see the big picture (6) Impulsive-refective scale. Impulsive-relletive differences ae yet ancther Jeaming-syle domain important to the classroom, This concept relates to the speed and manner of processing & response 10 a cognitive stimulus (Messick, 1984) . . Impulsive leamers think and respond nearly simultaneously. They tend tocomplete their work more quickly but often with less accuracy than reflective learners. They often give facile answers. . Reflewtive learners think, then respond. They tend to show more Jvoled and deeper levels of thinking. Reslective earners more offen than not work accurately, but their slowness sometimes means that ‘work is incomplete16 EARNING “Inlanguage classrooms, elective learners experience the same kinds of prob- Jemstbat they experience in othee subject-matter courses. Although many of them ate highly aceurste, they ae handicapped on spezded test that do not allow thea to tum material over in their minds. In classroom exchanges, they may lose outro rmoce assertive and impulsive classmates. Ifyou area reflective learner, you may svant to look through your lessons in advance, prediet some ofthe questions that trill come up, and prepare your answers in advance so that at last some ofthe time you ean compete with your impulsive peers. You may also need to Year to fccept the fact that making erors in clas in a foreign Tanguage is okay ~ there is wally no way a foreign-language lene can avoid makiug mistakes at times. {fact if you think about it, any ative speakers make smal mistakes in their language performance a times) Th language clas‘ooms, impulsive learners generally do well. In language learning, however, impulsivity an lead toa lack of monitoring (paying attention to what you are saying), As a result, if you are an impulsive lamer, you may evelop ingrained habits of speaking with mistakes that you ignore, and this ean Jeadto yourbeing “stick at lower levels of proficiency: We call this phenomenon “ossilzation.” if you find accuracy to be a problem for you, you might deliber- suely work on building « monita by recording your own alk, the listening corecting it, ond saying it again comecty (2) Inductive-deductive sale. Induotion-deaetion differences were fist used in the field of logic Peire, 1878), to indicate going from exarmpls to hypoth- sis Gndnction) vs. gong ffom hypodhess to examples (dedetion). In foreign- Tangusge learning, induction generally means using examples to Sgure ont rules and decuetion as using rules to identify and understand examples . Tnductive Teamers form hypotheses, then test them. They may only rarely eekteacher support. They enjoy seeing a multitude of examples ‘and intuiting what the rule should be and sometimes cannot get enough, ‘examples during clas. . Deductive learners study the rules, then practice applying them 0 examples, They prefer to get these rules either from the teacher or from references, Like Sequential processing, deductive processing can save some cognitive load (the amount of material the brain is expected, to process simultaneously) because the learner does not need to work ut the rules. “Whethér inductive learning or deductive Yearning will be advantageous in 9 porticular language program depends very much on the teaching method of the course. If you find yourself as an inductive learner in a deductive viassroom, ‘perhaps the most typical mismatch, there are some things you can ao that will Allow you to lear through your preferred style. For example, ifthe teaches"s ‘explanations fil the quiet time you need for processing in your head and figuring ‘Learning styles apd onan stratgiea things out for yourself, do. your induction in advance at home, Look through the next day's materials and learn whatever you can and want from them. Tat ‘way, You will often have better control of your classroom output the following dey. If you are a deductive leamer, you may experience difficulty sometimes in ‘working with authentic materials, especially where you do not know all the words and have to “guess” some of them from context. One military officer we know who ‘was in foreign-language program insisted that he “did aot become a captain by gucssing.” This is probably tuo, but some guesswork will be essential in foreign. Fanguage classrooms. You cu use what you already know to guess better. If you are reading a text and do not know a key word, think about the subject matter ‘and what you have read so far in the text, Based on that, what do you think the ‘word might mean? If this does not help, think about word composition; can you guess now? Jf you are stll lost as to meaning, let the word go. Read ahead in the text; it might become clear then. If you have secess to a dictionary, you will probably find yourself wanting to look i¢up. That is okay. Other times, in real life, You may not have a dictionary, so ty, fst, co figure i out without a dictionary if syou can, (8) Leveling sharpening scale, Leveling and sharpening represeat an impor ‘ant difference in cognitive processing that bas a substantial effect on iow leam- xs handle fine distinctions and how they remember information (Holzman and Gardner, 1959; Mevsick, 1984), . Wher lesening new information, levelers meld sngether inthemation that may be distinctly diferent and come from a number of sources, ‘Therefore, when ic comes time to retrieve specifics, the details of the pieces thal formed the melded concept are n0 longer available 10 the leamnet (Lowery, 1982). Levelers remove distinctions instinctively; frequently they soe only similarities. . ‘Sharpeners 100k for distinctions among items. Everything that we said about levelers ean be reversed for sharpeners. They readily retrieve details because they store them indifferent “compartments.” They do notice differences, and they write well when the assignment allows ‘them to use their tendency to notice and describe differences. ‘The leveling-sharpening distinction can be important for learning foreiga lan- ‘guage to very high levels of proficiency. Both preferences include approaches that ‘are useful for language leaming. Sharpeners often naturally notice and remember {he subtle distinctions of form and meaning that characterize native-ike language, specially ifthey have high language aptitude or previous language-lesmingexpe- ence, Loveless tend to notice the patterns inthe language and, thereby, “see” the lanceslying linguistic system. Both approsches are useful for language learning, and sharpeners can teach levelers Some of ther strategies and vice versa to good avai,Eeapees Let us take a typical language-leaming situation, You are assigned the task to write an essay about the differences between your country’s politcal system and that of another country. As a leveler, you may Gnd it difficult to write the ‘essay not because you are & poor writer (perhaps you are a very good writer) but because you cannot find the differences. Similarly, if you are « sharpener and asked to waite an essay about the commonalities between the two systems, you may experience difficulty with the nature ofthe task. Both levelers and sharpeners ean build facility in accomplishing tasks requiring the oppdsite learning styles by using Venn diagrams before writing, Make a list of all the gaits you can think about she two governments. [you find traits in common, write themt inthe section Where the left-hand and right-hand circles of the Venn diagram overlap. Write the other traits into the left-hand circle if they pertain only to your gavemment and in the right-hand civele if they pertain only (the foreign government. Using this technique prior to starting a writing assignment can help you develop style flexibility inthe leveling-sharpening domain, (9) Randoni-sequentia seale. Random-sequeatial earning differences i the second scale that Cregore (1982; see above) used in his four-dimensional model of learning styles (see the suggested reading list at the end of this chapter for bibliographic information on this model). In the E&L construct, the random- sequential scales weated asa separate, independent subscale. Tissubscale refers to the amount of external organization that a learaer wants or docs not want, : Raudow leauners goneraily prefer to develop their ov approach to Tangaage learning end organize assignments in their own way, often ‘completing them in no apparent (to tbe ouisider) onder. (Likewise, in reading a novel, many random learners report reading the ending fist ‘or skipping ou in the book. Extreme random loarners have sometimes reported even reading the ending of a mystery before reading the story itsell.) . ‘Sequeatial eamers generally prefer torecsive materials thathave been ‘organized in some fashion: a syllabus, lesson plan, or programmed ‘tutorial, While they may adjust the organization to fit theit own needs, these leammers tend to feel uncomfortable when handed a collection ‘of authentic materials with no guidance on what to do or how to use ‘them, (in reading a novel, most sequential learners report that they prefer to start on the first page and read the subsequent pages in order; they generally do not understand why anyone would want to read the cond of a mystery before reading the story itseif) ‘Both random and sequential learning have advantages in foretgn-language study, and much will depend on the teaching method and textbooks as to whether fone or another type of learner will be comfortable inthe classtoom, The World Wide Web is a random learnet’s paradise, Ifyou are a random ‘earner, you have ‘Learing sys and learning stages aan advantage in your greater tolerance for surprises and ihe unexpected. Assiga- ‘ments of much authentic material (passages from magazines and newspapers, for example) will allow you, as a random learner, to use your learning preference. (On the other hand, textbooks in which everything is presented as a series of steps canbe boring and even confusing for you if yo sre & randomn learner. You might use some of your fiee time to read books that let you handle the same language feacures in a more random manner; e.g. if you are studying the past tense, you right read a historical novel or an essay about some aspect of history Ifyou area sequential learner, you may be daunted by the mass of input from the World Wide Web; in this case, you might esk the teacher to give you some ‘questions to think about in advance before you go online, so that you can use ‘your sequential style fo advantage. On the other band, unlike random learners, You may be very happy so have a textbook in your hands, especially one chat ‘explains everything in a step-by-step manner. (10) Syncherio-analytic scale. The synthetic-analytic difference is another important domain, This difference refers 10 the directionality of processing: puting together or taking apart, and was first introduced into the field of philosophy (Kant, {781/1998). The overall difference lies in whether you pre- fer to assemble old information t make something new or to take apart new information in ofc to understand it beter. . ‘Synthesicers assemble something new (knowledge, models, stories, ideas, ete.) om known information, They do this by using the given pieces to build new wholes, e.g. making up new words, using typical roots and prefixes or rewriting a paragraph from a different point of view, using the sentences already there as models. Synthesizers typically put together disparate ideas easily and not onty make sense out of them but also develop new models with them, Synthesis as a leaming style has several characteristics: (1) hypothesis formation is experienced or intuited; (2) processing is unconscious; (3) process and product are simultaneous; and (4) the synthesizing learner goes from insight o construct. : Analyzers disassemble known infonation into is component parts, tang are usually aware that the “big picture” is composed of small pieces. They like rules because they can break tiem down into compo- eet parts and use thee 10 axplain phenomena. They like word study because they can break the words into etymological pieces: roots, stems, afixes. Analysis as a learning style has several character tics: (1) hypothesis formation is built up consciously; (2) processing Involves discrete steps (seiting up the hypothesis, locking at compo- nents, and organizing thern); (3) process and product are experienced a5 consecutive; and (4) the analytic learner goes from construct to insight,80 LEARN In lenguage classes, i'you are a synthesizer, you may well want to use oF even play with new words o features ofthe language ss wholes, rather than take them apart. So, faced with alist of new words, mak up sentences or stories that go ‘hith these words to help remember them. You might also like to make up new ndings for tories that you read or rewrite a story from another point of views tiring some things you know and other things that you learn new from & text i the foreign language. if you are an analyzer, ov the other hand, you will probably want to zero in ‘on what needs to be Agured out, so that you can understand it and feel confident that itis “yours” before you toy to use it. Some things you can try doing in order fo ute new words i to apply contrastive analysis (how these words look end act tdifferently from words in English) and word attack (how you can break these ‘words down into meaningful pars) Learner profiles ‘So far, we have treated the B&L subscales as if they were even fc choices and the overarching categories of synopsis and ectasis 08 if every related subscale would be represented in a learner of one or the other style, fn realty, the situation is auch more complex. Each of the scales is continuum: {you would then be more or less synthetic or analytic, for example, not entirely Syathetie or entirely analytic. If you think ofthe continuum as line extending fhom the eynoptc atrbate (any of the ten subscales) 10 the evienic atrbute, you ‘might find yourself anywhere along that line. For example, you might bein the mmicdle when it comes to synthesis and analysis, which wold mean that you probably are very situational in your preference - where synthesis is needed, you fae more systhetic and whote analysis is needed, you are more analytic, This kcind of situational application is generally what is meant when someone refers to Jeaming-style fexibiity. On the other hand, you might find yourself at the extreme synoptic pole on the random-sequental line, which means that you ate ‘almost always random, even in cases where it might be more advantageous to be (or act) sequential “When you find your scores for each of the subscales on the R&L construct, you wil find that you have a unique collection often different styles. We cal his ‘ollecsion your learning profile. Nearly everyone in your class will have & very slfferent or slightly different learning prose from you. ‘You may notice some things that seem ralhec odd at fst. For example, perhaps you are synoptie, ut you area sharpener, not a leveles. Sines sharpening belongs qo the cvtenic pole, it does not seem 10 “fit” your profile well. Such profiles, however, are pretty typical, Most people are not purely synoptic or purely ectenic “Where the “impurity” exists is in one or more style preferences that fall ino the opposite domain. Being able to see how many preferences “eross.over” to the ‘opposite learning style wil tell you much about youself asa Teurner, where your Learning styles and leaming strteees CASE STUDY Probiem [Andrew has been a very successful student in almost all nis classes, He is quick to zero in on what the teacher wants an ind it proces iin his ead, and ‘produce it in 2xams. This makes for a high level of achievement in subject clases, Stes proving act tobe enough a his language class. His program ines 2 prea deal of atheatic language through realing, stenig and feld wips Inhece the language i spoken He has a Joc of wouble making fly effective ‘se of the out ofelatsroom portions Because ital goes by too fs fr hia to ge his normal pinpoint focus techniques. Andrew is aware that he will ned to rake the most ofthe laaguage environment when e leaves the clasroom and oes out o study end work oversees. How ean he start preparing for this sow? Possible solutions [Andie is probably Reld independent but field insensitive. eis good at pinpointing but doesn't do mich in the way of naturalistic leaming (ie. leaning frora te environment. Listed Below are some things tite can do now to prepare for situations that require eld sensitivity. (1) Andrew ans his teacher oan do some advance preparation fo ed rps and immersios. They can imagine te situations Andrew will be in aad think of things ‘har he should pane himseifto pickup one way’ othe ther Later, be ean do this ox hse. 2) Some form af selacstion may help Andrew fee ess in need or poring ‘xerything. He is more likely te pick up matril i he sn tying too hard (©) ALtiswening or reading forus may be of belp; ihe is listening for descriptive djeeves, for enample, his judging part may be distracted permitng bits se more natnralstic learoing, (4) Speaking with someone shout ibe nature of language larning and the Jimitations of focusing om knowledge alone might belp him se the importance of = 1. Review he varius categories discuod in this chapter and aply Ee ep Norah evel ect to oped fa class? Do you tin you ne mere ik 9 hic bomdry Teaver oa ti boundary one? You an maka able ike te example ‘ova aatby Angin be rt auras (tory and Abt me). 2 Evaluate whether th behavior an elngs you bavenoein column 2 About ne) ae helpful er not If thy ae no elf oc ot help tough make a nota cau 3 (Wa fo change), or example if You ae enioos abot speaking in ls, ising yu, make ot tat you nea o Rada way to contol x prevent he ani 2, Now go tough end nk of some segs you can ake a inctese your alco Fr example, eve pen sigh mediate Defoe ces ‘erent might pracice afew hey pases ot ose inches to fossa ees wa ato nity 4, Examine your strategies. Did they work? Take the satisfying step of eretng off the coon where you hve reduced you cialis socal.130____tzamwxe Review i In this hopes, you considera a numberof themes. The conteat of thee themes } can be suewmerzed a fallow { + Forciga language exit ioten caused bythe amount of mateo be i Jes the iffeaties of canmmanicating at lowes Ives of proces, sel-consciousness about enor, andthe foregnnes fhe language. Foreign language anxiety canbe coped with succesful throvgh Simplicsion, sing stands, focusing on the known, cefaming, accepting the fac it anxiety is pom, goa sexing, and gameplaying. + Pevfounuce anet is elated to forcige-languageenxoty ands felt when {you are antious about msvering questions, eciing, making petentatios, 9° Going we plys i Hout of your pers. You can manage performace amity Preview This chapter introduces you to the interpersonal dimension of learaing ~ your by preparing in advance, "Test anxiety comes from previovs conditioning, self image, consequences, ‘ear and fraseation stom limited language skills, nd “facing the music." I can be managed by aking fora retest, resolving todo beter the next tee, puting the consequeness et of mind as much as possible and focusing on somethisg mere helpful, managing your image of yourself, preparing well in relationships with others involved in your leaning process such 2 eachers and ther students Topics tha his chapter will address include: ‘Loves of meraction: individual, pats, groups, and between groups ‘The importance of group cohesion. Individual differences and group dynamics. ‘Teachers’ attributes and needs ‘advance, managing your tine actively and effectively during be test. nd _uantating a good relationship with those who test you, + Motivation comes in various types: extrinsic (e.g. rewards), intrinsic (eg. interest in languoges), instrumental e-learning the language for 230), zn integrative (e.g. earaing the language in order to become beter frends With native speakers ofthe language), + Sett-etticacy can be promoted through succes (suecess breads sucess). Persoualty, leaming styles, and relationships all afect self-efficacy positively or aogatvely. + Personality types abound inthe Jongian model, there ae sxten ofthe) Understanding the various personality types can improve teacher-student and sudentatdent reltionships and explain Why ope classroom aud is activities are more comfortable for you than another. In ati, some poopie hhae thick-ogo Houndares (and thers thin ego boundaries); hese, 00, fees, the way they go abut elang 1 naive speakers gad to cross-cultural experiences, + Defense mechanisms are part of everay ie everyone ses them even ‘hough they can sometimes get the way of effective leaning: some defenses are more marae responses than others ‘Teacher-stident relations Siudent-smdeat relations, ‘Your personality and your feelings are both influenced by your relationships with ‘others, and in turn they influence how youplay out:hose relationships. To continue our example of a learner with a strong need for orderliness, that learner might want to interact only with other stadents who make few mistakes. That could be ‘because the leamer does not want to have to sort out what is right and wrong, but would rather put energy into learning the vocabulary that isso hard to retain, ‘We will talk about some ways learners interact with teachers, other students, and ‘wit themselves, ecto SLL ra Ti a forwigr-language classroom, there can be « number of ways of interrelating. We call these levels of interaction. While not all levels of interaction ‘at exist in real life are peesent inthe foreign-language classroom, atleast thsee are. These include: on ood If you want to learn more about the topics inthis chapter, check out the following relerences: Bandura (1993); Dérnyei (2001); Ehrman (1996); Eheman (1999); Horwita and Young (1991); Keirsey (1998); Myers with Myers (1980); Vaillant (1993). : ‘Within the individual (intapersonal processes) : ‘Between (wo individuals (processes or relations) . Among members of « group (group dynamics) 112 _traanne. Interaction within the individual Individual dynamics are reactions to ovtside stimuli that you expe sence but do not share with or express fo others. These show wp as likes and dislikes, tension, anxiety, and other emotions. You may find yourself feeling sick ‘witen you need fo open your textbook or goto class. There are positive aspects ot individual dynamics, as well. These are when you can hardly wait to ope yout textbook and feel a sense of belonging in class and a feeling of euphoria after class. If you are not experieacing the positive forms of intrapersonal processes, ‘you might want (o analyze what is missing ~ and add that to your experieness. you are experiencing the negative forms of intrupersonal processes, you might vant to find he source (often your teacher or a counselor can help you with that) ~ and eliminate that. Interactions between two individuals Interpersonal dynamics are quite different. When two people interact, they infivence each other in many ways, and are normally unaware of most of those ways. For example, in & pair with different talents and interests, one may become the “social” member ofthe pat, aud te ote the “practical” one. Then consciously, the “social” one