EW-470

TECHNICAL
GUIDE

Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

HOBART INSTITUTE OF WELDING TECHNOLOGY®, 400 TRADE SQUARE EAST, TROY, OHIO 45373 U.S.A.
 Table of Contents
Chapter Page

1. Introduction to the Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2. Principles of Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

3. Equipment for Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

4. Electrodes, Shielding Gas, and Filler Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

5. Welding Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

6. Cost of Gas Tungsten Arc Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

7. Welding Metallurgy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

8. Weld and Joint Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

9. Welding Procedure Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

10. Welding Procedure Schedules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

11. Preweld Preparations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

12. Welding Discontinuities and Defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

13. Postweld Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

14. Welder Training and Qualification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

15. Welding Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

Appendix: Sources for Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102

© 2012, 2002, 1995 Hobart Institute of Welding Technology

ISBN 978-1-936058-15-0

This publication includes information available at the time of production. The Hobart Institute of Welding Technology presents
this information as a guideline. Relevant standards may have been updated and should be reviewed together with this book
for accuracy. Federal or other laws and standards may govern different operations and facilities.

Hobart Institute of Welding Technology disclaims liability for any injury to persons or to property, or other damages of any na-
ture whatsoever, whether special, indirect, consequential or compensatory, directly or indirectly resulting from the publication,
use of or reliance on this book. Hobart Institute of Welding Technology makes no guarantee or warranty as to the accuracy
or completeness of any information published herein.
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO THE PROCESS
Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) is an arc welding pro-
cess which produces coalescence of metals by heating
them with an arc between a tungsten (nonconsumable)
electrode and the work. Shielding is obtained from a gas
or gas mixture. Both pressure and filler metal may or may
not be used. This process is sometimes called TIG weld-
ing, which indicates “tungsten inert gas welding.” In Eu-
rope, it is called WIG welding, using Wolfgram, the Ger-
man word for tungsten.
The gas tungsten arc welding process is very versatile.
This process may be used to weld ferrous and a wide
variety of nonferrous metals. It is an all-position weld-
ing process. Welding in other than flat positions depends
on the base metal, the welding current and the skill of
the welder. The process was originally developed for the
“hard-to-weld” metals and can be used to weld more dif-
ferent kinds of metals than any other arc welding pro-
cess.
Gas tungsten arc welding has an arc and a weld pool
that are clearly visible to the welder. No slag is produced
which might otherwise be entrapped in the weld. There
is no filler metal carried across the arc, so there is little or
no spatter. Because the electrode is nonconsumable, a
weld can be made by fusing the base metal without the
addition of a filler wire.
Commercially developed for the welding of magnesium
and aluminum in the 1930’s for the aircraft industry, gas
tungsten arc welding made use of helium shielding gas
and a tungsten electrode. At first, only direct current with
a positive electrode was used. However, the electrode
tended to overheat and deposit particles of the tungsten
electrode in the weld. It was then discovered that the
overheating problem would be avoided by making the
electrode negative. This made it satisfactory for welding
stainless steel.
During World War ll, welding machines
producing alternating current and high
frequency stabilization were developed.
Alternating current with a superimposed
high frequency, high voltage current over Shielding Gas
the basic welding current achieved good
quality welding of aluminum and magne- Molten Weld Metal
sium. Helium, which was used in the early
development stages, was largely replaced Solidified
Weld Metal
by argon, due to the greater availability of
argon. The gas tungsten arc welding pro-
cess became more widely accepted by the Base Metal
early 1950’s. The process is classified by
the American Welding Society as the gas
tungsten arc welding process.
–1–
Methods of Application
The gas tungsten arc welding process can be applied
by the manual, semiautomatic, machine, or automatic
methods. The manual method of applying is used for the
greatest majority of work. It is done when the torch is op-
erated by hand and filler metal, if used, is added by hand.
A foot pedal that controls the amount of welding current
and switches the current on and off, is a refinement that
can be added to manual welding. The process allows the
welder extreme control for precision work. Heat can be
controlled very closely and the arc can be accurately di-
rected.
This process can also be operated semiautomatically,
where the torch is operated by hand and the filler metal
is added automatically by a wire feeder. Semiautomatic
gas tungsten arc welding is rarely used, however, and the
machine and automatic methods are becoming increas-
ingly popular for many applications.
Machine welding occurs when the equipment performs
the welding under the control and observation of the
welding operator.
Automatic welding occurs when the equipment performs
the welding without adjustment or control by a welding
operator. The amount of automation or mechanization
applied to the process depends on the accessibility of
the joint, quality control requirements, number of identi-
cal welds to be made, and the availability of capital.
Advantages of Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
Gas tungsten arc welding has many advantages over
most other types of welding processes. The outstanding
features are:
Gas Cup
Tungsten Electrode
Arc
Filler Rod
Illustration 1-1 – Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
1) It will make high-quality welds in almost all metals
and alloys