takes over most of the arrangements with friends, ‘whereas the other looks after the practicalities like paying bills or geting the Famace fixed. At the unconscious level, though, the individuals may come to identify with these roles and eventually believe that they do not have the capacity to take the other role, inthe classroom, this can often happen with teachers and students, Stadents can come to believe that the teacher has all the skill, because the teacher's roe is to kuow and inform. You can work fo avoid this by keeping aware ofall your abilities and knowledge. There ace slmost certainly things you ‘know better than the lexcher: one of them is what you need and what you know and don't know. Interactions within the group Tntragroup dynamics are very important to your feeling coméortable in your foreign language classroom. Intragroup dynamics can take at leest three ‘forms that can create dysfinetional classrooms: division into subgroups, scape- ‘goating, and group reaction to the teacher ‘Note that any behavior has multiple functions and at multiple levels. For exan- ple, wien you makea joke, you may be attempting to establish a connection with anothee person, or you may be expressing veiled hostility. Your joke may serve as a defense against anxiety; or it could function asa bid for group leadership. Fur- thecmore, for members ofa group or pair, multiple perspectives can be & source Interpersonal dynamics in the leaning peocess of conflict. IPtwo subgroups view the same situation differently, achievement of cohesion can be more difficult Subgroups ‘There can be subgroups within your class (dis ia not desirable, but it does happen) that have positive, or, more likely, negative, feelings toward each ter Perhaps several of the students in your class come from the same city or the same high school and are used to working together, without knowing itthey could be excluding the other students from thei relationships, You might talk with thera about the importance of whole-group cobesion and how you can help each othes with your learning effors.Itmay bethat they are ot even aware of their subgroup. Even better, you might ask your teacher to explain group dynamics to your class, emphasizing the importance of harmony and cohesion to the lngnage-lesrning, process. Scapegoating Sometimes the subgroup is only one person, and that person is uni- ‘ormly disliked. In these cases, the students in your class might make fun of that student, This is called “seapegoating,” and itis very detrimental to the develop- ment of group cohesion and to the ability of any one in the class to learn well and comfortably. Ifyou find that you have a scapegoat in the class, talk to your classmates about how this is not helpful to your learning process. if you have, ‘or some reason. become the scapegoat. talk to your classmates and explain how ‘ney make you fee, Ifyou feel that you need some support in doing ths, enlist ‘your teacher’ help. Group reaetion to the teacher A third kind of group dynamic is the relationship between the teacher and the class, This can be positive or negative. On the postive side, students like the teacher and a bond forms. In some cases, this bond can last years. You probably have elementary school teachers of whom you are fond to this day ‘On the aegative side, you may have been in simations where no ane liked the teacher and perhaps the class as & whole formed an opposition to the teacher. You may well remember feaeners who fell into this group, too, and if you analyze ‘he kinds of learning that went on and what you took away from the classroom, yout may find tha this Kind of celaionship was dysfunctional and impeded your wearing. “ier orap ten SSS ms4 See ea eee EEE See Pro uber ofc wit is Hans cass dH oes aot like the opie that ccane up in clas they are boring and sometimes (0 8 ee ims they are fen associated with negative expercaces of individual "ie teste hy conde in Ada hat he el te sae ny and Oop ome em he soph oa psn aos ovryoneis very anions when iy ave ope nda one OK ounees 70 ques ere somewhat cobesive in hat most of tiem do not ike the teacher (atm ean faster can and pie solutions vents erobems tal te levels of ean. Irmay nt be posibie to (OM eve problems within th cours of asingle semester He might the, sa ars the mos importer poblem tackle (i, what makes his earing oo Ne least palatable) and work on that first, and may have wo sete for ee een, ot tl chngs, and ep inset ping wthe thought hat are totes only fr asemesie and ac et hntlflet ove uahapy st oo overall languape-sming expen. a he inva! level, Adam decries bis sive forthe clas ond the opis Oe pin Eventhough hele sien the tar night nonetress. pat aoe fe teacher about the issue of topes, After al, nothing vencue, nothing Pr enay be surprised thatthe teacher is not aware of his dislikes snd may ae eat ake an ‘effort to find more interesting and comfortable topies for him. Li pe interpersonal level, an snibied student told Asm sbout her fear of Ae night sre bis ow concern ahd week ou, wih Ba sg wes oecomig the oon. o te rou love, Adam sapped in group thts anxous and unten Ap onl thing this bling tbe group ogee it ii ofthe tase. es problem is big here for Adan to take on, He gh tar by lng to 0A post thee dike of the eacher an braastomiag Ways to approach the ns 6M d ask im or er to change specific behaviors. (Some teachers are very sore otis Kind of foodback although no all are) In working ou this Kad of 1p has might tu thc negative boding iat «mece poste one che Es 0 be Sesiive to class concerns, then thei a possbicy sre she can handle the group dynamics issues umong the students bt thet 8 ate hope ad ot lf och en We ae ie [eee eee sigue Si Interpersonal dynamics i the earing rosess identy a8 mecibers of their groups. You cin probably think of a number of Cohesive groups that you belong fo ranging fom athlete fears 10 relious dnominstions. Groupe that afer from fieon and fragmentation are Iss Tkly t pro- rte leaming than cohesive ones Lack of ennesion increases te ott for Subsouping, where some members form a Hing of alianee that's often in adversarial reladon wit otter members and gros. A peson wo Is not a member of& subgroup may ood up a8 scapegoat, vulnerable tatack fom tay svberoup. This Kind of Behavior most bletant onthe pleygroun, bat in fat plays ot constantly (hough often with more eile) im adult organi taions of any sor, incading classrooms. In-group and ou oup sheaomena feowseanvsly and tho increase defensive hehavor etegy it defected fom Teaming. “The cohesion of he classroom groups ds an mportat torn our wing ness a stents 0 ake risks and fo ivest ouccis in the earning task. When tu laring group is cohesive, most fw fel encouraged fo ake speaking sks td enoy the company of our clasmaes both nnd out of clase, We ny fe sense of sldanty wit he teacher, who persed o be on the se oF the Suuents. Adam's elas tan example ofthe oposite sivaton staceasaveged ten small issn cls, dot ich ejoy each ote’ company, and shunned Gis. They perceived classroom topics asennad” whe outside asad fie class suffered from an adversarial elaonship with the teacher, who became maeoemy. “ie lees apply o cohesion. Between individuals a cohesive group can pro- sre coopers that enhances beth individ effors, On the other hand, ac oeoheson cn rng soo interpesonal ston and ematvaton. Atte gr00p level, a cohesive elfesve group ean enbanceseleefcacy among its members. "Eecive cooperation ina obese group maker se of meinbe diversity fro bereft of all As a esl of poo group functioning, members may expesnce spay ineficient leasing, or even destructive pyeteogical fet onthe mem: ber tat eu intense aversion fo farther laring Like vahin-group e's, Servoen-goup interactions canbe postive, promoting incrested receptivity to ‘the people and culture of the new language, or negative, potentially leading to secon and negative stereotyping of he ngelanguage group. For more aout iterpersonal dynamics in soca laghageedcatn, see Ena and Dezel (1980) Coesion doesnot mean the enforesment of conformity and “grog tink” ca member. Iisa sent of afason and to some degre icenifeaon with citer group members. Am effective group, however, mis & ret deal of room for individuality ant verse points of view among ie peers. Inthe groups Sa you fel postive in you probably also fee! considerable feedom to be youre 135136 tannin Toxerpersonal dynamics nde ean process CASE STUDY Problem ‘Shancra wishes herclass would de more together, suc as field ips and excursions, ‘which ae ind fon and eaty ways of leaning language, What can she do? Possible solutions (1) She cen analyze the station, thinking about why the group seems not do| ‘mac together Might tbe thst they feel compeuiive? Are hey adults with, fhunles who cannoe take time away irom thir spouses and chien? In analyzing the situation, she can aschor classmates about thee thoughts on the matter De they even lke eachother? If the answer to tha question s yes they could perhaps Uevelop some ideas for ola activities on their own aod propose them ta tho teacher. An example might be aunguage pienie at which family snembers would be welcome. Ifthe answer is no, they do ns like eachother oF ‘want tobe involve in group octvtes, Shandra might need co ind anoter lass wait for another semester. (2) She might als talk to her teacher about his desire, Pechaps there are ‘excursions that she can join With other classes or even ones that ae meant for ative speaker a ocal museums, Her teacher might be able to help he meet Jer interests and lesring necds without necessarily involving the whole class, (G) She could compromise wit dhe stadenis inthe class on other possible group sctvites that ae es involved, such as clas partes, special projects, watching travies together playing ewer ar vollayhall ingether developing a class website, and te like Figure $2 ae ee eet ‘tndividhal differences andl group) d}ulamies) Lnvdualditferenons ae important group dynamic ike ober Someing ot human i, socal laonhip ne ald by let stenen and itera vaysofpcetngexptene Foretanpe you are in ofpereon ho Sava of deals you may well eto omers diferent from peers who tea meh vio of meets, ewig hea in gases Group cla te prec of trl ho ee ember of OU. “ourernngexpeiucr eet effestveness of you eacer winded Dy culture of te groups to which youeloeg.Eeamplesoipoupae ls. boys, older modeni younger stidets, on lating ples. mothe ang sy, tonservaive 1. eral valves and soon, Bvery one of our abuts wil put You loa oup of sadets ih eats aad out of oups witout bose ttre. your lnguage cas, your group i he il se of Your castates, tren tough ch of you may bongo deer groups ouside as, and Your tocine CASE STUDY Problem ‘Wanda’s class lively and cobesive. Only one thing makes ner uncomortle: cevecyone seems to pick on one personas the butt of sometimes hose humor. Not only does it fel wrong to Wanda, Su if the scapegoat were to leave for some eas, she fears tht she might end up filing the role. What can she do? Possible solutions’ (2) She shouldbe aware of ner erptation to join in, asa wey of ensuring her ‘membership in the group and her safer There is no denying tht teasing can be han, at east for the teasers, even if itis destructive, Wanda should resist the temptation. (2) Wanda can maie a point of beiending the scapegoat and of finding things to Ike an admire about hin or her @) Ise fees secure enough about doing it, Wands can tak wo her classmates bout the situation and why and how it makes her uncomfortable and what sbe finds ‘unfair and offensive bout (4) Wanda can ty to redirect the action when hostile humor emerges. (5) Ifthe situation does not improve, Wanda might tum tthe teachar for elp. Figures How well your class works together asa group depends a lot on you and every member of the class. Ifyou lke some members and not others and let tbat show, ‘you willbe creating a subgroup within your class ~ and this is hum to learning, if you are a quick leamer and together with other quick learners look down cn leamers who need more explanation or take longer to give a response, you willbe ‘resting different kind of subgroup within your cass, and vldmately this wil not Delp either you or the class. Watch ovt a5 well for individual students becoming, scapegoats. This sometimes happens because students are afraid to express their ‘own leaming anxieties and “take them out” on a specific student, To the extent ‘hat each member of the class can help each other, be supportive to each other, and leam together asa harmonious group, your leaming experience will be more effective and pleasant. pe ecb A ‘Your teachers, no less than you and your classmates, have personal styles, needs, fears, and motivations that affect their effectiveness and the quality of their relations with you. Their work is made more complicated by the fac that they usually act as group Teaders as well as teaching. 119 138 eaaamnse Irnerpersonal dynamics in the Teaming process psychological contract between teacher and student in which the teacher provides CASE STUDY ‘safe, sible structure for learning, and tho student works to lesa and can feel Problem free 10 take risks, The safety and stability are emotional as well as physical and [Noll bas had a history of dificult in learing languages and is now convinced tha, she can’t do it Hes ses teacher is surprised to hear tis, because Nell shows considerable abilty in las, especialy 4a using the language for communication, Neil seems eager to please and to build telatcnship with the teacher and ber lainates, The eacher has odsorvad Nell, and see that Nel does no respond weil ‘when she is aug abou db language, though, Nels lack of seiconfidence is cleerly standing in her way. Possible solutions (2) The teacher oa make ase of Neils tendency o build aachments with ethers by showing her warmth and inieating interest in Nall’ sucess. wil be important, ‘hough, fr the teacher and Nel! both to be sure tha this doesnot become ‘avo (or be perceived that way). Both have a responsibilty to ensure faimess (2) Nell ean become aware af how she may wel ear a fist bevaute oF the relationship wid the teacher but eventually become more independent und self-confident. IPhoth ae avare ofthe dynamics ofthe "leaming alliance” hey can make beter use of gues ‘rman 1998) and Ehrman and Dienyei (1998a) describe a “learning alliance” (Geealgo Wool, 1989) hased on unconse:0us communications between teacher and students that allow both io take risks and to suspend ordinary power relationships. ‘The teacher consibutes othe alliance by building a“frame” thet promotes sense of safety Reliability, stability of time and place, and maintenance of appropri~ ate interpersonal boundaries are parts of that frame. The student participates by becoming open to Jearning, and admitting flaws and lacks in the safe place the effective teacher provides Fortunately, exchers, teacher supervisors, trainers, and students who under stand whats going on in a classroom can substantially enhance leaming effective ness by adroit application of interpersonal and group dynamics. Aad by changing the culture of dysfunctional groups they benefit not only the current members of the group but also furure members. A encnde-atitaent’ 2 Tis fortunate that most teachers and students Uke esc other, This bond is one of the motivators of Tearning, In fact, some aiethodotogies, such 48 counseling-learning, are built on the teacher and student relationship. The rotivting force of the student-teacher relationship is extremely powerful it taps deep unconscious needs on the part of both participants. One term fr his ‘relationship is the “learning alliance” (Ehrman, 1998b). This term refers to the KAS intellectual, as are the risks ‘This isto say that there is a substantial emotional investment between teacher ‘and student. When the relationship is working well, it enhances the learning process: the students are (usvally unconsciously) working because they care about the teacher as sell as for the intrinsic, extrinsic, integrative, and instrumental reasons described ebove. Teachers, in tum, hope to nurture their students and receive gratification from their successes, ‘Think for a moment about your favorite teachers. Do you feel a certain bond ‘with them and hope to please them and not just for a grade)? Sometimes, of ‘course, things do not go quite so well. Teacher and student needs can operate at ‘ross purposes. For example, a student may want a teacher who provides 8 grest deal of overt emotional suppor, with Jois of encouragement. In a class with a teacher whose style is more subject-matter focused, such a student could become frustrated. The frustration could show up as one ofthe behaviors described above under defense mechanisms, which the teacher might find disruptive. The friction could grow, and neither one Would understand the underlying disappoinunent on the part of the student and pressure the teacher was feeling to get closer, the paradoxical result of which might be tbat the teacher pulls away, ‘Many students idealize teachers they like or those who provide the kind of good support that a functional learning alliance involves. This can be quite uncomort- able forthe teacher, because wath idealization comes thet of eisappomniment. ‘A student who feels let dosen by a teacher who was once idealized can end up evauing the teacher, This avery dificult siuation for both student and teacher and can end up interfering with the success oftheir work together. ee In the same way as teachers and students can either enhance each other's work or can interfere with itthrough heir imerpersonal dynamics, studeat— sudentzelaionships can be helpful or destructive. You can probably think of good examples of both possibilities hased on your experience. Ina preceding section ofthis chapter, we talked about cobesion. When a 0up is cohesive, it and its members can accomplish a great deal, often more than any ‘ngividual could achieve alone. Your fellow learners can efp you in concrete and ‘emotional ways, They can take notes when you are absent, study with you, and Join you in projects. At least as important, they ean also encourage you, share ‘your more difficult moments, ad provide a sense of belonging that isthe essence of secure base from which o take learning risks. Ifyou feel that your classmates, «are on your side, mistakes sing much less. There is a legs pleasant side of student-student dynamics, of course, The first ‘hing that comes to mind is competition. Some level of competition is useful, just160 LEARNING {ncerpeesonal dynamics i he lea proces ma ‘Table 5.1 CASE STUDY Problem Bevween | [Ragheb isin a class in which the taser tis tobe feendly with ll ofthe students Individual Dyad Group groups Comment He sometimes find her too fiendly ~ he weald prefer to concentrate on leaaing Was praised Romanian. This snot to say that te eistkes the teacher —inZacthe ads her Fun by teacher and lively in class, bu he would refer tbat she be less personal. What can be do ee aa ‘without confronting te tsecher? note withan Possible solutions explanation (1) He canbe aware of style differences between the teacher and himself (She rmay well be an exttavered feeling type, end be might be an Introverted thinking ‘ype (2) Ho can use that awarenes to lock atthe good points and bad points ofthe teacher and ofthe relationship: what does be like about her? (0) He can manage his expectations ofthe teacher and focus on what bees. eit probably # waste af time to expect her fo change, so he may need to think about hhow to manage the boundaries benween he two of them so both benef and wvois being hoe, Figure 3 CASE STUDY Problen “Teddy is amusing -the troubles, he is amusing ll he time, even when Donna ‘would ike to sud. Se doesnot want hut bis feelings, ane in fact she really ors think his jokes ae funny. On the ceber han, she cannot afford the amoust of time his stoves are taking from her homework. What cam ske do? Possible solutions (2) She can reeogaize tat you cannot really control Teddy’s behavior; te only behavior she can change is er wa, (2) She can find another placé to emidy and be er about cefsng invitations. (9) She ean ty to sec aime when she can sped time with Teddy and give him ‘more attention (ad fel less uncomfortable herself about the work not gating one). Figue 56 Some of the class got frustrated with ‘he assignment, but others did't ‘There was some rivalry expressed with another class section ofthis language asis alow level of anxiety. Both promote action. You have probably seen much more destructive competition, whether in the language classroom, in the drama club, or on the playing field. Ifyou feel that to be accepted you have to be the ‘est, orf you are alsays having fo watch out incase someone needs to make you ook bad se they can look good, you will probably become anxious. Anxiety can etract rom effective leaming because it uses cogaldve and enodousl rsuurces that would otherwise go into learning. (Other students can also undermine your efforts by distracting you or keeping ‘you off task. They may have a wide range of motivations for this, ranging from their oo disinclination co work to an active desire to put you bebind in a compe- tition of which only taey might be aware. A common motivation is guilt the sight of the other person working may result in your feeling uncomfortable because you are not, Then you try to ease the discomfor by pulling the oer person away ‘rom theis work. 25 wae 1) OA Bhitice fiat fourhave teamed, 1 ‘Look at the description of Adam's class in the introduction to this chapter again. Which ofthese things have happened to you? How did ‘you deal with them? Which defense mechanisms did you vse? What {do your best classes look like with respect to selations among the {group merabers (including the teacher)? 2 Discuss the following questions with your classmates: “How do you help other students work harder and better? How do they heip you?Interpersonal dynamics i he learning process ey wa uasyana “abe 52 Review Beene Ins capt, ou coded en Indvinal——_Dyad Group groupe Comme + Levels ofa nv pls, ous a eee 1 Thoimporance of up cee, wane Mae mets god + In dos’ pins etc passed me Helpful wo om pir 1 ehee seat celations aot en clans an my 1 Stmeaudot lee, ene Std. Becul of teat o gen Levels of inoracton cohesion, ‘Think about your relationship with a favored teacher. What makes it m “Teerning alliance”? How does your teacher enhance your ‘motivation? ‘Have youlhad less than satisfactory experiences with some teachers, ‘where you felt the relationship had broken dawn? if so, what do yon think was the cause? ‘Observe cen minutes ofa class you are in, Note down the beaviors that seem to occur at each ofthe four levels. Don't forget to include ‘yourself in all the columns as relevant, The chart above (Table 5.1) sight heip. Affar yon have finished abcerving, review the completed chart and ‘comment on each entry. Did the interaction enhance cohesion? Did it hojp the group lear better? Samples are givea above (Table 5.2). 5. oes your classroom group help you take learning risks? If so, how? Hf not, why not; what is happening to lead to your fecling inhibited? 