2) There is no slag, so very little, if any, postweld

cleaning is required

3) There is no filler metal carried across the arc, so there

is little or no spatter

4) Welding can be performed in all positions

5) Filler metal is not always required

6) Pulsing may be used to reduce the heat input

7) The arc and weld pool are clearly visible to the welder

8) Because the filler metal does not cross the arc,

the amount added is not dependent on the weld
current level

Limitations of Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

The limitations of the gas tungsten arc welding process

include:

1) The welding speed is relatively slow

2) The electrode is easily contaminated

3) It is not very efficient for welding thick sections

because deposition rates are low

4) The arc requires protection from wind drafts which

can blow the stream of shielding gas away from
the arc

–2–
 CHAPTER 2
PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION

The gas tungsten arc welding process uses the heat

produced by an arc between a nonconsumable tung- True Constant
Open Circuit Voltage
sten electrode and the base metal. The molten weld Current

metal, heated weld zone, and nonconsumable electrode

are shielded from the atmosphere by an inert shielding
gas that is supplied through the torch. The shielding gas Steep Slope – no

displaces the air, so that the oxygen and the nitrogen of

current change from
short to long arc

WELD VOLTAGE (VOLTS)

the air do not come in contact with the molten metal or length

the hot tungsten electrode. An electric arc is produced

by an electric current passing through an ionized gas. Flatter Slope –
In this process, the inert gas atoms are ionized by los- considerable current Moderate Slope –
some current
ing electrons and leaving a positive charge. The positive change with arc
length change with arc
gas ions then flow from the positive pole to the negative length change

pole and the electrons flow from the negative pole to

the positive pole of the arc. The intense heat developed Long Arc Length
by the arc melts the base metal and filler metal (if used) Normal Arc Length
to make the weld. As the molten metal cools, coales-
cence occurs and the parts are joined. There is little or Short Arc Length

no spatter or smoke. The resulting weld is smooth and Short Circuit

Current
uniform and requires minimum finishing.
Filler metal is not added when thinner materials, edge WELD CURRENT (AMPERES)
joints, or flange joints are welded. This is known at au-
Illustration 2-1 – Typical Volt-Ampere Curves for
togenous welding. For thicker materials an externally
Constant Current Types of Power Sources
fed or “cold” filler rod is generally used. The filler metal
in gas tungsten arc welding is not transferred across
the arc, but is melted by it. is reduced as the current increases. The changing arc
length causes the arc voltage to increase or decrease
The arc is struck in one of three ways. The first method is
slightly, which in turn changes the welding current. With-
by briefly touching the electrode to the work and quickly
in the welding range, the steeper the slope of the volt-
withdrawing it a short distance. The second method is by
ampere curve, the smaller the current change for a given
using an apparatus that will cause the arc to jump from
change in the arc voltage. Illustration 2-1 shows volt-am-
the electrode to the work. The third method is by using an
pere curves for different welding machine performance
apparatus that starts and maintains a small pilot arc. This
characteristics. This shows several slopes, all of which
pilot arc provides an ionized path from the main arc.
can provide the same normal voltage and current.
The torch then progresses along the weld joint manually
The variations in power sources are caused by differenc-
or mechanically. The torch is left in one place until a weld
es in the basic power source design. A machine with a
puddle is formed. Once adequate fusion has been ob-
higher short circuit current will give more positive starting.
tained at one point, the torch is moved along the joint
A steep volt-ampere characteristic is generally the most
so that the adjoining edges are joined. The weld metal
desirable when the welder wants to achieve maximum
solidifies behind the arc along the joint and completes
welding speeds on some welding jobs. The steeper slope
the welding process.
gives less current variation with changing arc length and
gives softer arc. The types of machines that have this
Arc Systems
kind of curve are especially useful on sheet metal.
The gas tungsten arc welding process uses the constant
These types of machines are also typically used for weld-
current power source, which may produce either direct or
ing at high current levels. On some applications, a less
alternating current. A constant current welding machine
steep volt-ampere characteristic is desired, such as for
provides nearly constant current during welding. Both
all position pipe welding where better arc control with
shielded metal arc welding and gas tungsten arc weld-
high penetration capability is desired. Machines with a
ing can be operated with the same power supply, except
less steep volt-ampere curve are also easier to use for
that a high frequency attachment, often added for gas
depositing the root passes on joints that have varying fit-
tungsten arc welding, is not needed for scratch starting
up. This power source characteristic allows the welder to
the arc.
control the welding current in a specific range by chang-
The constant current output is obtained with a drooping ing the arc length. This type of machine also produces a
volt-ampere characteristic, which means that the voltage more driving arc.

–3–
 CHAPTER 3
EQUIPMENT FOR WELDING
The equipment used for the gas tungsten arc welding
process consists of a power source, a welding torch, an
electrode, welding cables and a gas shielding system.
The non-consumable electrodes used for this process will
be discussed in Chapter 4. There are several items of op-
tional equipment that are often used. These include water
circulators, foot rheostats, programmers, motion devices,
oscillators, automatic voltage controls (AVC), and wire
feeders. Since gas tungsten arc welding can be applied
by various methods, a wide variety of equipment configu-
rations are possible. Illustration 3-1 shows a diagram of
the equipment used for a manual welding setup.
POWER SOURCES
The purpose of the power source or welding machine is
to provide the electric power of the proper current and
voltage to maintain a welding arc. Several various siz-
es and types of power sources have been designed for
gas tungsten arc welding. Most of these power sources
operate on 230 or 460 volt input electric power. Power
sources that operate on 200 or 575 volt input power are
available as options.
Power Source Duty Cycle
The duty cycle of a power source is defined as the ratio
of arc time to total time. For rating a welding machine,
a ten minute time period is used. Thus, for a machine
rated at a 60% duty cycle, the rated welding current load
could be safely applied continuously for six minutes and
be off for four minutes. Most power sources used for gas
Water Circulator
Filler
Metal Water Out
Torch
Electrode Lead
Base Metal
Foot Pedal (Optional)
Illustration 3-1 – Equipment for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
–4–
tungsten arc welding have a 60% duty cycle. For the ma-
chine and automatic methods, a welding machine with
100% duty cycle rating would be best, but these are not
normally available.
The formula for determining the duty cycle of a welding
machine for a given current load is:
Rated Current2
% Duty Cycle = X Rated Duty Cycle
Load Current2
For example, if a welding machine is rated at a 60% duty
cycle at 300 amperes, the duty cycle of the machine
when operated at 250 amperes would be:
3002
% Duty Cycle = X 60 = 86%
2502
Illustration 3-2 represents the ratio of the square of the
rated current to the square of the load current, multiplied
by the rated duty cycle. This chart can be used instead
of working out the formula. A line is drawn parallel to the
sloping lines through the intersection of the subject ma-
chines rated current output and rated duty cycle. For ex-
ample, a question might arise whether a 300 amp 60%
duty cycle machine could be used for a fully automatic
requirement of 225 amps for a 10 minute welding job.
The chart shows that the machine can be safely used at
slightly over 230 amperes at a 100% duty cycle. Con-
versely, there may be a need to draw more than the rated
current from a welding machine, but for a shorter period.
This illustration can be used to compare various ma-
chines. All machines should be rated to the same duty
cycle for comparison.
Rated Current2
% Duty Cycle = X InertCycle
Rated Duty Gas
Load Current2 Supply
Power
Source
Water In
Shielding Gas
Work Lead
 800
700

600
Power Source Rating:

ACTUAL WELDING CURRENT (AMPERES)

500
600 Amps, 60% Duty Cycle

400 500 Amps, 60% Duty Cycle

400 Amps, 60% Duty Cycle

300

300 Amps, 60% Duty Cycle

200

200 Amps, 60% Duty Cycle

150
250 Amps, 30% Duty Cycle
295 Amps, 20% Duty Cycle

100 230 Amps, 20% Duty Cycle

90
80
70
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
% DUTY CYCLE
Illustration 3-2 – Duty Cycle vs Current Load