6 ‘How does your teacher interact with the class?” Which of the following. is the closest? (You can select mote than one.) a, Ts always in strit contro, dictates all activities, and works with a ‘ight syllabus. ‘Acts lke part of the classroom group, ‘c. Moves in and out of direct contol, often assigning work for smaller ‘groups. &. Encourages leaner independence € Aloof from the class group, £. Focuses primarily on task 8, Focuses primarily on relationships ‘What effect does sis behavior have on the cohesion of your class? If you want to learn more about the topics in this chapter, please consult the Tollowing sources: Domyei and Malderez (1997); Ehrman (1996); Ehrman (1998b); Bhsman and Dérayei (1998); Stevick (1980); Wool (1989), (2) Individual, inapessonalineruetion coasivs of one's nonverllzed reactions to others. {@) Betvreen two individaals, Inerpersona interaction is what goes on betwosn you and someane else. (@) Within groups. Group dynamics includes such things as subgroup Formation, seapegoating, and developing opposition to or suppert ofthe teacher The importance of group cohesion 1) Group members stick together and support esch other. @) Lack of conesion can cause subgrouping, fragmenting the group farther, {@) Groap cohesion makes teaser for individuals to take risks @) Accohesive group can make use ofthe skills ofall the members. Individual differences and group dynamics “This topic incides: (1) How we perceive and react to experience fects our elatinsaips, (@) Task orientation vs, socal erontation, (G) Group culture is a product ofthe individuals in the group Teachers (Q) Teacher styles, aed, and motivations dite (2) There is a learning alliance between teacher and student (@) Teachers can havea large effect on group aumosphere in the classoom, Teacher-student relations (J) Teschers and stadens usually invest a great dealin each obec (2) The teacher's investment ia the student ean bes poner motivaty fr the sudent (G) Student eacher friction can occur to the detiment of learning, (@) Tdeaization of teachers can resin disuppoinenert Student-student relations 21) Relations among student can sapport or interfere with effective learning. (2) Other earners can help im a wide variety of ways (3) Compediion canbe helpfil or hurtful, depending on how you bande it (@) Defensive behavior (youre sor tht of others) can prevent you fom staying on tack: TanghagePreview ‘This chapter introduces you t verbel language, Topics that this chapter will adress include: + Structure: pats of speect finding meaning trough word ondes, word changes, or particle wse + Pronunciation: sounds, word sess, word boundaries, sentence sues, pit, tone, intonation + Vocabulary: word building, using cognates, usiog context, vsing metnory steatgios, extensive reading “This chapter is writen for tog leamers wito have not had say previous opportunity o eam che terminology associated with atking about tanguage — ‘grammar and vocabulary. If you have had a good grounding in English grammar, ‘hig wil he a review For you ha it ight ha atreariag to learn ahaa aspeats of he grammatical systems of sore oer languages, in studying «foreign language, sou may fequenly find yourself inthe position of comparing the seucture of your foreign language to that of Bagish. Kaowing the English system well ill help vou. (We cannot cesent de ene oveview of English grammar hee: if you Bnd (bat this isan rea of weakness for you, you might seek outa reference book on glishgremmnar to urea a guide, Somme ate lite atthe end ofthis arts of speech . All languages differentiate among Kinds, or classes, of words, or, rather tie functions chat words lave, These different kinds of words are clas- sified into parts of speech. In English, we have eight parts of speech: nouns, Pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, conjunctions, prepositions, and exclama- tions. Most Indo-Bazogean langoages are similar inthe presence of these parts but not necessarily in thei forms, Some languages will have other pats of speech. Al languages will have to account for these various categories, even if they do 7us __eanavace, it in ways that differ very much from English, We will usc English here as the ‘common language for looking at language structure in general Nouns Nouns, as you probably learned in your English classes in elementary school, afe the names of people, places, things, and ideas. In English, there aze ‘common nouns (those begin with lower-case leurs; they are the “common” ‘words for people, places, and things) or proper nouns (chose begin with upper ‘case letter; they are the ites for people, places, and things). Thus, we talk about 1 doctor (common noun) or Dector Zhivago (proper noun). We need to know the iference in English so that we use the proper spelling. Some other languages follow the same convention, Others do not. In German, for example al nouns are ‘capitalized, whethec they are common: nouns or proper nouns. Ia French, personal ‘names ate capitalized, but the titles that go with them are not: Je decteur Aibobo "De Doolittle.” "Nouns in English can be singular or plural: the doctor or the doctors, the fuck of the bushes, We usnally form the plural in English by adding an end- ing, but sometimes we use a different word altogether: child, chlidren; mouse, mice, Many languages do something similar: add an ending to make a singu: lar aoun plural, Some languages, such as Russian and Czech, where aouns in the singular also bave endings, change the endings in the plural In some Asian languages, such as Thai, Vietnamese, and Cambodian, aouns are not differen~ tiated by singular and plural, If this seems strange, think of collective nouns im English, such as sheep and deer. We say one sheep, fve sheep, few deer, many deer. We do not say “five sheeps or °many deers, although that is « common mistake of learners of English as a second language who overgeneralize the more common rule ~ add -2 10 mako plural ~ to all categories of nouns, including, erroneously, to collective nouns. (You will very likely do similar things in the language you are studying; overgeneralization is quite natural, especially for synoptic levees.) [Nouns in English are not marked! for gender, but they are in some languages. In French and Spanish, or example, aouns can be either feuinine or masculine, ‘The article (the words 3, an, or the) that goes with them will change depending ‘on the gender ofthe noun, In German, the article also changes, dependiog on the gender of the noun, but in this case, there are three choices: mesculine, feminine, and neuter. Slavic languayes, such as Pofish and Serbian, also have the three senders ~ masculine, feminine, and neuter ~ but in these cases, there is no article fm the language at all and gender is indicated by ike ending on the singular ‘noun, This is another area in which learners make mistaces in grammar: if they come from a language without gender markings on nouns, such as English it {a often difficult for them to remember whether a noun is masculine, feminine, ‘or neuter, Moreover, ifthe leemer has studied more than one foreiga language, the confusion can be stronger. The word problem, for exampe, has no gender in Verbal aaguage English, is masculine in gender French, and is feminine in Russian, Typically, native speakers of Russian and spoakers of other languages who have leamed [Russian are influenced by the Russian word problema (Feminine), when speaking French and use fa instead of fe, as the article Jn some languages, nouns are marked for case. Thats, the function ofthe noun sn the sentence can change the article that is used with it o the form of tke noun ‘self. Some languages, such as Finnisb, have more than twelve cases, Here are some examples of case: : The boy went 1 scivool. ‘The teacher saw the boy. : The teacher gave the boy a book Inesch of these sentences, the role of the boy is different, In English, that does not acter, and you will find out why in the section below about locus of awaning, In other languages, that does matter. So, let us look at each of those sentences In the first seatence, the boy is doing the action; that makes the boy the subject of the sentence. In German, that would require the use of the article der, In Russian, that would cequire a bare stem (Le, no ending): mal’chik, In the second seatence, the boy isthe recipicat of the action, In German, that would require wse ofthe aricie den. In Russian, that would require the ending a: mal'chika In the third seotence, the boy is indirectly the recipient of the action, the book being ‘he direct recipient. In German, that would require the use of the article deve. Jn Rustian, tbat would require the use of the ending -u: mal’chiku. There are, af course, many more cases. You will lean what these are if they ae a part ofthe sgtammatical system of your language, in your textbook. Pronouns Pronouns take the place of nouns, In English, we have pronouns for frst person (i. the person doing the talking: we) second person (i.e the person wwe are talking (0: you), and third person (Le, the person we are talking about: hn, she, it, the). Only in the case of the third person singular (ke, she, i). do we Indicate gender of pronouns, However, other languages can indicate gender in all three persons, plural and singular. Each language fas rules for how this is done, ‘nd you will learn these rules when you team your language. in some languages, pronouns will change depending on the function they have in the sentence. If they are the subject (see discussion below about case), they may have one form, and if they are the object (see discussion below about ease), they may have another form, That is what happens in English subject pronoun: He went to te store. ‘objective pronoun: 7 saw him atthe store. ‘A number of languages do the same thing. Most of the Asian languages, on the ‘ther hand, do not do this 9150 baxownoe. Adjectives ‘Adjectives are the words that modify nouns. ie. they tell the reader or listener more about the noun. Thus, we might have pretty deer or sail men. In English, adjectives come before the noun. In other languages, however, they can be placed in other locations. In French, for example, some specifi adjectives, e.. 1a jeune file (dhe git, lit. the young git), come before the noun, but most come aftr it a in Je livre inrévessan (the interesting book, lit. the book interesting). In other languages, the adjective can be even farther away from the noun. [Adjectives in English have one form for use wit all the nouns they modify the big man, the big woman, the big tree, the big tables, and so on. In some languages, however, adjectives will take on different endings besed on gender and number (ingular or plural) of the noun and even case of the noun, Verbs ‘Verbs are the action clements in a sentence, They tell you what is happening. Verbs can have many characteristics, depending on the language. ‘Verbs in English are conjugated (change their forms), depending on person and tense, Let's stay with person for a minute, We can say I eat, but we cannot say *he eat. We have to say he eats, That is what we mean by conjugation. In ‘English, endings change, depending on whether we are using the firs, second, or ‘hird petson. Ia some langeages, this does not bappen. ‘Yeibs in English aso have tense. The tense shows the time that sornething is bappening, hat happened, or will happen. In English, we have six ofthese tenses (present, past, Future, present perfect, past perfect, future perfect). Tense changes cean be shown by endings or by stem changes (changes in the word itself). An example ofthe former is the verb ro touch (every day Fsouch my toes; yesterday Touched my toes, tomorrow Iwill touch my toes, now Ihave touched my toes; esterday [had already touched my toes when I sav yous by tomorrow Iwill have touched my toes when I see you). An example of the later is ring (every day I ring the bell, yesterlay I rang the bell, tomorrow Iwill ring the bell, now I have rang the bell, yesterday I had already rung the bell when Isaw you, by tomorrow Lwillhave rung the bell when Isee you). English aso bas continuous forms of all these tenses, a5 in Fam ringing the Bell, [was ringing the bell, and 50 on ‘A few other languages also have continuous tenses, but many do not. One form serves to mean {ring and [am ringing. Inthe same way, not all languages have six tenses. Some have three (e.g. Russian), some have more (e.g. Czech). Some Southeast Asian languages do not have tense: they mark time with adverbs. All languages, however, do have a way of indicating the time of an action; you may just haveto look for that information ina different glace and a different way than in English. “Many languages, inclading English, have something calted voice. In English, there ia active voice ~ a lady opened the door ~ and passive voiee ~ the door wos opened by a lady. There isa parallel phenomenon in many other languages, ‘Verbal angusge akbough some languages do not make this distinction. In English and relaied lan- guages, word order and verb forms tell us whether a sentence is active ot passive, In other languages, both noun forms (case) and verb forms change to indicate passive, and word order may or may not be the same. In yet other langvages, such as Thai and Cambodian, passive is indicated by a particle, Some verb forms change according to mood, Depending on the language, you may encounter indicative, imperative, subjunctive, or conditional mood. Indica- tive mood reflects simple statements of fuct: He opened the window. lmperstive ‘mood is the command form: Open the window! Subjunetive, ia English, refers to statements contrary to fact: [fhe were you (he isnot you), he would open the window. Conditional mood refers to fact that is accompanied by, as the name suggests, a condition: {fit i hot, he will open the window. Some languages are similar to English; they heve all these mocals, and they use changes in verb forms to indicate the moods. Some languages have fewer moods. Others do not use changes in verb forms, but a particle or something similar in the case of some moods (Russian, for example, uses the patile by indicate subjunctive mood.) Some languages, such es French and Spanish, use subjunctive mood far mere often than English, and i often the verb in the main clause (the main pat of the sentence) that determines the mood ia the subordinate clause, as in wish sha he would oper the window. In French, after verbs of wishing in the maia clause (J wish), one must use a subjunctive form of tho verb inthe subordinate clause (that ‘he would open the window), Some languages have aspect. This is not something that we have in contempo- rary English, and 1 can take some ame to get used to. In Swatnh, tor example, ‘one might say alikufa or amelua. Both of these expressions mean “died.” The first one, though, is imperfestive and is used in a descriptive sense: something ‘appened and this something is that he died, The second expression, perfective, shows a change of state, as in he died so he is now dead, The closest we can come to the second one in English is something like “he has died.” In Russiaa, se of aspect js similar but not identical to Swahili, We can take, for example, the simation in which someone has read a book. We cen say it in one of two ways: on chia inigu oF on prochitalinigu. Tue first expression, which isimper- fective, means something took place snd that something was a reading of the book. It is a pure description of a fact. There are several ways of wanslating this ‘ample sentence, depeading on the context: (1) “he was reading the book” (as in “he was in the process of reading the book” when something aappened) (2) “he read the book’ as in “be spent some time reading the book”), among oth- ‘In the second, perfective, expression, we have more information: he read the book in its entirety ata specie point in dime and now is in the state of knowing the content. Another use of the perfective as matter completed can be part af a Sequence: "After he bad read the book, he went to bed.”"These are only to exam- ies of the use of aspect. There are many more; they vary by language. You will ‘become acquainted with them, iF they occur in your language, at vasious ievels of Proficiency,1s2___taxavace ‘Some languages, and English is among them, have compound verb forms. For example, in English we can say I go (gresent tense) and am going (present progressive or present continuous). The latter is a compound verb form. Spanish has compound verb forms like English. Many other languages do not. One form serves for both the gular tenses und the progressive tenses, “Many, but not al, languages have suxiliary verbs. These are sometimes called helping verbs and ate used in compound teases. For example, in English tbe ‘word have can be used both as & stand-alone verb and as a helper: [have a ball {verb) and F have seen the ball (auxiliary). In French, there is choice between ‘avoir and dre as the suxilary verbs: i @ vu le bois (“he saw the forest,” using avoir) and il est ailé ax bois (“be has gone to the forest, using érre). Other ‘Romance languages have a similar phenomenon, as does German (haben vs. sein). ‘Some languages, e.g, German and English, have models. Examples of modal are must and should, Tn Gecan, one says, “Ich muss gehen and in English “Z must go." English also has a phenomenon in which verbs can be used ss nouns by simply adding an ing ending tothe verb. Tis form of verbal noun i called a gerund. One ‘can say [like to run (verb) or Running (gerund) is jun for me. Somie languages have gerund; others donot. Some use a change in the form ofthe verb, as English does. Others substioue something else, for example the infinitive (to do, tobe, 10 1X) form of the verb asin To run is fun for me. In addition to verbal nouns, English Iss verbal adjectives. These are called participies, and they look very much like adjectives, except that they are verbs ‘vith endings in -ing {present participles) or -ed (past participles). Thus, we can have a cleaning lady and a cleaned house. Some languages also have active and passive participles. (Remember whet we said sbout voice? Voice, in some Janguages, can be reflected in participial fonms, ws well as verbal forms.) “There is another verb combination that can be made. That is verbal adverbs. English does not have this paeaomenon, but sore other languages do. English ‘wotild be more likely to express the verbal adver’ with a parciple, as in Having read the book (past verbal adverb in some languages), the man went to bed ot While reading the book (present verbal adverd in some languages). the man fell asleep. Where a language has a verbal adverb, itis usually formed by making soine ending change to she verb Adverbs Adverbs modify verbs, Ke. they give us more information about the action that is going on in the sentence. In English, most, but aot al, adverbs end in -1y, Here are some examples: the boy walked slowly 12 school, she girl skipped ‘happily about the room. Mostlangusges use adverbs. Whers they are placed in tbe sentence aud how they are formed depends on the language. In uny languages, adverbs are formed as they are in English, by adding an ending tothe stem of the word (the stem being everything except the ending). In such eases, very often if 7 Yerba onguage you know the adjective, you can figure or guess how to make the adverb, and vice ‘rsa, That can be very helpful in uaderstanding or in speakcng'writing. Conjunctions CConjunctions ate words that connect words or clauses. Typical con- junctions are and and du, There is, of course, a long list of conjunctions, anc you can probably think of alot ofthese — or find them quickly by looking at any anticle or book. ‘There are niles of using conjunctions that differ among languages. Fo example, {un Baglish, in formal discourse, one is aot supposed to start a sentence with a ‘contdinating conjunction, such as and or bus. However, in other languages, that is aot only accepted, itis expected. ‘Meaning of conjunctions might differ also among languages. For example, ia ‘Russian, there is a conjunction, a, which can mean either “and” or “but,” depend- {ng on the situation, Your textbook will familiarize you with these situations ‘What you will need to do is develop new ways of thinking about these words 10 match the categories thet are used in the language you are studying. CConjunctions not only have the Sunction of making sentences smoother and ‘more informative because they allow the embedding and connecting of additional ‘words and clauses, but they alsomake them longer for the same reason. In Eaglis, ‘we petit a moderate amount of conjunction use so thet We an have sentences ‘hat may be anywhere from 1 to 4 lines long, Much longer thaa thst, though, ‘we tend to get lost in the sentence structure because English is not set up for paragraph-lengia sentence use, Some other languages, Such as KUSSian, ar. Numbers (One of the most difficult parts of speech to acquire in a forcign lan= guage is numbers, even though on the surfuce it would appear that itis simply matter of leaming a set of new words, The fact of the mister is that languages treat numbers in all sons of unpredictable ways. It is not just a matter of counting (cardinal numbers): five tables. Its also a matter of modifying nouns (ordinal rumbers): she ih able, Some languages decline numbers (e. change the ending, imperson. Leaming to tear the word boundaries where words have been run together or elded is only half the task thatthe language Jearner faces, There is also the ‘eed to beable to reproduce these same elisions when speaking in order to make Speech more natural-sounding, To hear the word boundaries may be accomplished better, especialy if yous are a visual leamer, by seading a seript as you lisien to158 _taNouace an orl text. When you “seo” how the words are run together, Js both easier to understand them and easier to make them. Its also imporant t9 notice what heppens to Word boundaries in everyday spezch (as opposedto well articulated, formal speech, When peopie speak rapidly and/or colloquially, word boundaries become even more blurred, and whole pats of words drop ou, as in Jwa'n’t gonna dott (New England salt of English for “was a0 going to do it) the Well known round sui, asin “I will doit when 1 get around toi,” or the mind-benser for foreign speakers of English that asks ject “day? (Did you eat today?” Word stress In addition ta boundaries (or sometimes, the seeming lack of them), spoken words also have stress, Sires is the emphasizing of one part of a word lover the rest of tae word. In English, sometimes we talk hurnorously about patting the ste on the wrong syl-Lag-le. English isa very dificult language to leam in respect to word stress. Why do we say x1-lative, but re-1.-tion? OB-ject but b-s5C7 ive? In addition, tres is phonemic in English asitcan change meaning, 1s in OB.ject (noun) vs, ob-JECT (vesb). Stress in English is somewhat unpredictabie, athongh there are patterns that tative speakers seem to have aequired, We know this because experiments with nonsense words show that raost aative speakers will stress them in the same ‘way, The same is true for Russian. Stress is not predictable, but native speak- ers generally hive intematized a system that we have not yet figused out for teaching to foreigners. Vast amounts of listening to the language will help you acquire the same kinds of intitions, but chat takes much time and many years ~ part of a lifeiong approach to learning foreign language. In tke interim, paying attention (0 stress and fo any patterns of stess that you can ferret out will be helpful. Some languages, on the other hand, will make learning stress easier for you, ‘Thatis because they have fairly consistent pattern of stress. In some languages, siress is nearly always on the first syllable, in others on the penultimate (uext 19 last) syllable. Czech is one of the former. Polish is one ofthe later. Sentence stress ‘Not only do words have stress, so do sentences in many languages. Most sentences have one, occasionally to, words that are stressed, The stressed Word in most languages ~ and English is one of them ~ is diectly related tothe message of the sentence. As each word in the same sentence can be differently stressed (oue ata time), so does the meaning ofthat sentence change, in terms of varying contrast or emphasis Let us take an example in English: What did you set atthe fair Sandy? Yerba language ‘This sentence can have six different contextualized meaninws, depending upon ‘which word is stressed or emphasized. Try it out: 1 What did you sell atthe fain Sandy? (This is petty clear and probably the most common stress pattern. The speaker wants to know just shat item Sandy took to the fair and sold.) 2 ‘What did you sel at ohe fir, Sandy? (This stress pattern implies ‘hat the speaker has fcard about something bad or weird coming from Sandy's selling at the fair and wants to make a statemen: to this effect. Sometimes it can be a zemonstration, There is aleo another ‘way to interpret this stress: perhaps Sandy took lots of items to the fair and brought most of them home. Or perhaps Sandy ceturned home with much moré money than her items were worth We do rot know for sure which meaning is intended unless we know the context) 3 What did you sll at she is Sandy? (This stress patter would be used. iffa group of people were selling things atthe fait, aod the speaker ‘wants to know Sandy’s role inthis group.) 4, What did xow sell at the fair Sandy? (This stress pattern is 2 bit humorous. Perhaps Sandy bought a lot of things atthe fair and the speaker wants to know whether she spent any time at al on selling. Or perhaps Sandy proudly told her fiends tat she gave away alot of her items, as well as selling some.) s What did you se at rhe fir Sandy? (This steess pattern indicates that Sandy sold things on the feirgrounds before the fae started aod the speaker would like ro Know what, anything, was sold daring te fir itsel£) 6 ‘Whar did you sell tthe fa Sandy? (Phis somessat rare steess pattern ‘would be used if there were several firs but one, this one, was pretty special. Sandy might have been selling things at all the fis, but the speaker is only interested inthis special one.) What did you sel atthe fair, Sandy ? (This stress pattern assumes that Sandy goes from one sales venue to another. One of those vente is the fair, and the speaker wants io know which items were sold at ths fait, rather than at another venue.) 8 What did you sell at the fair, Sandy? (This stess pattern is quite humorous and implies that Sandy was sold atthe fir In tis ease, “unlike in the previous sentences, the “you” of the discourse is not Sandy. There is snother interpretation, 2s well, which wouid require 4 Tonger break before the wort Sandy than the fist interpretation, In this case, perhaps a teacher is trying o get Sandy’ attention.) ‘Some languages use stress in very similar ways, and the stress peters of those should not be dificult to acquire. Other languages use more subtle ways of doing the same things, such as changing word order. It is important for you to fesra 13916 _tanauace how sentence stress is managed in the language you are studying because, as you have seen, wrong sentence stress (or wrong word order in those languages ‘whore “sress” or emphasis is accomplished in this way) can radically change the ‘meaning of « sentesee, Your textbook will very likely describe sentence stress in your language; hovever, knowing the stress pattems and using them are two dif¥fevent tings and a mater of muck practice Pitch _ Languages use changes in “pitch (phonetic changes in the “funda. ‘mental frequency” of the voice) in various ways: o emphasize particular sylla- bes for contrast (called “‘contrastive pitch.” which often accompanies word or sentence stress); o differentiate the meaning of one word from one another (called one"); or io signal meaningful changes in types of phrases or sentences, as in tivity 0 register requires alot of knowledge sbout the culture, However, you will eam to use such differences ss formal and informal pronouns in the appropriate registers in those languages that make these grammatical differences. 1t might take you some time to “feel” these differences, although knowing the conditions Under hich each is used will help you to make the correct choices whether or not you fee! them, ‘There can be many registers in a language and many diferent ways of express- ing register. Here ure sore thet we will discuss in some detail below: . formas of address : grammatical forms : word chotee There are also non-verbal behaviors that sometimes and in some languages accompany register choice, These will be discussed in the next chapter, Forms of address Some languages have more than one form of the pronoun jou. One ‘orm is formalipolite (in languages, such as French and Russian, this pronoun sso doubles asthe plural of you); the other form is informal {and in languages ike French and Russian, it doubles as the singular form} ‘Some languages also have different ways of referring to individuals politely andlor formally. In Arabic, one says Dr. Mohammed, using the frst name. In English, we say Dr. Smith, using the lest name. In Russian, one uses the first ‘ame and patronymic (Ivan Viktorovich, literally, “Ivan son-of- Viktor”) for polite forms of address, ‘Another form of address isthe use of honoriies(artiles). Thase are tadtion- ally used in Japanese society io show differences in age, seniority or social status in using these honorifics, called Keigo, one chooses to elevate someone, humble oneself, etc. However, they seem co be fading out just a lle in the ewenty-fst ‘century; part ofthis is the result of more emphasis in businesses on performance ‘oxer seniority for promotion, placement, and retention decisions (Onishi, 2003) ‘On the otber hand, they are still widely used in Taiwan and other places. Asian 73Wt tanaunce societies, however, are notthe only ones 1 use honorifics. In Czech, one might sey Pany Dikanka “Mrs. Dean" when referring to the dean ofa schooi. Even English has an example: in court, one addresses the judge as Your Honor. When an older ‘man refers to a waitress as honey or doll, there isa clear statement of socal dis- tance, Yes, maa as a response shows the opposite relationship ~ a statement of social distance in which the respondent considers he person fo whom lie or she is sposking to be superior in some way (perhaps a boss). In some cultures, neighbors and friends of parents are referred to by children 1 aunt and uncle even though they are not relatives. It used to be this way in the United States several decades ago and stil is in some isolated places. Mostly, ‘ough, nowadays this custom has disappeared from the United States and would sound quaint to most contemporary teenagers or heir parca. ‘There are many variants in possible forms of address. You will need learn the ones Zor your language. ‘Grammatical forms Ta some languages, such as Jepanese and Korean, not only is rester and relationship expressed by titles ond forms of nddress, but by grammatical founs, as well. Verb endings, adjectives, and entre words shift according 12 the circumstances, We hav a litle “ast” ofthis in English. There is, indeed, a Aiference incegistr, as wellas grammatical form, between the expressions Would you please do it for me? and How "Bout doin’ itr me? i these axe important in Your laguage, you will very likely encounter them early on Word choice Register also refers to such things as use of slang, as wells the use of contractions (gonna, wanna}. The choive of vocabulary, especially for sensitive topics like parts of the body, toilet and grooming, and referring to women snd ‘mea (puy, lad) all have register implications, ‘Audience ‘As mentioned easier audiences are the people you are addressing, either in person or in writing. Every audience will have is idiosyncrasies. Being able to choose the words snd expressions you need to engage an audience is an example of professional language use — jn either your aative language or your acquired one. Pay aitention o how authors ail their language; analyze the dif- ‘erences between academic texts, children’s Books, comic books, and newspapers Listen to how presenters tailor their language. (This is an ackvity you can do in your owm language, 25 well 2s in a foreign language, in order (o develop your “understanding of tailoring.) There are a number of characteristics, yond register lone, to keep in mind when addressing an audience (and tts can be an audience of one or of many). Some of these, which we will discuss in some detail below, are: Soctoinguisis the ight expression age: ender; social status: genre expectations; educational backgrounds and : specialization, Age. You will very likely change your choice of words, 2s well asthe length and complexity of your sentences, depending on the age of your listener. With = child, you might use the word doggy with an adult, the word dog. You might tell ‘child not to fiz, but ask a peer not to prevaricate. As we grow up, our language changes ~ and this happeass in all cultures. Gender Gender can also require differing treatments, Depending on the soci ery, there will be larger or sinaller differences between the wenders. in English, we refer to “irl talk” and “boy tll” This reference is not only to copies of interest bu also tothe kinds of words we use. Boys tend to ase mare active words and expletives and girls more afiliative words, according to some researchers of the English language. In some languages, e.g. Russian, there sre differences in male and female forms of grammar (e.g, adjectives, participles, and past tense of verbs); in Russian, continuing with our example, women are much more likely so use dimiutive forms duun sen, In bout Bugs aul Russian (as wel as soe other languages), the intonation patterns of men and wornen tend to diffe, Social status Ifyou are talking to ahigh-society audience, composed of local polit ‘cal leaders, medical professionals, wealthy individuals, and whoever else inthe culture is considered to be of “high stats,” you will choose different words anc grammar than if you are talking te w group of youngsters in the ghetto. If you use “high-faluin’” expressions with ghetto youngstes, you will find that they do not Jiston becanse you do not ft i, you “do not undersiand” them. Similarly, if you ‘ase ghetto speech in addressing a group of socialites, you will also be dismissed. I you want to tin and be accepted, as well as listened to, you will need to learn the kinds of language that ee used by the various socal levels in the culture you sre studying, ‘Genre expectations ‘Weiting differs in the kinds of words, sructutes, style, discourse mech- ‘nisms, and text organization that are used for vasious categories of production ‘These categories of itferences ae called different genres. Let us take some spe citfe examples. Ifyou are writing your opinion about a current event in a letter to a pen-pel your own age, you will need to use a different kind of organization176 ___tanouace: than you will if you write a letter to the editor. The former can be pretty informa in how you address the reader and pretty exible in how you present your argi- iments. Te later will expect formal level of address end culturally appropriate Jogical development of thought and argument. Articles, conference presentations, ‘nd other writen and oral genres bave structures that difer one from another and that differ, depending on the language, Books for native speakers on how to write cean provide some of these gence expectations. So can extensive reading in each of the genres, Using an authentic text as a model is often the best guide in preparing ‘your owa text. Educational background if you will be talking to & group of people, either formally or infor- mally, itis somewhat important to know their educational background, You will ‘vant to pick different words for delivering a conference paper ata professional association to & group of individuals who, in general, appreciate erudition and ase bigger words themselves than you would choose for, say, a mixed group of ‘parents in speaking about a scnool project ata Parent-Teacher Association ‘Specialization ‘The kind of vocabulary you use depends very much on the level of| specialization of your listener, a6 well as on your own level of specialization, Two pet owners talking together will probably refer wo cats and dogs, buttwo veterinas= Jans might refer to canines and felines. Specialists share a considerable asnount of jargon, This jargon can only be usec with other specialists. With lay people, itcxe- ates confusion and misunderstanding. When you learn new words in your foreign laxiguage — whether in clas or through inclependent reading — make an assessment of whether these are specialized of lay words, so that you will nave a range of ‘synonyms to use, asthe circumstances require. Position in a relationship Closely related to register isthe tailoring of language to reflect per- sonal relationships. The choice of formal and informal forms of address, as well 1s the use of honorifics, depending on the language and culture involved, are ait an important patt of tiZoring language to reflect personal relationship. On a more inlvidual, personalized basis, with some people you mey feel free to use rather loose, vivid language (even “four-letter words” ~ although you should always be avrace that these words cary powerful emotions that may not fel as weighty to you ae a foreign speaker of the language as they do to a native speaker of the langnage). With other people, you will fee! more circumspect and choose @ clitferen set of words. You do this naturally in your owa language; learning o do iv in the foreign language will uke some time, expetience, observation, axd the acquisition ofa large set of synoaymous expressions, Sesiolingnnin the sight exoreston CASE STUDY Probiem Senan had he opportuni, forthe ist ime fe macy tee yeas of engage study aa rr iver, 1 ak oa nave speaker of Russian, The conversation sozmedto be going okay, uti sucdealy the elder lady stopped ook at him suangely, and ake why was treating be so rely Possible solutions Clete, Shenan has sped his audience in some way He needs to detecmine what ent wrong. Was he sapposed route itferent fon of address because of erage or gender? Had he chosen graroitical forms ar Wocabulary tat were less ‘han teat, aagprpriately slang, or aot obsecving hee edwetional beckgwoand (whatever i might have been)? Shenan soul, of cure, poloize ang expla ‘Rate bed not meant any offense. Then there se some ter things that he can do co prevent making he sare mike again (0) He cn asthe ado explain why she though he was cde Thi sno only he nos expedient way to desert his ero bu athe mas ikely method 0 ave im the information bo reads not coatnus naling her once he has pologze! (2) Fe can ask his teacher about the ladys reaction, She shonld have some good Insights into what might have happened. (3) He can lear about and practice silorng his spaech— this is someting he probably should nave done in advance and cerinly should éo now. Figure 7.2 MP bapa STAD oe Different cultores use differing approaches to turn-aking in interper- sonal communication, formal communication, and onthe telephone. Not follow {ng the rues ofturn-taking forthe culture(s) associated with your foreign language can mark you as rade and can highlight your foreignness, no matter how good yourlenguage skills really are, Sometimes one set of “rules” applies to all three of these situations, More often, though, each kind of communication has a different Set of rules. I will be important for you to find out what kinds of rules apply to Your foreign cultures), Here we car provide only some generalities to show the Scope of te differences. Informal or imterpersonal communication Informal communication isthe everyday conversations that you have With friends and neighbors, The rues forinformal conversation will differ from the od18___taNGuace rules of formal conversation, (Strategies for managing informal or interpersonal communication are given in chapter 10.) “Tannen (1985) says in some cultures that when you're doae talking, you start repeating yourself. This is a signal that your urn is done and it is okay to inter~ rupt Otter caltures of course, find ths technique horribly rude ~ and individuals tannot get a word in edgewise when confronted with this wall of sound. A eol- Teague of ours once supervised two team members who could not take tums. ‘The Algesian man would wait for the Japanese woman to interrupt, and she vould wait for im to be quiet (S. Flank, personal communication, Devesaber 6, 2008). Formal communication Formal communication ineludes such things as negotiation, presen= tation, end publication. These kinds of communications tend to have formulaic discouise, Such formulas differ among languages. Yamada (2002) points out that ‘ot knowing these “rules” can lead individuals from one cultuce to misunderstand very seriously individuals from another culture even when both understand all the words and grammat. ‘Becoming faniliar with the formas used in your foreign language willbe very immportantto developing formal communication ability. As you gain in proficiency, ‘you may find! that your best soorce of information on formal communication is fot a dictionary or a textbook but full-length authentic texts, They can serve as mnodels for your own speaking and writing. Strategies for managing formal ‘commiunication ae in chapter 10.) ‘Telephone communication ‘Telephone conversations are other forms of communication that differ among languages. in addition 1 the words used for greeting and parting, there are usually specific ways that are appropriate for starting and ending a conversation. "There ae also phases and torn-takng behaviees that are requisite for interrupting, a speaker. These behaviors and phrascologies are important to know in oxies to speak comfortably on the phone, Forexaraple, Americans often consider Russians ride because they simply hang up the phone when they are done talking. In the United States, by coausst, poople typically say goodbye more than once ‘and in more than ove way, Telephone etigueve in Dutch can Tead to amusing miscommunication, When you telephone someone, the pergon answering asks the question Met vie? “Withto whom (am I speaking)?" to which the ight response js your name, However, a learner might interpre that prase as “Wh whom do ‘you want to speak?” and thus likely give the name of the person ansivering the phone! Seefotnguises: the sgh expresion CASE STUDY Problem Felicity was talking onthe phone with a native speaker wo, ia her opinion, ended the conversation ina strange and abrupt wn, in essence, hanging up on her. She ‘was absolutely tuaned and did aot know what she di wrong. Now she fels angry vith the native speaker. What should she donext? Possible soluions (1) The Brstthing that olicity should dois what she shoal uve cone before ‘making the phone sal: ear phone courtesy forthe culture she is sodying. I she is learning English, thn she shouid bo sngry because hanging up the phone withoot sgoing through a patiog rua ie disoourtenus in the United States. f she is learning ‘assian on te other Rand, a paring tal i unusual, Whea the “business” tha inspired te elepone converstion has been completed tis logical simply to hang. up he phone; there is no rudeness implied. (2) nthe case of English, Felicity sbould cal the person back and ask whit she said or did wrong to make the person hang up on bet. She might be surprised: pethaps there wasa technical problem in the phone Hine. (3) In the case of Russian Felicity should ot only es better bu she should also adopt the same habit since it culturally appropriate Figwe72 PZ Thdluse ot sitenee =» ‘While ie might seem that silence is aot communicative it erty i and itis part of what ve eal sociolinguistic competence, Knowing when Welk and when nt fo aks very import pr of any ele. What is tteeptble in some cles considered rude, unduly difdent, or oterwie travcepiabeinoerexaresLeuslooEasome waysin which ace i iedin agit : “To show respect (eg. in class, listening to spencers) ‘ ‘When confused or embarrassedt . ‘When no answer is at hand or expected Silence as respect (English) Speakers of Zaglishtené to use silence to show respect. In aclassroom, whispering is considered io be impolite, reyerdless of content or reason. Thesame {is te if one is listening to a public lecture or is being addressed in a group by one’s boss ata staff meeting of larger gathering.180___tawouase Socotingusice he ighespresion 181 CASE STUDY Table 71 Problem peson Bn ou lengua ‘Sheila was talking 1 a native specks whe. be fell sient. n fact, be met a couple of Pere ena Gqesions with since This rade er fel avkward. What shoud she have done? pe beighbor Possible solutions - ‘Shela was ost xa she hed not earned the mesning of silence in he cure saat the was studying, Ter ate somethings she coulé have done. trial go jute (1) Beforehan, she shou have learned the meaning of lace inthe xl doctor ‘Then she would have kaon owt el and how react ~ and might ot have ge caond he nee in tbe fist place, ter al perhaps the kinds of questions cai ler colleague st work ‘vas asking were ierteted ax rhtorieal by her interlocutor. Or pechaps something She said bad shocked him, (©) Atthe mement that she enoountered she silence, se had several choices: (=) 10 ‘become seat bersel! this would probably heve mace tbe situation wore, (6) 0 ‘repont te las: qbestion ~ pechaps it was not undersiond to bea question because of her intonation, (€) ota different intonation or tll te inertocutor that se was asking question, (G) 1 ask a different question or askthe question ina different ‘vay peshaps the question had nat been understood because ofthe way she ha ‘hrased ite} to change the (opi ofthe conversation — perhaps she chosen at ‘ascomnforabie topic for her leterlocutce fr personal or culture reasons, or () 20 fsk he interlocutor way he ed fll silent if one ofthe other scluions worked, this might be the only way to find out what, if anything, had gooe wrong. (3) Spe should find out now how sleace is used in te culture she is studying, #0 that she will act sepeat er mistakes, if any, inthe fae, Figue73 ‘This attitude toward or requirement for silence in these Kinds of situations, however, isnot typical ofall cultures. Russian students, for example, whisper frequently while their teachers are lecturing, and Russian employees whisper frequently while their bosses are addressing large groups of them, Most would be surprised to leara tha this behavior is cousidered rade in some cther cultures. Generally, they whisper to clarify something that they did not understand, and this is perceived by speakers in their own culture as perfectly normal, Rather than witspering te « neighbor for help with claifcation, English speakers are more likely to raise a hand to make a query (which is not a routine behavior in ‘whispering cultures). [n fet, in some whispering cultures, interrupting a teacher with a question because you did not understand or bear something can get you Jabeled as rude oF stupid, Wheceas in western cultures this is perieoty nore ‘nd expected. (At the same time, some students io a variety of cultures, including western ones, while knowing that silence shows respect, sill feel uncomfortable ‘when the elasstoom is t90 quiet this is more an issue of personality type.) ‘Confusion and embarrassment Silence is one way in which people can eact to confusion and embar- sassment, ltematives include cisplnying anger orexcusing oneself, Some of how one reacts is highly individualized. However, there are cultural aorms. Reacting In anger in the United States, for example, would be considered inappropriate Excusing oneself, if one has not done anything wrong, can raise eyebrows, as well, although excusing oneself, indeed, called fori one has done something wrong, ‘Whether being silent if confused or embarrassed is appropriate or inappropriate ig snmathing you will need te aecertain foe your cnltore No expected answer Sometimes we are presented, in English, with ultimatums or with thetorical questions. In both cases, an answer is usually not expected. If one is given, itis often viewed as argumentative or rude, In otter cultures, this may not be the ease. Further, there may be other circumstances in which no answer is expected. These are important pieces of information that your teacher ~ oF a cross-culturaly savvy native speaker ~ can provide. |S) Practice what you have learned: 1. _ What orn of address do you know fore culurelanguage you are stadying? Fl out the chart by comparing how you personally would acres each ofthe following people. 2 Find ont the telephone etiquette for ou citure. Hw does it differ from Englisi? Fill out Table 7.1, then cole play phone conversations on various topics with your classmates until all of you are comfortable ‘with this etiquette12___bANOUAGE, 3 ‘This chapter provides several instances in which silence would be appropriate in English. Make a similar list of when silence would be inappropriate in English, Then, for each of these instances (both the appropriate aud inappropriate), find out what is Ga}appropriat in the foreign language that you are studying. Review In this chapter, ou considered a numberof themes. The content ofthese themes can be surmatined as fol0Ws: “+ Thorng language + Tosntnking, + The use of silence, Tailoring language Register iste iilocing of language in accordance with soualidety and incindes ous of address, grammatical forms, and word choice. Audience is ienpectnt to consider in tailoring anguage and means that you need to ‘adap your speech depending on your lstener(s)’ age, gender, sil status, gente ‘expectations, edueaton, and specialization. Toterpersonal relationships wil also determine the words and expressions tat ‘you us in communication arm-taing Diferen cultures use catesiny approauies 0 unuctuhing in Ztesperonel ‘comnarication, formal communication, and on the rlephone. The use of silence ‘Silence has communicetive power. Is sed in different ways in diferent cates, you wantto learn more about the topics in this chapter, you might chock out the followingreferences: Ager (1999); Bergen (1990); Tannen (1985) Tannen (1987), ‘Taonen (1996); Tannen (2001); Tannen (20012), Teudgill (20018); Wardhaugit (2001); Wennerstrom (2003). Preview Comuminiation between wo or more inva mcmpsiedin any w Word ar oly oe of tev ways Tas cape aes one meat of ‘ornniaon, Toc at he chap wl ads cae: + Grssngs an paring Genie ‘bse Personal pace Body ings, To. Fal expestion Clothing and coverage, Communication between two or more incividualsis accomplished in many ways. Words are only one of these ways. Gestures apd hody language are often even ‘ore importaat chan words and can sometimes convey the opposite meaning 10 one’s words ~ making understanding difficult. Uafostunately, these wpics ae addressed only in passing in textbooks, so you will aced to make some eifort 0 find out about them, Greetings and partings Al foreign-language textbooks wil each you very earl in the pro- ram the words wed to greet people and to tke leave of tem. You a, in nc, aleady know these into angwage you arésdying, Worcs, however, are only Pt of the equation, What you do when greting (and parting) is just as impor ‘ante what you su) ~ and accepted practices vary widely anong cultures: Here sme posi eer guage Jou sy enu owe y shot ication ofeach tem bands bow hug iss + onder of introductionsKay tanouaoe: Handshake In the western work, the handshake is the typical non-verbal part of fa greeting (and parting), A frm handshake is eld in higher esteem than a weak ove although, in general, men tend to'have firmer handshakes than women, [n some cultures, a weak handshake is the norm (e.g. native Ameriean cultures, a ‘number of Asian cultures). "Handshakes can take many forms. In the United States, a handshake is usually done with therighthandextended atarm’s length. In Italy, «handshake can include ‘grasping the arm with the other han. A two-handed handshake is common in ‘Turkey. In Malayan culture, both parties stretch their aems and touch each other's hand) lighity, then put their hanc(s) over their heart, Jn Uzbekistan, a slight bow, secompanied by the hand over the heart, is the typical greeting and parting. In ‘Nieeragua and El Salvador, men shake hands, but womnen generally pat each other fom the arm or shoulder (and bugging and kissing among friends is accepted). In some countries, gender plays an important role, In Muslim counties, for ‘example, men shake hands with each other, but they do not, except on rare occa sion, shake hands with a women (and those rare occasions involve foreiga women and Muslims who have been exposed to foreign cultures). In these countries, ‘women usually do not shake hands with women, ao¢ do they typically touch in greeting, In dia, the Hindus shake hands only with the same sex, unless they are Westemnized, Likewise in the Philippines, cross-gender handshaking is not culturally appropriate, Bow 1h some couriries, for example, in Japan and Thailand, a bow is used in greeting and parting, The depth ofthe bow reflects the starus between the two individuals (see the discussion of register and relationship in chapter 7). If you are bowing to a senior person or a person of higher stats, then you should boss ‘more deeply than that person bows. Ia bowing, lower your eyes and keep your palms fat against your thighs ‘The bow can take other forms, too, In Sri Lanka, for exanaple, the bow is very slight and is accomplished with bands placed together & chin level Hug Tn many counties, ¢ hug is @ (ypical greeting, especially among fiends, As with handshakes, hogs can take a number of forms. Ia Russia, a hhug (and subsequent conversation) may be accompanied by the interlocutor pat ting or rubbing your arm. In Pakisten, men hug men and women women, but there is no eross-gender hugging. Unspoken communication CASE STUDY Problem Jamie vas invited io azeception in Bahrain, Upoa acval, she immediatly ‘spproached her host and extended her hand. He did ot take it and that msde her ‘eel vey awkward What should she have done? Possible solutions Jamie had clearly made» faux pas, What should she have done? Avoided ito begin ‘with, Here ae somethings to thik about (1) Jamie should have sate the customs before going to the reception. While ‘westenized Babrainis will shake hands inacrost-gende fashion, he indigenous sen will at shake a woman's hand, Jornie shovldl have waited for ber host to ‘excend his han before she extended hers. {@) Caught inthis swinvard station, abou all hat Jamie could do would be to let her hand drop and focus a th conversation, athe than dweling on the situation or feling awiward about it Figure 8.1 Insome countries, hugging and kissing are considered public displays of emo- tion and are frowned upon. India is one such country Kiss ‘In some counties, kissing, including kissing total strangers. is per- ried and/or expected, Gender may or may not play a role. In Russia, fiends srect by Kissing three times on alternating cheeks; men kiss men, women iss ‘women ~ which might seem odd to a westemer. Close fiends and relatives kiss onthe lips, and strangers usually shake hands. By way of contast, ia Italy women kis each other on each cheek, whereas men embrace or slap esch otber on the buck. In Brazil and Brance, cheeks touch and lips kis the air Hand-kissing is no longer very common. but it can still be found in some countries among the older population, Poland is an example Order of introductions In some countries, the order of introductions is pre-established. In aly, for example, the most senior people present are accorded deference. In Pakistan, you won't have to worry about ceder of introductions: al introductions Will be cone by the host. If you will be attending an event, it would be wise to find out how the introductions ae carried out (beyond just the words). 185186 _Lanowace pe EIS very ul bas isown eof dsdnt eae, Somctines a geste hati precy dowin occult smeeningless neat, un, orcvencbucee eae Sreackng o's Sx ito oe’ Handa casa geste in she United ‘States that many people, especially men, use while talking. In Latin American arene may of conte hs est is considerea obscene, Russians sop Shot Repos aginst te ec fo iat a they would like to drink fo 38 cee eee a gesture means toting and in fit, Jooks ace wer. However, even custom ofpotning wih tbe mil ngs aherhan he ode ings, seMaly coufue an Ameriean who ascribes oer megs tthe use ofthe middle fnge, se ae anguage profieny improves, native speakers wil increasingly expeyou tote gents ha wt he elt an ih You evel of to sense Textbooks are aot unl very Hepfl at teaching tbe wide rage of sess otis asd in any cute. Hower for most languages end clus, cease ca ances aout culo specie poses are valble. Youcan des wetter andon slate Observing nav speakers carey wil each arora orotate hee are some ofthe many Kids oF gesres jo might rch or follonedby rome exampes of afrences ming counties ‘hand movements finger moverments ‘head movements Jeg snovemeats| ‘Hand movements ‘To beckon to someone in the United States, one makes a crook of ‘one’s index finger and wiggles it toward oneself. Not so it Spain, n Spain, one furs the palm down and waves all the fingers or the whole hand. In Norway, one does not ase the hand at all for becisoning, but the head. {In soine cultures hands have different values. In Indonesia and Middle Bastemn countries, forexample, th lft hand is considered unclean and is not usedito touch anything. Finger movements In some counttis, pointing is quite aormai, as in the United States. Jn many countries, however, i is considered made, In Lodonesia, iti impolite to point with the forefinger, but pointing with the thumb (and a closee fst) is normal Likewise, the “thambs up” gesture is accepted in the West but considered rte in many places in the East "Also some finger movements have different meanings, depending on the eul- ture. The thumb and forefinger formed intoan “O" means OK in the United States, refers to money in Japan, and is considered obscene in Guatemala spoken communication CASE STUDY Probie Robert vas anew program manager for «group of people from Latin Amerie ‘They spoke excellent English and bad been in the United States for varying periods of time, although they mostly agsocated with otter members of the Latin Asteccan communiry locally, As Rober: waxed eloquent in his istodvtory speech to his employees, he éwelled on the importance of respect for exch otter. In doing $0, be emphusized the words trough gestae, hitting one st against the palm of his hand. Acts his audience gigaled tea dey broke into full laughter. Robert was bated nd didnot know how to proceed. What should he have done? Possibie solutions 2) The ft thing Robert should have done was to determine in advance the sgnicance this audience of any gestures he planned to ue in is speach, He ‘would bave found out before making that particular geture what one oF his «employees ‘oid him afterwank:n Latin American calre his getare had pet sc le same significance as showing die middle Sager vo someone i the United States ~a sexu obscenity. So, Robert as sending avery mixed message. He was saying “let ue respect each other” and indicating by gesture jst the oppasis. OF course, it was funny to his audience ~ who knew that he ment tke words but did sot understand the meaning ofthe gesture for them. (2) Robert could nave changed te topic and stopped ihe gesture. Obviously, something be did not understand ws going o, and he was not achieving his zou [edocs at matter whether the wore are wrong, the gesture i Wrong, 9° He combination is wrong. When in doubt, doa’t, Goon t the aext point and find oat sflerwara what the issue is ~ which is exaetly what Robert dd in this particular Figue 82 Head movements In Norway, as mentioned cate, « toss of the head is uscd to beckon someone. (This is also done informally by some people in the United States.) In India, pointing is done withthe ehin, Nociing and shaking ofthe kead can be confusing, 100. A nod in most westem ‘countries means yes, but it means no in Turkey and Greece. A shake of the head ‘teans no in westera couniries and yes in Turkey and Greece, Want to be more confused? Some Grecians have adopted the westem customs ~ so itis sometimes ‘ot possible o tell whether someone means yes or no! Leg movements ‘The feet, in some countries (e.g. Indonesia and the Middle East), are ‘considered unclean, Snowing the sole of one’s footto someone is considered mde, 187lg tanovace: so crossing legs must be done carefully. Likewise, in these countries, nothing is touched of moved withthe foot, ee EET aoas ‘Some words and behaviors are perceived as negative, Predicting them is not always possible. You will need to lear about them in advance. There are books that can help you. So can your teacher and any native speakers you know. Being cbservant and asking questions will also keep you out of teouble. Taboo words ‘You can probably make quite a ist of taboo words in English. Some teachers shy away from teaching these words fo students because the same neg~ ative feelings and sense of resirint usually does not accompany these words in ‘a foreign language as in a native Janguage. Whether or not your teacher teaches tem to you, you are very likely to bear them in-country and to pick them up on the stcet. Be careful how you use them ~ and better yet, do net use them until your proficiency level is very, very high. ‘Sometimes the lack of certain words is construed as negative. For examole, when making a request in English, itis considered polite to include the word please. To omit iti offen seen as ruve, aldavugl the cequest would havo boon ‘tered in a form that was grammatically conrect. Likewise, in most Arabic- ‘speaking countces, the future sense is always followed by in sha’ Alla (Goo willing) If you do not inelade that phrase, your interlocutor, ifamative speaker, ‘will undoubzedly Al itin for you. Taboo behaviors Superstitions abound in neatly every culture, For example, in Amer- ‘ean culture, itis bad luck to walk under a ladder, step on a erack, or break @ tnittor, and people tend to avoid doing any of these things. In Russia, an even ‘umber of flowers is bad luck, and people will not present you with a bouquet ‘nor will venders sella bouquet) that has aa even number of Howers in it. Most superstitions in most cultures will have some form of taboo or frowned-upon behavior associated with them. ©) Personal space Personal space ~ the amount that is needed between interloeutors ~ iffers considerably from cultare to culture, While itis not associated specifically spoken communication CASE STUDY Probiem Janet is living in St.Petersburg this your pa foreign-exchange program snd hes ‘become very friendly with «young woman who lives in the same apartment Imuiling. The womaa wil be delivering & baby soon, and Janet would ike (0 organize «baby shower foe her. How should Tenet go about aig this? Solution Janet should stop —immedietely. She should forget aboxt giving a shower, ad she should forget about giving a presen. Tis is considered bad luck in Russia and ‘would be very poorly received. How could Janet know this? Before undertaking say action tat involves another petson that Fanet has not seen a native speaker do, she should research how that ation wil be interpreted and received I this and father eases, she can “research” by: (4) seeding information aboot cular behaviors in books by sociologists, language teachers, andthe Tike: (2) watching waat others doin rection to putcular events and bow they seact wher’ actions ~ loam waa is she range of expectad behavior fo each life event (such as pregnancy and chldbith); (0) checking she posible reseton with a fiend who is 2 native spake. Figue 83 vith Ungvisties or language itself, nonetheless maintaining an improper spacing between you and your native-speaker intelocutor can lead to labeling you as a ‘foreigner and even to feeling a fair amount of discomfort in the interaction, ‘A rue of thurab that can be followed is that Americans and Europeans need an amt’s distance between speakers. Russians need very little space, by comparison, whereas native speakers of Japanese want bowing distance between interlocutors. ‘Other cultures will generally be similar to one or another of these three. Yeu will need to determine whats the comfortable and expected distance for native speak cersin the countries in which your foreign language is spoken. Good observation sills will tell you this without asking. eee et et cet cae dece Se ee Co eee eee eee 169CASE STUDY | sien secon te Aner busy in Russian ae sie NtonsominSfpe teraig Bees ae ‘sured by be put by the end of the evering, al the Americans, a et wl team we Elling sel MO pte the convertion was pleasant enough be felt very tem lng 86 70 ing on and what could be have done about it? m0 a ‘uncomfarate, WH Pandit oat difleence, Rsan Ke sng wp clos and ‘acc war caught PE rength, So, everytime the Russians got t00 close, the Make anu oth Terme he ‘mera ep902 The Americans back way again. Over tine, the uss cone 88 cq to the Wall, Had Mak realized what was asus be 0 AEE oa bis ground ~ taken hat step backward Being Sappecing, be 20! Sty, however, would not have happened On the sPOL con wi es gt a towing itace ey peed Hie © Mat an np amount of personal space. (The same is he other aan ll eral woe ete eta ite) So Mk eee ee ot moving ay wa is ative speaker ends thd pice aAmE can, Overtime, he will Gevelop aleve of comfort Ione aoe alr his curent coat ove comes from 8 Sinn et in ete of espe" 7 igus se amt ‘postule Post stu vasies from culture to culture, and interpretation of postr vais, P2400, polite in one may be rade in another, Observation ‘aon in ol elp you become aware ofthese ditfereacs if you stu, andratve th ast, and ving ocketorback sin Des, sting back-to-back, as westerners sometimes do sa sae orn eying some Kinds of games, js aot accepted on publi ans eas turning one’s back on one's brother.” Qatar, in iseonsind OM Ears, i oe sch country where the majo etre sebevesiis ing lees Conse yt doe fret in diferent cltures. Some cultures ci ed atthe sed athe ankles. Other cultares accept legs ao expect legs to Unopoken comsnication knees from men but not ftom women. In yet other cultures, exossing the legs at the kmees is fine ‘There is snother matter to be aware of in crossing your legs, and this is what bappens to your feet ~how and where they are pointing. In most Islamic cultures, jt is rude to show the sole of your shoe (or your feo!) to an interlocutor. In some other cultures, e.g, mainstream American culuure, no one would probably even notice ~ unless you happened to have a hole in your shoe! Crossing arms (Crossing arms in some cultures can be soon as a way of shutting out the interlocutor. The body is closed to them, wrapped up for safety in the speaker's ams. In other cultures, people cross their arms all the time, and nothing is meant orperceived by this. Entering and exiting theater aisles Here again cultural differences are important. What is polite ia one culture is rude in another. Entering thester rows inthe United States, for example, people are expected to pass by those already seated by facing forward, Le. by showing their backs to them. In some otter cultures, eg. in Rossa, this would be considered ride, There one should get 1o one's seat by passing those already sented, facing them. Knowing the difference is important wo making sure that people perceive your actions as they are intended. Manners ‘Body language is also an important part of manners. Good manness in some cultures are very different from what are considered good manners in your culture. Western cultures, for example, consider the use of napkins part of {00d manners; some cultures do not. There is such a concept as “finger food” (ied chicken and the ike) which one is permitted to eat with one’s fingers and sill be considered to be displaying proper manners in the United States, In some Buropean countries, this would aot be the case, In other countries, most food is finger food. Whether one moves the fork from one hand to another after cutting meat or not depends on culture. Whether one washes one hands before eating ‘nd whether ou¢ uses the washroom or a finger bow! will vary by culture. Who oes the andering of food ina restaurants cultuare-dependent as is who can speak fora group. Neatly every interaction with another being rellects to some extent ‘one's manners, Displaying good manners is very dependent upon knowing what is considered good manners in your target cultur, Your teacher will know, and there are many beoks dedicated to this topic. Some of them are listed atthe end this chapter2 LANoUAOs CASE STUDY Problem Suzanna will be going to Indonesle on an exckange program, and she does aot was to ofend anyone inadvertently with her bedy language or manners. What can She do to prepare? Possible solutions : (2) Sbe cam as er teacher o give er some pointers (2) She cus read some books on the subject. (6) Sho can wath lim from ther and pay attention bot ro the body anguage of the speaker and to te reaction ofthe listener. (4) Hfshe finds that some of he typical body language may be offensive, she can ‘practice allering it~ with fiends, classmates, ber tect, native speakers, oF alone at home, oe Figures Differences in gender Body language and behavior will differ, depending upon culture. athe ‘Went, there is very lita cierenc in expectations between the gender although there are sill pockets of society where itis considered good manners for a man to pullout a chai ata iaole so that a woman ean stor old open the door fora ‘woman, Some cultures, eg. that of Saud Arabia, require women 0 be covered head (wth a scat and perhaps even a veil) and body (with an “abaya” or long- sleeved, floor ankle length blackerabe) when oat in pubic. Tn some culeares, men fand women do aot shake hands wit each other, while in others they share nude seumas. Learning about these differences in advance of travel o study abroad can be very important to a succesful experience Some cultares expect members of their society to touch each other Others expect people to sefmain from touching each other. Knowing what amount ‘of touch is appropriate and what kinds of touch to give and permit can make an Smportant difference both in how you are perceived and in what happens to you! ‘Appropriate greetings can be very important if you want to ebinplete the mission ‘you set out to accomplish in the foreign land (Momtison, Conaway, and Borden, 1994), Vespa commotion ‘There are many kinds of culturally appropriate touches (and inappropriate nes), Some of these have been discussed already: handshakes, hugs, and kisses, Other kinds of touctes include: . patting and/or cubbing . hand or arm-holding . hhead-touching Patting and rubbing Insome cultures, people, especially women, “pat” each other in greet ing or while talking. In Russia, women especially touch each other’s heads, rub each other's hair andarms, and the Uke. If youcome from a western culture, where this behavior is quite uncommon, you night initially expericuce some sease of “intrasion” with patting and touching behavior. [tis not meant, however, as an ingrusion but simply as a way of relating, of gaining and holcing your atention, rd of showing interest and solidarity, There is usually no other impifcation than that, Whether or aotto touch in return will depend oa your growing level of com- ‘ort with this cultural communication behavior if you are studying the language of touching culture, The beter your language and the greater your interaction with the people, the more likely you are not only to accept the touches but also tp give them appropriately. (Our advice: never touch unless you know tha itis appropriate and unless youare also very comfortable doing it. An inappropriate oF awkward touch is worse than ao touch at all. Moreover, in some other counties, tg Indonesia, the head is considered the seat of the Soul and should never be: touched.) Holding hands In some cultures, it is uppropriate 1 hold the hand of someone of the same gender while working, This can be rue of adults and even truer of children, nother cultures, two women or two men might walk down the street arm-in-arm (a custom that can make a very wrong impression in some parts of the western wot, Head touching Jn some cultures, in talking, io show affection or happiness, two ‘women might touch their heads or foreheads together. Everyone likes a smile, rigit? That is certainly an American con- cept, and most Americans would be surpsised to lear how their meaningless 1914 taNovace CASE STUDY Problem 2er aexchnge es fom Cig wa aig soma Senior tani see of ose, whe hacer nly ote aoe ree sted nd otto hon espn How cds ave caret ibe slons ‘ston ot nw is tat hiss ap fone geste, The eae ryt ey lene wh ex emus Noting Rovtan onl oa lly ose i aston wc sh Osetra noce ute tinge ang ar need cree Diane mang megan gong on Sec cona er Se Rcempon elon fo el shad saved geste, See tan xpress cae aces of oder stds was mig be eT smn ectn se fer sla, cn as omer npc rir an ow ho bul eve goed. Ts routes tine aera ina w oxperee an nlon tsb aes potion imc tana eben eof enone roby une tit me Tun sone pons abc ot a ya (2) Roseann could ask tbe teachar why sbe was stoking es ai i this eases be could probably ask dseiy sacs the teacher is ikely wed t0 working with foreigners who do aot sivaya understand local customs. o, perhaps beter, ingireedy (“Am I doing okay’? Figues.6 ‘at friendly smiles are interpreted in some other countries. Fist itis often the very fist thing that gives away their nationality. Second, in some cultures (e.g. in Russia), the smile itself, wien meaningless, can be interpreted as the person ‘being beeinless (ight-minded), not a8 te person being friendly. Third, @ smile shows friendliness and bappiness, right? Not always so in Greeoe where a stile can be used to show anger! Eye direction How one looks or does not ook at others often says more than words. Cultural differences here ean cause you to send subliminal messages that you do not intend if you do not know the rules of facial expressions in that country For example, looking down when someone is talking to you inthe United States is considered rude, The same expression is considered polite in Jepan, and itis expected if there is any difference in stars, age, or relationship, Unspoken communiaton CASE STUDY Problem ‘Barbara is an exchange student in Toyo. She hes through one of her Japanese ‘Fiend dhaca numberof peopte consider her rade and imperious. She is shocked because at home she is considered somewhat el-efacing, oven shy. She asked if she bed used inappropriate language, and the answer was ro, tat twas hee “utnue.” Whet migot be going on and wae might Barbara do about i? Possible solution ‘Bucbaramiehe well consider and pay tention t how she uses her eyes. In the ‘United States, she probably has become used to looking someone sash in he ye. This is not accepted in Japan, especialy when dealing with people senier 0 sour in a igber postion (2.2, teecher). She needs to lok down, and she will probably need to monitor her bebavior consciously ant it aas become habit Figure 87 Likewise, in some cultures, looking a stranger in the eye is fine and even considered friendly and nommal. Looking away can mark one as rude and anti- social. This is pretty typical in the United States. However, ake those same behaviors to Russia, and you will be surprised. Looking someone directly in the eye, especially someone of the opposite sex about your own age, could be considered flirtatious ~ more than just a friendly face. With anyone else in that founty, it might he coneidere! race and anti-social ‘Glothitnd aid dovetabe Some cules fel the ned wo over more of the body than ober cates Some atin cates accept good deal obo exposure, nlading the Stomacs of pregnant women Such exposutewouldbe es ready accepted nthe United States or Europe, More conservatively, Miia womea in mary Midd Eavercaltares are eapecol io cover aay he wholetbody excep fet an eyes ‘Ati opposite exe Some eles aecopt may es ate In somecses bath houses and saunas are places of mode gatherings (even, na few cases, of mixed gender), Other counties have nde beaches. IF you wat to be ale fo verac freely with embers ofthe cla ofthe language you ar studing t's imporent to ind oat he clothing expectations ~ ‘not just what kinds of clothes are worn (which may not be expected of you as a frcigne) bu ow much ofthe body nay be expaved (which wil be expected of you foreign or otro, ‘cient aly sang ta iothng shouldbe «mater of cltarl importance. Consider the ange of aecepablecebing win US soval contexts ism ‘appropriate, for example, to go into a restaurant with bare feet, but it is certainly aczepabl to do soa ie beach, (Even some conerrave clues allow preter ies ue Unspoken comenunisaiion ist 4 Find out test four betaviors that ae difeeat caaneTuDy, Findout est fourbehavios ht ae ieatn county whose language youace studying andia your ows, What would be considered Problem ‘goodmannersincach case and how wil you need toadept your typical ‘Sean nas excited about his first visit to a Finnish sauna He met his new fiend in front ofthe stuna, ven showing up carly, with anew bathing sit and towet in hand Bis fiends looked at im edaly and asked what those things Were for. ‘Slow it dawned on Sean that saunes were ftally nude places. Possible solutions ‘Sean should bave researched the sauna station before he agreed t come and ertinly before he arived, Now, he isin an awkward sittin. How he handles it ‘wll depend very muctson how much toleance ie has for avy and how mic Cultural sctehing eis capable of doing. There are eally only rwo choices, epening upon what he is willing to handle (1) Ye can simply remove hs clothes and enjoy the sauna; this takes some cakural fexing fut many people x ike this ll he ime ~ and one ofthis book’s ators “enjoyee” a nude stall meeting in a sauna a one point. (2) He can politely expen that this much audty is not something he is accustomed to it doesnot happenin his culture ~ and asto be excuse from ns agreement to ‘ateipate inte bathing session, pertups Suggesting that he get together with them for apost-saune drink andor me Figure 8s body exposure a the beach than elsewhere.) Sitar, would noLbe consideatl appropriate to wear shor's toa church, mosque, oc synagogue ia the US, but one is certainly expected 10 wear them on the tennis court 1 Interview native speakers (i hey are available) and ask them to give {you alist of gestures in their culture, (If you interview more ban one ‘ative speakex, you will got a wider assortment of gestures because some people will think of one set and some wil think of another) [List the gestures and find equivalents, if you can, in your own culture, ‘Where dothe same gestures mean diferent things? Where ee different postures used 10 express the same idea? ‘Research te clothing thats typical for peopie in your foreign culture. What are the ranges? What is cceptable? What i tolerated? What is looked at askance? 3. Find out what space and touch behavior is in your foreign county. ‘Once you know, practice maintaining these distances and using hese touches with your classmates or with native speakess whom you may meet. behavior? ‘Are there any differences between genders inthe country whose lan- ‘guage you are studying? If yes, how do you fee! about that? Review Inthis chapter, you considered a numberof dhemes. The content ofthese themes can be summutized 8 follows: + greetings + gestures + taboce + personal space + ody language and aoaverbal behavior + toch + ficial expression + slowing Greetings and partings ery clture has its own situs for greting and parting, Some of these include handshaking, bowing, hugging, and kissing, depending on the culture. Onder of ingoduetions at recepions snd the Like an be strictly reguinted in some societies Gestures Gestures involve hand, finger, head, and leg movements, or combinations ofthese. The same pesture can mean owo diferent things, depending upon the culture, An everyday gesture in one ‘culture can sometines be considered impolite or obscene in another culture. The same emotion can be expressed by differing gestures, depending upon ihe culcare Taboos Esch culture has its own set of tuboos. Words can be taboo; so can some heaves Personal space Cultures test person space ciderently. People in some cultures Eko wo be “up close and pesooal,"in others, “at am’ lenge," and sul others need “bowing distance.” Body language and nonverbal behavior Body language oe, has difeeat moaning, depending upon culture, What one does with one's arms, posture, andthe fle as many implicit meanings fut these avanings will differ by salure. Whats considered good manners in one cuitare may be considered poor menners in ‘moter, Fart the les” may aot be the same for bath genders, depening upon the oat y genders, depending upon th Touch Caitres allow (or expect varying amounts of touching. Some cules are “hands ov ae “ands of” others198 taNounes. | Facial expression pectin fatal expression wile doe diterenly ia diferent cabaes. A sil ines ‘lnalinese in one caltur,lght-mindedness in mother. Eyes Gown show respect none culture and discoapect,difidence, or revarication in another Clothing and coverage ‘Some cultures “oover ape” others “bare it all” Most are somewhere inbetween sod what ots ‘Covered and what gets bared will depend upon the culture. {you want fo learn more about the topics inthis chapter, you might fd the fol- owing sources helpful: Axtl (1990, Axtel (1993); Calbia, Doyle, and Fonsgy (1999); Campoei! (2000); Cole (1997), Costantino and Garbeila (1996): Curry £1998); Cuny and Nguyen (1997);Dabas and Voktmina (2002);Daun and Coo9- rman (1996);E1-Omari(2003);Engel and Murakami (2000); Flamin and Szelip (1997); Fippo (1996); Foster (2000); Francia (1997); GiosefG (1996); Hersing- ton (n.d, Joseph (1996); Joshi (1907); Keating (1998); Kevane (2004); Kissel {2000}; Li (2000}; Maat (2003); Michetoud (2001); Mitchel (19984); Mitcbell {098b}; Monahan (1984); Morison, Conaway, and Borden (1994): Novas anc Silva (1997); Redmond (1998); Rosenthal (1997; Seligman (2003); Shekbtman nd Lord (1986); Tada (2003); Wilson Leaming Comporation (1999); Wise and ‘Whitney (1998). Part 1 IndependencePreview “Language enrsng - if oe isto reach high levels of language proficiency ~ is long-term corumicnent. After formal language study, many larvers nd UDemselves working independently. Th topics in tis chapter ae related to ‘working independently; they are also of benedt in the classroom since knowing, out tem can blp with pacing and song proses, The topes inthis chapter ar about learning autonomy (taking contol of one's ow leaesing) and learner self-regulation (managiag pions, timo, and fesling) and include: Myths about se-drection, (Cognition in elf egultion, ‘Alfexin self-regulation Interpersonal dimensions of learner autonomy. Teacher's role in slf-regulated learing leis an ideal and frequent gosl in language teaching that learners will be able to manage their ovn learning when they leave the classroom and get into the real world of native speakers, newspapers, and films. There is much validity 10 ‘tis goal, The more you can manage your own learning while benefiting trom formal instruction, the more likely itis that you will have tools for learning in unstructured settings too. Autonomous learning is induenced by all of the cognitive and affective factors we described in chopters 3, 4 and 5; here we pull together a aumbor of taose themes to describe how you can take more control of your own learning, ‘We have grouped self-regulation and antonomy togetherin this chapter because leamer auonomy depends on effective self-regulation. Jn Part I (Learning), we looked at both cognitive and affective mavers; both of these play important oles in seléregulation and leamer autonomy, as do the interpersonal and group phe~ somena also described i Part I 117 Somé mis about self-directed eating Many people ol some belies abou eaing on one's owe oc dst ing one's cnn eaing Some ofthe most common are ested below 201202 ___Nograwpewce ‘Adults are naturally self-directed learners ‘This belief has a corolazy: children anus be taught. The truth is that both children and adults sometimes lea on their own and sometiraes require learning support. Everyone relies on instruction (though it may be informal, Like guidance from a friend on a craft) some of the time and leurs independently at piner times (e.g. looking up & topic of interest in the library or on the Internet). ‘Some personalities and cognitive styles are likely to insiston more autonomy than ‘others: for example, inductive and random learners may tend 10 want relatively mote independence than deductive or sequential ones. Self-ditection is allor-nothing ‘This is, infact, pure myth, Clealy, as indicated above, we all vary our learning approaches depending on wht is being leaned, our previous kaowlecge ‘and self-confidence with t, and how energetic we are feeling, among other things. ‘Acearlierstuges of learning something, we ae more likely to want outside support Gnsiuetion, syllabus) than late Even in later stages of leaming, when there is something very new to master, we may cycle back to wanting more direct suppor, ‘Self-directed learning is done in isolation |As-we shall see later in this chapter, self-direction is normally done in the context of other people and in social settings. Other people ae frequently an important part of an indegendently developed learning plan, Important theo sists like Vygotsky (1962) enaphasize the importance of interactions with more knowledgeable others in an unconscious process of increasing knowledge and stl pin self-regulation’ © Factors involved in self-regulation rect emotional ad cognitive development. This level of development is charactesized by . the ability co function within a social unit: . the postession of good metacognitive skills; . trust in self and others, and the ability © . set and pursue goals, tolerate frustration and compromise with reality, manage the multiple demands of life (work, interpersonal relations, valve formation) and think abstractly Self-zogulation an leseersutonomy ‘The social unit ‘Being able to work independently while also accepting direction is an important part of self-regulation. This does not a all contradict the need to take initiative for your own learning, which is an important part of learner autonomy. You do need to come up with ideas of your own and ways to implement them, but you also need to keep in mind that you are probably part of social units, too. These social units are likely to require that you modify and even withhold your initiatives and that you be aware of your social obligations. Autonomy is decidedly not isctation. ‘Good metacognitive skills ‘Seif-direcdion is impossible without good metacognitive skills (see shapter 2), Much of self itection takes the form of “shinking about thinking.” Skils in planning, monitoring yourseif (ether at the time orafterwards), assessing, effectiveness of strategies, and even making up strategies for yourself are both ‘metacognitive and important for selC-regulation, So setting and pursuing your goals form esseatial elements of self-egulaticn. You have to be able to decide what you want to eam and find ways to do so. At the same time, you need to emember that you will not always meet with success Copicg with the frustration of delayed or even failed plane is as important as ‘making them in the first place. Self-regulation requires a "Plan B.” ‘Trust in self and others ‘Self-xegulation is a kind of balancing act. You ceed to believe in your own capacity © cope with difficulties, and yet you also need to cust others enough ‘olet them (or ask tbem to) belp you when you realize you cannot do everything, ‘on your own, Similary, you need to beable to balance independent work planned, executed, and evaluated by you, with direction from outside, as in a classroom, though you are cespoasitle for leaming ané for knowing what you are learning foc, the teacher is responsible for orchestrating events in the elssoom. Further, you need to compromise with reality: you will not get everything you waat when yeu want it (and maybe not at al), and yet you need to seek whet you need and ‘wantin spite of the fact that you may not get it ‘Abstract thinking ‘To self-regulate well, you need to think abstractly. This includes Sock mental activites as shifting your focus from one aspect of a situation to Another white keeping several aspects in mind at the same time. You must both ‘tap the whole picture and analyze its components, synthesizing new with old20¢___iwopesnvence nthe ein sty eit lea ral or xing Pee BE ureton They as sone wate) oe nt rane ine eee ee ttn fon py re ty testa ttn ae ae eae eet inn bse te rye wit They bee potas Groep halig ecb nave aera aloe ge ering me nea of as ed ce ee tow nhs cpp fogs ved ve gas. Oc Soon tay may anon aoe We, 1988 p.179) Figure 91 ‘and appacently disparate elements, forming hierarchic concepts, planning ahead, ‘envisaging possibilities, and making use of symbols (Wolfe and Koib, 1984). "These are complex :23ks, For example goal setting entails awareness, expects: tion of success, psychological safety goals that can be measured, self-controlted ‘evaluation, and the belief that one can exercise a least some control in a situation (Kolb and Boyatzis, 1984). "A description of a self regulated learner is presented in figure 9.1, Itreminds us that knowing wien fo persist and when to quitin the face of impossible ods is another key to effective regulation of your own learning. ‘Tricks of the trade "Those who self-egulate well do a nomber of things that make them successful. You can apply these same “ticks” in your own learning, Some of them are discussed below. These include: setting achievable goals; staying aware of your feelings; keeping aware of your options; anticipating difficulties; priosszing: fncreasing versatility: being realistic: depending on others; ‘being independent where you can, Setting achievable goals It is easy 1 get overwhelmed by the steer vastness of a foreign lan _auege, especially sf you set vague goals like “leam the language in two weeks.” Instead, secmmultiple small, near-term goals, rather than single. large, and more dis- tant ones (Winne, 1995). Notonly do you maintain some control over youself nd Seifepulton and earer autonomy your fearing, you also can get quicker and better targeted feedback on waether wast you have tried is working Staying aware of your feelings ‘Dy to stay aware of your feelings, both positive and negative, Use some ofthe feeling management tactics described in chepter 4. If you are aware that something “tums you off," you can try to find ways to work around it (This is, in fac, a cognitive tactic even though you are dealing with feelings, becuuse yoo are noticing and thinking about your feelings and how to handle them.) Keep aware of your options ‘Keep aware of your options and avoid closing them off premanurely. this possible that lack of success in one of your efforts might have a simple cause that you can fix casi. Anticipate difficulties Anticipate difficulties and prepare to meet them with a good action plan of & set of practical options. That is to say, if Plan A does not work ie useful to have a Plan B end Plan C. They need not be fully formed, but some kind of backup ideas will maintain options and will provide the feeling that you are anlikely to fail because you have multiple paths. Prioritizing ‘You can’t do everything all at ence, so do what matters most at the ‘ime. Set priorities. For example, you can pickand choose words to lear, grammar 'o focus on, and leaming strategies, based on your current stae of knowledge, your interests, and your learning style, Increasing your versatility ‘Try some things that are outside your leaming style to increase your versity. Ifyou tend toward impulsivity, for instance, try slowing down, counting ‘o tou (or atleast five} before acting, or checking your work. On the contrary, if you are more comforable thinking things through, try doing a timed task: set a timer and when it goes off the task should be complete, If itis not, try again 1nd again, uatil your speed matches the timer. (Yes, your accuracy will likely go dows that s okay.) ‘Being realistic ‘Check yourheliefs, One ofthe most damaging things you can believe isthat learning should be rapid and knowledge without ambiguities. Experienced and effective learners understand that earning can be slow, uneven, and gradual, td they know that most of life is colored in shades of grey. 20s206 __tnperenDeNce CASE STUDY Problem “Valorie beginning to feel completely losin hor Asse class. Her teacher keeps telling her tbat she can gure out gamer ues for herself. She knows that he ‘Stowot do tht Nov onty sx Arabic gammaue very complicated for her, but in general She prefers somzone to explain hing ober before she ice to use them. So, how can she survive? Possible solutions ‘Valerie can approach taking charge of fer own Teaming in several ways (4) She car ear more about bet leaaing style. Her teachers wying to help het ‘become more eatonceous, bu she is robebly a deductive learner anc would work Detter if she got to sus fst, She des aot have to depend onthe teacher for taolanations, however. Tote ae grammar books (written for students) that she can eet go the explanaiong; se ca also to “sree” and ae if she ean igure out at least some ofthe rues before tuming 1a rule book: (2) Sbe can talk toe teacher about her leaming aeeds (in a musuallysespecful ‘vay) and see what se can negotiate {@) She can sec assistance froma classmates, who may have worked! oat the Tus. Figued2 ‘Depending on others ‘Allow yourself to depend on teachers, syllabus, textbooks, and other ‘external guidance for as Jong as you need them. Nor everyone can operate inde- peadently equaly fos, and pushing yourself to autonomy before you are ready for it can be destructive to effective learning and to your self-confidence. Being independent where you can ‘On the other hand, take over as muck self-regulation as your know! edge and cicumstances permit, a8 Soon as you are rely. Some people may be ready to take aot of conco almost mmmesdately, especially random faeness (see ‘Shaper 3) others may need quite alot more time befor hey are ready to manage toa of thei learning. Sooner or lazer, though, erenyone ca take some responsi. bility for learning even fs only deciding what order to do your homework and ‘when o take stady Breaks, Although such cognitive activites as synthesizing, planaing, and eval- uation of your learning ate the heart of seif-tegulation, you have probably expe- ricnced of observed how sexiously feelings like stress, anxiety, oF response Selfregulation and carer autonomy ‘eat can disrupt these processes. On the other hand, cognition can also be greatly enhanced by positive feelings, such. as motivation, well-being, and self-ettcacy. ‘Motivation for independent learning Machhus been writen about motivation end language learning and an quel emount hs been writen cbout motivation and self-egvation in ll forms of learning, Why is motivation importa? Fest of all, leaming is change, and change is dealt, Modation underpins keeping up the emotional, setellectl, and pysicaleffor needed achieve change (Ehrman and Dirayel, 199). “Motivation promotes effort i. tne on tsk. Thi isthe most basic condition {orlearing: the mors ie you spend on learaing (and using active strategie). the more you can take in, keep in, and retrieve when You seed if you rally ‘tant 10 ecieve proficiency, you will expose yourself othe lengvage as mach ts your circumstances perm. In a related ven, motwvation leas 1 persistence ‘vhenyou are having fcuts, Persistence, together with welargeed leering strategies, can offen overcome limitations of ability and environmen ‘Anxiety and autonomy Anxiety and siress are among the most powerful agents for derailing sel€-regulation. IF you are overwhelmed by your feelings, your cognitive learning resources are diminished. Your abstractreasoning sulfers, and you are likely to be taken over by your defense mechanisms, frequently Inunawure ones. Suck iacies for coping with ansieyy and stress often attempt to protect self-esteem, bat you pay a high peice for your defensive position. ‘Soif-regulation in the affective domain entails Avvarencss of what you are feeting and what is bothering you; Reducing the intensity of negative feelings; Reframing and “choosing your battles,” Focusing on the positive and selecting telpful environments; and Attempting to use mature defenses (see chapter 4). Setf-awareness Self-avareness is a gteat help in self-regulation. Ifyou know you're feeling uahappy of snnious, rather than ignoring it, you can take some kind of ction to ep i from hindering you (oe some of the suggestions in chapter 4). Tris supazing how much we can take our feelings for granted and assume that the way they ae is how they have fo be. Getting ore information about what is bothering you can be very helpful. fst something immediate in the classroom, suc as making oo any mistakes for your comfort, inthe environment, © style confct, or something 2ocrelated atall, such asa spat witha friend? Knowledge isa form of control, and it tells you vbere to look For solutions208 ___snsrsnvence ‘Reducing negative feelings ‘Attempt to turn down the “affective volume” when you ere upset or anxious Ifyou ate only hearing the dad feelings, there is litle room for anything clse, especially leaming, Tzy distraction from what is bothering you or sone of the other techniques mentioned in chapter 4 or this chapter. Reframing ‘An extremely powerful technique is reframing your situation so that ‘you see tin different terms, One ofthe authors illustrates reframing with acartoon Of a dog chained to a doghouse saying o a cat, “The reason they don’t tie You up js because they want you to mun away. "The dog is turing a difficult ciroumstance {estriction) into a positive one (the owners care about him an want im to stay), and dealing with envy of the cat by tuming the situation around in his favor. A ‘elated technique is choosing your “bates” — decide where you will expend your ‘emotional resources, and find ways to avoid or sidestep the others. Reframing can help: after you have turned as much of the situation around in your mind fs you cen, you may know where the real problems are and be able fo work on those ‘Focusing on the positive ‘You may know thst there are negative things going on, but do you have to Keep shinking about them, to the detriment of your effectiveness? The only reason for ruminating about bud tings i it belys you sclve problems. “Where possible, attempt to use relatively mature defense mechanisms, such 3s humor, altuism, or sublimation (cross-refecence). These are likely to help you seclaim your cognitive resources. To the degree you ean, select helpful environ- ments where you feet work, study, or social success. Avoid to the degree possible situations that are toxie fo you, or if you cannot avoid them, ry using techniques like reframing, choosing your bales, and focus on what is good. Unless it’s required, like # class, normally you don’t ave to spend a lot of time with people or in places where you don’t feet good. ~ © FatergerSonalidimension§ of learner autonomy |? Temay be hat when you hear the tims aéonomous independent, yoshi of someone staying ane. Act other people cn py 2 eee ‘Sr impoane oles atosomous. serpin earning. As we Kw hey can be souzes of sess, but hee we cxarine how they can help ede tesion and facitate your independent earing "We hve sean thn comntive and metacogniive funstons exental to set cegulason canbe disrupted or ehanced by feeling. Fequenly, such feelings Sat from ou elaons wih thess classmate, etches, ana fay. These thee Selt-segultion and learner autonomy CASE STUDY Problem ‘When Valevian began learning Greak, he was very excited and enthusiastic. He spent ajo of time on his hoatework and oven did extra work, Now he has become ‘more spathti. Hes tired of making so many mistakes and i begining pot to are about his language cas; in fact, he is thinking of dropping . What aow? Possible solutions ‘Valerian can use ove ot moro ofthe following to deal wita his “ecole” (41) He can step bac from the study for while soe can get some perspective. A ay or 0 doing something completely diferent could hep, {@) He can tale with someone, possibly his teacher or an experienced language Tearuer, about what Is causing him to fel this way. (6) He can try some reframing, Its useful to keepin mind that if you'e not making rmisakes, you may not be learuing much. He may have Tos sight ofthis fact, @) He can decide whom he fears, i. whose opinion will make him fel bad. Then he can decide what to say to these people (silemy} fo get them off his enotionst buck. He should note cat mest key be I his own worst ct, Figure 93 people can have a profound effect on motivation, well-being, seif-cilicacy, and anxiety, because it matters to us how they feel about us (and how we fee! about them). They have an influence not only on our sense of security with others but also on our slf-concept. ‘The class. “The atmosphere in the classroom or the nature of tke group dynamies there raises or lowers anxiety and motivation. Coercion reduces motivation: per- sonal investment in tasks inereases it. To the degree that we build our seif-imaze and our self-esteem from how others reflect us back ‘o ourselves, we arc likely 10 ave greater or leser self-eicacy as autonomous learners. Other people Finding social supportis akey strategy to surviving an uncomfortable classroom situation, That means other people, like friends, advisors, teachers, shaves, and others you like and who like you. They can be among the best steess-reducets by listening (a truly powerful help) and providing sympathy and encouragement. Sometimes they provide useful advice, but of course it remains 'p to you to decide whether to take che advice or not, OF course, from othersaun___1NDERENDEXCE ‘yu get information, ranging from the next day's assignment if you missed ito Jmowledge they have that we do not. ‘Remember, to, that other people provide models for you to follow. Forexam- fle, you can fear about seif-egulaton from models provided by other people, ‘oth in and outside of dhe classroom, Look at how they make plans and choices dnd how they manage thei time, Ask the ones who seer especially successful about what they do. You cin also pick op learning strategies from: others, ther tirecly of by observation. If it's working for someone els, it might work for ‘you, 09, some of the time. Thy i out antl sec ‘in addition to serving as models, other people play an important rele in helping ‘you define your goals and values, because you pick up social norms from the people in your life who mater to you. For example, you may bave leared that itis important to be honest becanse your family and friends valve it highly. (Other people also provide reference points for us to aspire and measure ourselves ‘agsinst. Many students like being with classmates who Team faster ot are more tudvanced, because not only do they Tesrn things from the classmates, they also hhave something tealistic to aim for. Fellow learners can share the workload. It does not mean less autonomy for ‘you to participate in study or project groups, especially if you have bull tha kind ‘activity into your planning, They can also he'p you when you get “stuck” with something. I's part of self-regulation fo know when to call for belp. It can also be enormously encouraging to you to provide belp to others: it validates your skill and makes you @ part of the sccial network that is essential io “the human finial.” Social support can bring about a sense that you are valued: yust the tact that others find you worth the investment oftheir time can be a boost to fraying seifesteem, and you can give tbe seme to others. ‘Finally, Ehrman and Démyei (1998) indicate how other people ate very much involved in our defensive maneovers. For example, atthe constructive end, joking ‘and'aumor ace normally Very social activities, as are projection and blaming in the less constructive area. I’ hard fo blame without someone else as the target, and humor is much more effective when there's someone else to share it. (Blaming isn’t usually a very good way to deal with perceived failure, though. Itis better to be sure that you aren't trying to shift esponsibility that is yours before you cast bisme.) (2 Peles’ Ble in prombng learner autondimy. 7 [Among the most important figures in the growth of learning autonomy js your teacher. Just as good pareating allows dependence when itis appropiate {ora child but encourages independence when the child iseady, so a good teacher provides support as itis needed and lets go when the student is ready to “ly solo.” (Un education-speak, this is called “scaffolding,” as when a building is supported until it ean stand on its own) ‘Selt-cegulaton and learner autonomy CASE STUDY Problem att and Paula are classmates and friends. Pat is having no particular trouble with ber Teaning and is even raking om aot of planning, monitoing of he: work, ang changing couse whore nocostary. Her classmate, Paul, i nt having a ey @ ‘ime. She is becoming dependent on Pat an beginning to take up alot af er time ‘What can Pat do without rejecting Paula or destroying her fimlship? Possible solutions may be aratigying t have the sdmiraton and interest of a classmate, but it ss cat become confining. Pat should consider earefully how much she wants have Penia degen on her. There ave sone ways that she can both help Paula and maintain her sanity and “space.” {1 on ink abn som go ig Pn wi lpr won (@) She should decide on the role she can best ake on: 6, mestog cheerleader, sympathetic eae. Then, she should ty to sat some limits oa that role and perhaps sggest ter people wo could fil some ofthe other roles. (2) She cool aso share strategies chat have helped her became more autonomeus, Figue 94 ‘Teachers play a multitude of roles in your leering, far too many to address hore, But here ara few that they play in enhancing your independence: 7 puides . cheerleader, . role model; and . motvaior. Guide ‘As a guide, teachers provide initial goals and guidelines to learners without enough information to make those decisions for themselves. This applies to most novices, who usually need guidance until they build up some expertise and knowledge. If the wacher provides too much ot too litle guidance, you need to be aware of this and find ways to cope. In the former case, which is likely to alec random and inductive learners in particular, you can find ways fo meet the teacher’s goals for your learning, but do it your way if that works better for you, (You could ry the teacher's way fst, just to see if you can pick up any aw Strategies.) In the latter case, sequential and deductive leamers are likely £0 be ‘ost affected, and in that case, you can seek to make your own sequences and logical outlines, nd organized references, and if necessary Ie tbe feacher know that you are geting fost and could use more guidance. an212__inpavenoewes ‘Table 9. names Person or group Help orhinder? How ‘Comment in eqwiang ‘Tne’ be more fe ee when J want a assertive to get my turn Sober a Hinges Tov misy reg tsp th te fate neighbor, wy lo have a S -constcuctive solution to oe ving ine ja seo aways Aravng fart a encouraging same thing back? BEE EEE ee ene tee eee en Cheerleader iscourage) you ‘As cheerleader, he teacher encourages (end may discourage) ‘tis candeensmportat past developing te “esnng lance” (see chapter) ‘pacts you and your teacher a5 teammates working toward the same gos. sane hose inerest in your success is obvicws wil belp you want to have vee cece, Ofcourse the eacker also has he powtes to reward ud push bY roving or wihhoidlng approval i you nee he ewnrs of ood des (nd ae wo ts want thet, wil elp to be aware of his act and distinguish berweer ‘Mtation to. tempocary station and wnat yOu really pre ole model Js inoran in gnegs si Having a ole mel sexe ingot " ne oy eal ening oy eer 9 2 ees mum cer asi she oe st, bt vena he aa et foie and lngage wo one ee. Te tear ernie and le! Yous en someone Ne SOS sou never coe imietes. Mosvator os of oe bec pr estin co wel an hc carom A wai resin yu andi YOW a a our dite for bat sce Pater fate Who a ee nding yu expere he el to sais You poe Tb nguge For enple 90u ae inet aes more fan rene Men aveather wo rng soe emt sate doves ino te sere nn ne and wl ip yo fd reading mates hat Bh seeking and at an apoio ely for yo. Selfepulition and eemer anions 1 List some ways thar you are already regulating yourself, Here's @ starter checklist (but far from complete): 4. Plan how to use homework time >, Use references without prompting , Ask questions when I can't figure it out for myself 4. Manage how much [ expect myself to be able to do in a given period of time, such 38 a week, 4 month, or@ semester «, Understand my teaming style (and something of that of others) so that I can negotiate with my teacher or seek compatible learning ‘opportunities outside the classroom 4. Track my list of things to do 2. Take opportunities to review on my own 1. Evaluate my progress and review the strategies I'm using, 2 Find a small task that doesn’t take a fot of thinking, such as washing the dishes. Break it down into steps as you do it (you will need :© ‘observe yourself) Here isa starter list for dishwashing: 2. notice diy dishes in sine think about wasing them «think sboat whether it can be postponed 4. if not think about what you will nced to do the job «. check to make sure that soap and scrubbers are sere £. clear the sink if necessary to make room to work (entails making 3 Judgement about the amount of space inte sink and where to put the airy dishes) gee [Now ary to do the same thing with a language-leaming task, Make it fone that is low pressure and where you are alone and undistracted, since you will have to do two things at once: the task itself; and ‘observing and tang notes as you do it How parallel were the routine and the learning ‘asks? ‘Do you need to change the way you work in language? How? List all tie people and groups who are involved in your learning. Indicate if they help, hinder, do boti, and ftow, Table 9.2 on p. 212 is astarter sample Review Inthis chapter, you considered these themes: * Some myths nd missndesstandings shout leaner autonomy + Disferentleveis of interaction * SelPregoation leading to autonomy 213ae 2i¢___inperenpence + Cognition in seifreguation + Adfeot in seléreguinion 1 tmerpersonal dimensions of se-egolation 1+ Teacher’ sles [Myths about autonomous learning (0 auosmous aig one pol 5 esedler aig . Oa a een atc peopl pri! eed learning. Cognition nse regulation coor otte proves ne se aye pacing sing pote, Co i wan auc magne rag 822° hrs ; fe emptiness oi ie 2 Co grams to werk wa eis, egg 0 Ce youd my every ane, NE Mee ng nso mcs Affect in self-regulation {0 Motivation heips you wok through frastraton and dficly snd keeps yOu on task (a) sAnniaty can diminish your abit to sel-reglat, becuse i aes away Counitve and afestive resouces you aced to manage yourself and your learning (2) Tips for oping include being aware of you feslings, nding ways ike language. These may include Cultural factors and factors related to professional jargon, when a person uses words trom bis local dialect or complex professional Jargon, ‘Social factors, when native speakers ase vocabulary or syntax that is {do complex or too primi Physiological factors, when a native speaker has hearing or articulation problems,2o4___INDBARNDENCE tated and cannot express himseifwherself clearly. ‘What co they know about the topic? What level of erudition will thes ao > Jn all those cases you need to be prepared, assuming, of course, that you know bout these specifies before the interview. You can prepare yourself psychologi- cally end Jinguistically and should aitend to doing both Formal oral presentation 'A formal oral presentation is monologic (atleast, inthe presentation portion, although almost always there are questions that follow and, ia some Cases, questions that interrupt). A formal presentation almost always requires ‘Serious preparation both for content (except inthe casein which you are sharing something that you do or have doa) and for language. Because ofits monologie ‘ature, a presentation is an unusual mode of interaction, especially for aon-native speakers, since the audience cannot eactto any language mistakes that are made, nly to errors or confusion, This places the need on you to make sure that Your Tanguage is clear and fee of erors The task is somewnat simphified by the fact thet you can and should prepare presentation in advance ~and rehearse i with ‘native speaker or your teacher “Anaiber significant feature of @ presentation is that iti, a8 rule, complex ‘in content and, therefore, complex in form. For this eason, the presentation is very often more linguistically complex than informal conversation, Depending on how presentations are made inthe culture you ae studying, you may need 0 use language that is considerably more formal than conversation (Le. thateseanbles ‘written vocabulary, erammatical expression, and syntax). A formal presentation wll be effective only ifitoffersaclea, logical exposition of subject oraconcept nganized using culturally appropriate discourse structure. What kind of opening js appropsiatc? What kind of internal organization? What kind of conclusion? ‘The use ofthese structures must be automate becsuse ofall the other Cognitive sctvity that is taking place concurrently ‘h addition, handouts or power-point slides may be required, In these cases, there is usually a culturally appropriate way to organize these, too, If you are Celivering the presentation in-country, there may be other requirements to be ‘concerned about things that are not part of your western experience. Sometimes, {you wil not have acess to modera technology, and you should be prepared to use fp chats and blackboards. Writing on flip-charts can be prepared in advances, ‘ynlting on blackboard cannot be unless you simply copy from a piece of paper ~ ‘hich usually makes @ presentation sound very sited, If you'will be using a blackboard, you may seed even more rebearsel, and automaticity of linguistic expression is absolutely essential because you will be talking and weiting atthe same time, which is aheavy cognitive load even in your native language. based on making a presentation to naive speakers; 'you are doing a pre only for your class then ...2 piideaiars . Ientify your audience and determine what degree of complexity you ‘ill provide about the content and what evel of erudition you will use in your presentational language. . “Analyze suthentic writings on the same topic. : Find the appropriate graramatical constructions, preferably among ‘those you already know. 7 . Atlower levels of proficiency, write out the entire presentation, Team ex onsiticingexresson etal on cil content termine, Checkin cont ant ogniation of your presentation with aatie speaker . ‘Over: practice . Do a trial ron with a native speaker. Anieite many quent a on tn and prep for answering sine sey at yo prope presen Js hs infra convertion sais ta abo appro for a presentation. ae Tdentify the audience Obviously, if you ar going tobe talking about brain ph i ing about brain physiology 0 rou of shoo ein, you wl sce your presentation qute afl than you would if you were going to be talking to a group of cognitive neurosci- faa For the former, you will use simplified content concepts and everyday iguage. Tor the later, you will use scientific terminology and considerable deni alongwith choles grammatical consuvccons and snore complex forms of sentence stoctre. Without knowing something about your audience you ‘cannot properly prepare a presentation. Therefore, wh do not know w hen you do noe knew who your audience wil be, you will need to contact soineone who does and fad out ‘as much as you possbiy can abou these peooe Analyze authentic writings show you i somatic on hope tht you wb esting. Tex wil You the discourse strcture: opening, topical reatment and orgenization txcing. You wil need to use the same approach in your presentation if you want tte audience io understand you. These authentic writings wil also give you the ‘ecabulary and grammar thats typically used when discussing your topic.226 __rwnersnpewos Find appropriate grammatical constructions 1f you are going wo be speaking in front of a professional group, ‘you will need to speak at their level, as much as possibie, In the articles you jhave chosen for analysis, look at the grammatical constructions that are used. How many of these do you know? Pick them! Use them often and well. How any do you not know” Are they essential? Can you replace them with struc- fines thar you do know that will souad more or Tess as scholarly? tf yes, do that, If not, you may need some additional time for preparation so Unat you team tearm and automate the constructions that you will need, If you find that Jou are having to include more than 10 per cent nev. constructions ia your presentation, you may be in over your head, and the best thing to do might fe not to nuke the presentation but find an altemative. Making « presentation that is inappropriately simplified or in which you will stumbie because you fre handling too marly constructions that are new to you is a situation to be avoided. Write out the presentation If your language proficiency is nea-native, you can get by with note ‘cards or an outline io Keep you on task, Power point slides can also serve that same purpose. However, if you are not 2 near-aative speaker, even if you consider yourself very competent und sccue, writing out éhe presenta fon in advance has many advantages, It gives you a set structure that you ean memorize, It makes terminology Use anu clwice of grammar and vocabulary ‘constant. This will help you very moch when you stato make your presentation for real. (any native speakers write out presentations in their own language belore presenting them publicly; this is also a matter of personal style and preference.) Learn text organizing devices “There are many text organiaing devices ina formal presentation, For- smal presentation is like a game with its own set of rules and regulations. Hf you want to play, you need to know the rules. Text organizers are a very important part of these rules. There ace text organizers forthe iatoduction, for the main part and for the conclusion. You eed 10. kiow how to present yourself, how to develop discourse, how (0 work with the audience; and it all requires spe cial expressions, which are not changeable, being like mathematical formulas ‘You simply need to know them automatically, Here are some of them: “In the beginning of my presentation I would Tike fo... the min idea of the thing is at... . [would disagree. . in conclusion 1 would like to underline." To hheve a command of the (ext, orgaizers will help yoi to present ideas clearly for an audience, facilitate the perception of a complex content and make the language level of your presentation approximate closely to the native speaker performance. ‘Spoken sod writen commanicad (Chee wih a native speaker Checking with a natve seater is is alays a god ide. Een profclent speakers of foreign languages ~ those with mear-aaive proieens routinely check with ‘native speakers before they make a presentation. Sometime 7 they will even give the presentation to the native speaker, who can give ‘ten pointers on delivery. meen aa as well If the speech is more than memorize, if every bit of itis as familia Do a trial run Trial suns rank right up there with checking with a nai with a native speaker It isalways a rood idea to practice in front ofa friendly audience, if you cap, before you present in ront of « group of strangers. Afterall, actors do aot presenta play ‘ntl itbas been well rehearsed, Anticipate questions A well-delivered presentation can be marred by the inability oanswer questions well. Although you cannot prepare fully for any and every question that night br asked, youtcan ceztainly anticipate some questions ~ and prepare answers {or them ~ in advance. If you do 2 tial un, you wall fd out some unexpected questions ~and you can prepare auswers for these, too, in doe event that someone In your audience should ask them, Use appropriate informal conversation strategies Its inponant forthe peson dering ring to be prepued te anever question servers, Only a pemon who seem wel-prepared fn eject ofthe presentation wl be abl ohne wn ene tho inde of Cpestons hat rest aie following the lngy monlog orton spree ido snetiey are ote unpredctbleand may Due comle, Ts fsesaa cxtenel dill allenge orth ern wing to divers resetaon in fpr guage. o repateonselfo sis absitely eel ogo gh ‘ets of race octal in which one is madoto oe he ent ssa of a estos eld sompex, unexpected and re provocative cuesins cer by snvering thm ot song answering the, al witht eveaignguic Weak spot The gusto prt of the pesention cover al he types of coraaniton dase ni chape, Ts th ie to make Your sen io even ore iret 0 the anc, ht 0 eels 0 ke comps nguise teal of your pesclaton wi element ta stad ct fed ally undeod Ie iportant ow fu ino your language some am228 ___nstpnoENcE CASE STUDY Problem ‘Richard was in Finfand and taking toa ax ever in Finnish, He asked him bow much it would costco goto the Contnenta Hotel. ‘The wn diver answerod: "twill not be cheap if is becoming more and more expensive tn hs town sh I ckd oer you awe far, but en’, What do yo have in find?” ‘Richard didnot understand award and simply held our 2 wed of moe, iciesting with a gesture that the ea diver should fake what he ceded. What ‘ul he have doe differently tut would have been more communicative? Possible solutions [Richards nt alone. Everyone ges "stuck sometimes. Here are sume things Richard could have done. (f) He could have told the diver that he was a foreigner and did not ndrstend cvhot had hoen said asking che driver to speak slow/y ort write What he had just sale on pape (2) He could ave aed the driver to repeat what he ad st {@) He could have asked he driver to clarity what he sid by questioning him in vasioas ways (@) Hecould have repeated the original quetioa othe driver and, opel, he “iver ovould have oadersood the second ie tnt all Richard wanted to hese was the price, Figure 101 tight and therefore easly delivered fragments or short ancedotes nthe ike) that ‘re interesting and catch the audience's atention, If you do un into a question for which you bave not prepared, there ae sill sorte things you can do. One example ~also useful in your native language ~ i to Say, “That's an interesting {Guestion, but I'm afraid i's abit too invelved to give you an enswer here. Why ‘don’t you come up and tak with me afterwards?” Then you get another chance to ancerstand the question, and if you still can't answer it, at least the audience is small, ‘As with oral communicatoa, written communication comes ina vasi- ety of forms. There ae clear diferences, for example, among informal written ommunication, svc as persona letters and jlocutionary or informative notes, ‘and formal written communication suci as business correspondence, legal briefs, literary epics, newspaper articles, and the writing of informational books and ‘Sooken and writen coniusiaion ticles. We will discuss here the three major categories ~ informal comm “ ries ~ ino nica tioas, specialized formal communications, and publications ~ from the poiat of view of managing the communication in effective ways, Informal written communications Informal weitien communication typicall f ation typically consigts of colloquial lan- guage, ellipsis, incomplete sentences, ilocutions, and implicitly shared infocma- tion. There are a number of strategies you can use fo lear to manage informs] ‘written communication, including: comparing dhe handwriting style of several native speakers and adopt ing the kind of penmanship thet works for you; oH ; find 2 pen-pal ina country where your language ib spoken: . analyze the various genres (notes, jetrs, ete.) and compare them with each other and with the same genres in English; . use native-speaker prepared, preferably authentic, materials as ‘ides. Penmanship Penanhip is ne ae tht is pat ey no stato in fsign language clos Ye this one ofthe things tht give aay oreo ‘rege and moreover, es at oon wt ese ween en fate angaage is conse res only alt acco develop andtng tharos clove fat aie speaker, give lth ayer vetoes ct Indriag tate cele for any alphabet Penpals env regret sures for edback on informa wing oa lncspengalinorerostnycu ee vier ad Nose ‘eo ou gate om your pnp, uy etn toaw bor be eps (youre You wl ee many sutras comets, Loo bond granmar (ext opnizton See how your penal erganizs he ober ong. ’ ort hough. Ty 0 cre yours silly when you wate ck. Genre analysis There are eee genes of information wring. nthe words one wnites differeatly in a narrative letter, relaying ‘afoomation about one's Se tos peur than on wes oon’ pty king fo one. Deseo, turin elmo, agen sn aber gts ue te of ‘ite xp, tex nanan se parma ses, ay xe ston hese wien you ead em ny oat em ou wing230 _twouPENDENCE Authentic guides Read notes that native speakers have jotted down and feters that they have weitten to each other. Buy a novel thatis writen in the form ofa diary. Watch for ne cominiunicatve devices used and tr toemulate them in your writing. Keep tis and try to match some of the styles you ead in works of native speakers. Formal, specialized communications ‘The ability to manage successfully formal commenications is one attctbate that distinguished-level speakers have that superior level speakers uso- fly do act, Formal communications take the form of business letters, cOmmn- tiqués, policy statements, order, letters tothe eto, pubic announcements, and the like I is aot very likely that yon will be writing these kinds of communi- ‘ations in your foreign-lenguage classroom tnless you are in a very advanced ‘lass, However, if you inter somewhere, there may be anced to prepare business ‘Communietions or, petaps you have a strong interest in political issues and sant townie a letter to the editor (or Ube mayor ar president) — and for that you “Wl need song literacy skills, To develop these, you will need 9 do some oral ofthe following . follow authentic guides, . revise; andlor - ‘chocic with a native spenker ‘Authentic guides Authentic materials are a better guide than are dictionaries, iextbooks, nd references because they show how a native-speaker author tects the same topic that you willbe writing about. They wil give you examples of mindset, nd they will provide the rypical expressions and constructions used in writing about these copies. Reyision No wise writer expects to produce a final dratt on the fist try. Just as you probably use “process writing” (writing and ze-wnting) n your English ‘lasses, you can use i 19 aequite good iteracy skills in your foreign language. {if you have to revise two or tee times ip English, assame that you will bave to revise double that amount in your foreign language. Cheek with a native speaker Just asitis important‘o check orl presentations with anative speaker, {50 its important to check weitten work in advance with a native speaker Spoken aod writen commission CASE STUDY Problem Jeson worked as an iatrs ina French-American interstional company, whore his boss asked him to prepare the draft ofa very impostant business eter. Jeson fas ever written a business leer before in French, but he ci have a sly high level of foreign language proficiency in genera. How could he rake advantage of what be does enw and can do and iin the gaps of what he doesnot yet know in order to prepare an acceptable lets for his boss? Possible solutions ‘There are afew places dat Jason can look for belp, Here are some: (2) Check the fies for previous correspondence on this and related topics. Ibe Fads some letters, be can use Uiem as models. This is probably his bes bet, (2) A seoond best would be to finda book on letter writing fr ative speakers (2) Of cones, whichever way he finds owt ow to write the letter, he should ask a colleagoe Wh is «naive speaker to prootread i fe him, Figue 102 Publications ‘Writing for publication is another skill that is associated nearly exclu sively with die distiuguislicd level, Iinividuals wilt yrofiienty at levels lowes than that ave generally incapable of publishing in the foreign languages, Publication can take many forms. Articles, monographs, books, and poetry havo al seen non-native writers sucozed in another culture. However, such work requires the development of very high-level skills, borne of much in-country caperience and the reading of much literature ofall genres, Even with this kind of writing ~ and perhaps especially with this kind of siting ~ the help of a hadve speaker is usually needed, no matter how Guent the non-native (with rare exceptions). Prepare a short speech on a topic of your choosing, Using the advice presented in this chapter, get ready to present the specch to a group ‘of native speakers. If you da not have access to such a group, present the speech to your class. If you do have access to a group of native speakers, sk to present your speech to chem, When you are Gone with ‘your speech and with their questions, ask them to eritique how well ‘you uid and give you some suggestions for improvement.22 __inpprenvance 2 “Try writing something for publication in your foreign language. It might bea letter to the editor of a newspaper or magezine inthe tage ‘County. Find some sample letters (0 use asa guide, Analyze the text Grpuzation and cbetorce devices used in those sample levers. Then, prevent your opinion on an.ssbe imapotant1o tho publication (for that fon will need to read several back issues ofthe publication), Thea, drat your lets, lett sit fora couple of days, then revise st. Repeat this proces afew times until you ae happy with the Jeter. Then, ask tanative speaker (or your teacher) to review it, Make a final revision ~ and send it Review Take capes, you considered two themes The content ofthese thames an be summarized a foliows: + Managing oral communication + Managing waren communication Oral communication ‘Om communication consist of tansactins, informal presentations, and forma presentations (0) Transactions ae everyay atv ia which you sommunicate immediate neds or desires (Guet at making a purchso), Bffecsive strategies for funciona tansaetion sre repuingaboad of time, waiting it ot, and repeating questions. £2) Informal conversations are those betweun you snd colleagues, ends, ant eaves, Effective strategies for informal conversations inchdeverboteaoswers, memcrized discourse, hanging the topic, simpLatio, asking questions sing What yo know, embelshmen, and ‘gnocing your mistakes. {@) Interviews are fosmel conversations in which you elicit information from someone eis. freee gratepies for imterews include ignoring what you don’ understand wile using what you do know, vefying and clang, bang comsnand of al the possible quston ees in Jour foreign language, memorizing te kinds of questions that are useful for controling 2 imerview, and preparing in advance inorder 1o be recy for nearly anything. (@) ermal presentation ace events at which youshere information witha grow of people and seni tte questions fective sratepes foe formal presentations include: deny dhe wert neivace, analyze authentic presentations, fed appropriate grammatical consteuctions, write o¥t fhe presentation. lear ext orgasizaton devices check with arate sper, overpratce do teal rn, anticipate questions, ad, Wieee approprite, use informal conversation strategies Writren communication Wotton communication consists of informal writing, formal-specielized writing, and writing fo" publication, (U)Iinfra weting isthe prepation of materials for personal, noypuli, aciencs, eve 7, 75.114 lade ening se 168,108, 202 nest eang sh 51,67, 58,23822a | | ——___ 3st vamegses om) sso 24:9 eee) 9571918816, agp na Teelg ating ey 7.7, 168 inact 3,207 i 16,215. 207, 230 248 priser 22 relay tye ote amy 8 | entetboderingae pany seeaie) ROT orig 1, 145.8 srw nem 1495.47 ‘escaie 97 Poneto i acne f serie iinet yeny eat bag Sass Fives eng ye 6,71, 78,87, 202 rose seg syle 71,75 Segue ye 65, 78, 79,87 202 Sarpering eng 17,241 ‘en hing le 70,7, 38,8628, 68 "202 sy etnng le 11.79 ‘isa ning se 6,57, 111,234 earn Sts nveaey 70 anv Buty Loe 15,25, 16, 6, 88,70, 74 i126, 21,25, 236,257, 29, 21,22, 253,253 Leaves Gc 4,102,253, nt ea) Reapers 235 Eonar de Vis Programe 57 inten 57 Kevin 253 teen 29,47 1h 18,283 ong anguage ewig 2627, 158,234 linguists 7 er cmprbein) 10, 14 38,2832, 67, 9138, 105 wey 21 rae 32 [Gas 25,40 GaP ag 235,252 Lae 198, 238, 240,24, 250,256, oweze-Dus 57.254 lores 18 one 77,253 aves 33,258 ase 30,283 MeCanty 10,91,255, Mecuiey £7 MeCaoloy 113,285,284 Mata 198,252 Maly 26,30, Malia 18 Malsaee 142 250 aaa Chinese 26 Mase 14,253 Mears 23,258 MTL tee Myee-Beggs Type coor Meas 5,354 Matin 257 seep 42 49,51, 36 313 eed een 47, 86, 88 ermacoat ery 4,45, 46,4748, 52 prover my 42,40 resacuory 166 ‘erate emoey 42.43 sesary memory seat menor 13,4447 hor ee eo 3 48,4, 8,57 stg $0,182,166 nment memory 63,44 verng meny 44 sued yveremt de 70 Monash 75,77 63,284 mcg i, 24, 58, 203, 208 ‘ataognie epi, ee talc componice Mica 18,284 Middle Bast 185,157,195 Miler 52 256 Mate 107,258 nists 7698, 98,97, 107, 14,165,207 220 Dice 156,254 MLA, ee Mesa Language Aine Test masa) 30 5133, 186 oer Lsyuage Apa Tes 36,37 oven Language Aesosiion 738 Sunita 198,258 rere 5.5.76 ma St wins 15 Ingesive ood 181 Indnive mos 158 subjuscttemood IS Moron 217 rmerlogy i 158 rsan. 92 198,256 eon #1, 171,254 speuaton 2 38, 56,95, 108 10,105, D1 13 6,207,209 xno sion 108 ‘Eanes aon $7, 104 ise nntvatioa 7, ‘eee motan 14 eran 198,251 Nl #1 rls 32 uwiss 258,284 Myer P13, (30,256 Myon: Bags Type inticoe 113,37, 08 Nasr 85,254 Nulonl Fra Languuge Caner 299 uve iy, 67, 219,234,289 Neen 198.250 rage 104 sone comnetission x Novos 186 197 Noswegun 26,49 ews) 127, 168, 19,10, 181,153 13,188, tes ‘less sou 148 Scommon ane 148 peptone 18 ows 198 356 nies 150,158 roma 171,258 Orally 82, 88,91, 267,269,256 cies 10,185 tect objec 188 lade cee 156 ds 255, 254 nish 173,254 ofereiten eformson 49 ‘Oxtord 85,91, 124, 246,20, 250,254 ‘Oxon Langage Tee 57 (Oxora Cveity 37 Pagince 171,249 Pasar 185 pups 38 ary 39,258 preps) 18, £88 Faria 15,135 as of eect Pasko 155 Peace Cos US) 38 Pas 76.255 peapals 30,31,229 ‘esmantip 220 Pens 171,248 Pasian 26.10 pew 109,190 Petal spe i, 188 sonality i 565,02, 105,109, 10,113, ‘pesoUaly Ses 67,70, (17,202.34, extrveso 6,109, 13,1 feng 113, 115,13, 0st (33, 186113118, 120, ntonenion 65,108, 113,14 sugng 116,115,121 pesiig 114 116 1a; sain 113.114, 115,18, 121, ‘hokig 13118, 119 Peesin 55255 Prater 255 Pri 2s Pl ange Ae ate paste fhm gas Ria is ali ss Aewmioe 240 patent fous 0 Fate 4235 onan a peptn it Sole a8 Potion stg 83 Fon ro spbagand wing 18 oceny soa oc ae Tah vty anh 28 2 a 2a a ae sr 1 sea eh 29 onl 26.216 26 ‘inn Pleioe Bt Coc Ui 3 tag 0,21 203, 3 Speer 28259 Potcnal 258 scot 7 8 Fem Sf B21 4 155 Fuse £72 foc as 190 ue 254 Ques 25,248 sito 32 Ramos 73,91, 255 aig 10.11, 13,277, 15,182,168 ies edi 1128.47, 89,162,166 Feta rondng 89 ag aloud 68 sealing sain 29 recall 48,52 evel sl, rai ado. Boeing (oompeiersin), wating 82 Gampeesn) 10.13 18.46 ‘eonstacion 47,48 Redaoad 19,285 Rowe ler 258 refaing 96,97, 207,208 fegiter 94 172, 176,24 eos $451,224 Reigel 25726 Taaee Index 265 ever 47,255 simpli 94,225, tebooo) i 186 US AleFore 25,257 rion 3 Single 168, 15155, “sea 198,256 Us hans Cpe 28.257 pen 46,5051, 156 Stsben 64,286 “Tagaog 25 USAR sr US Ai Face oak 64355, fing 72 slong impuge i, 172 USMC: se US Mains Core tiles 48 Shore 26 tandem ering 31 Uabekiaan (34 evele 114,235 soot sas 175 howe 161,178, 182,256 Reyolde 91.257 Soci swegies 8 capes 32 Vast 126,120,257 Tiron 246,256 re) 197,150, 551,152 158, 260, 1681 yh) 42, 31,57 leads 233,252 ‘igh rn eta 258 ie 171 abeson $6 56285 Romine nyunge, sea Lat, ech alin, Portuese Ree, Spanish 25, os Romain 25.40 reo #0 168 Rowe 198,255 atin 4, 91,255 ayia, 64, 85, 186,165,189, 101,194,195, ‘zi Russa 26,40, 168, U9, 150,151,153, 185, 197,158, 61, 185,193,195, 80 Sahat 13 ‘Samuel 7,251 ‘Sipe 56, 64,218 Sipsutes 255 apegouing (2 ‘Soar 255 seta 12 49 Ssleppearel 21,235 Seanek 96388 SCOLA IS Seat 253,258 Score 18,285, serps) 26,217 sect argue 29 Sepscook 295,255 selfawacnes 10,207 Seleateay 05, 108, 19,110,010, ‘aT. seltecglsion xl 6,201, 202 203, 26,207, 208,210 Sigman 198,258 Suiner 185,171,251, say place 67,79 sete 138.160, 16), Sarin 8 ‘Stetas 15, 198,216,219, 29,238, 26, 255.255 Stepook 356 ‘Siva 198,254 ‘Ser 18,256 sesocaeal 241 Stinguhle epee i, 172,178,240, ut sooanes 8 Som 26 setts 48, 45,57,68, 155 ised sods 136 ence ands 156 sean 186 “Spano 9,98, 40, 49,148, 151,952,165 65 esting 1015 16,153,163 spolag 168 Spinel 17,255 Salina 188 Stanid 7,236,256 se eget ening 54 sem 19,12 164 Str 84, 255, 256 ‘Sieber, RJ. 56, 54,70 91,256 ‘Stonee 64,142,286 sei peti ‘estan segs 222 ‘apie amaper 77 ‘Samui sbateies 216.219, teaning estes 32, 23, 62 568,85, 105,143,208, 207,200,248 eign segs 21 58,61 ‘mang seats 5,77, 82, 81,36 Speaking sens 13 ng Satis 12 ‘Sty lveiony fr Langage Leung. 247 oes 158 159 Sucre, alo grant 37 ‘Stwnk 256 say tou 68,6, 1418,27,28257 le analy 33 subject 108186, 185 ovation 8 ‘ossuton) 188 fac tsin 162 Sem Shun 83,238 Sek 36,40 stares 30 yan end or) 202,11, 14,188, 8 Szaip 198,251 ‘Syms £71,281 aromas oearing segs hi, ‘edephove (stain) 78 teteilon 32 lagen 120 (Greek 2} eto: 120; ante 1235 ‘hla 122; sanguine 122 angen 120 tempo 2,6 tees 150,155 Tenet 45,256 tests) 34.55.57 Tanguge pate ots 65,59 pots fs 34, 258,339 lettorgsinin seats teu, cece Tonpeteace 1,225, 28 texts Sea tt arog, caine cepetsce 104 fexbook 165,188 ‘That 146, 151, 160 ‘Teta 84 ied gre 98,41 Toongeon 84,91, 255, Se one 6.307, 26,242 Tadeo 254 ern of wobguty $6 weet 60 eranee 70,91, 286 tones 12.183, ce decay 6,49 ‘nto 88 tel toad 4 6,27,28 ‘dl, 237 ‘aay 284367 ‘unc 28 feveteg 17,270 ‘evey 257 reise 6 . ‘nied Stes 184, 186 187, 19,194, 195.216 ‘rivers Cicago Pree 257 University of Comment 30 Unies of Pesan 30 Une of Wale st wanes 57 ‘von 25 ‘uly ere 152,155 fompot vs 152 seta ave 152 Sitamere 25, 148 160 Voeibulay 10 15,20 354, 6 60, 67,69, 68, 155, 165,176,178, 225 seice 150, 52 ec ice 150,151 fastve vice 150,51 voles of meron x15 ‘nin 198,350 ORD 56 ‘ygoy 22,214,287 ‘werdangh 182,287 thing (ompese it 50,253 ewden 9 Weesemtoty {82,258 257 Wate 256 Whinay 19,257 ‘ess 257 ‘ition Leming Corgrtion 198, 257 Wiog 255257 Wine 2d 257 We 198257 Wine 72.257 ote 24,257 oc! 138/182, 257 wed) 41, 5760, 68, 158, 173, 176219, ‘weed toutes 157 ‘rd bunng (62 ode boat seat jobs 45,29, 2,38 ‘eg 1013.75, 158,185,281, ‘wnting conventions 1, 1,16 ung sya, ee alphas, ‘sleires 10 Jon) 2 anata 18,257 ‘ead 840 ‘one 4160 Young 150,252 owas 111,257