TYPES OF WELDING CURRENT

The type of current available is determined by the type DCEN DCEP
(Straight Polarity) (Reverse Polarity)
of power source. The most important factor in selecting
Welding Welding
the type of current is the type of metal to be welded. Power
SMALL LARGE
Power
tungsten electrode tungsten electrode
The thickness of the metal can also have an influence. Source Source
Cathode Anode
Illustration 4-2 in the next chapter shows the type of cur-
rent used for welding various base metals along with the
types of electrodes and shielding gases used. Alternating
or direct current may be used for gas tungsten arc weld-
ing and high frequency arc ignition current is used with Electrons Ions Electrons Ions
either alternating or direct current. The welding current ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
may also be pulsed. Flow Flow Flow Flow

Direct Current
Current Flow
Anode Cathode Current Flow
Direct current can be connected in one of two ways: Conventional
Deep Penetration Shallow Penetration Conventional
(base metal
electrode negative (straight polarity) and electrode posi- Narrow Melted Area Wide Melted Area cleaning)
tive (reverse polarity). The electrically charged particles Approximate 30% Heat Approximate 70% Heat
in Electrode and 70% in Electrode and 30%
flow between the tip of the electrode and the work, as Heat in Base Metal Heat in Base Metal
shown in Illustration 3-3. The electrode negative connec-
tion can be used for welding all metals. Special proce-
dures must be used to weld alloys of magnesium and Illustration 3-3 – The Tungsten Arc.
aluminum which have a refractory surface oxide that Negative and Positive Polarity.

–5–
hinders their fusion. Welds can be made on aluminum
and magnesium with a short arc length using electrode
negative and a helium bearing shielding gas. The metals
can be more easily welded using electrode positive be-
cause this connection breaks down the oxide layers on
the surfaces. The main problem with using the electrode
positive connection is that the current carrying capacity
of the electrode is extremely low. The electrode will begin
to melt if the currents used are too high. For this reason,
electrode positive is rarely used, except for the welding
of thin sheet metal.

Pulsed Current

The pulsed current method of the gas tungsten arc weld-

ing process employs two levels of welding current instead
of a steady current. The welding current is switched pe-
riodically between the high and low levels to produce a
pulsating current or arc. A diagram of pulsed direct cur-
rent is shown in Illustration 3-4. This pulsed current pro-
duces a continuously welded seam consisting of over-
lapping arc spot welds. Illustration 3-5 shows a GTAW
weld produced with pulsed current. Each of the spots is
produced by the high level welding current after which
the current is switched to the lower level. This lower level
allows the weld to partially solidify between spots and
maintains the arc to avoid re-ignition problems. Pulsed Illustration 3-5 – Weld Produced by the
current may be used with direct or alternating current, Pulsed Current GTAW Process
but it is most commonly used with direct current.
ing, the high pulse provides high current for complete
The pulsed direct current method of gas tungsten arc penetration, but the low pulse cools the puddle down to
welding has several advantages over steady direct cur- prevent burning through at the root of the joint. Pulsing
rent for welding thin materials. The pulsed method is reduces the heat input to the base metal. This is par-
more tolerant of edge misalignment, normal fixturing can ticularly good for welding thin stainless steel sheet metal,
be used with thinner materials, and it gives better dis- which distorts very easily without pulsed current. Another
tortion control and root penetration. For open root weld- advantage of pulsed current is that it is very good for
Current (amps)

High Low High Low

Pulse Pulse Pulse Pulse
Time Time Current Current

Time (sec)

Illustration 3-4 – Pulsed Current Terminology

–6–
welding in the vertical and overhead positions, because
good penetration can be obtained with less heat input.
Pulsing keeps the weld puddle from getting too large to
control because of the partial solidification that occurs
during the low current.
The number of pulses used can vary from about ten per
second down to about one or one-half per second. The
length of time the high current is on and the length of time
the low current is on can be varied as well as the percent-
age of low current with respect to the high current.
Alternating Current
Alternating current is a combination of both polarities
that alternate in regular cycles. In each cycle, the cur-
rent starts at zero, builds up to a maximum value in one
direction, decays back to zero, builds up to a maximum
value in the other direction, and decays back to zero. The
arc goes out during the zero portion of the cycle, so a
high frequency current in the welding circuit is used to
re-ignite the arc. Using alternating current gives the ad-
vantages of direct current electrode positive (reverse po-
larity) without the current limitations and the advantages
of direct current electrode negative without the oxide
cleaning problems. For this reason, alternating current is
generally used for the manual welding of aluminum and
magnesium.
In the alternating current circuit, there is a tendency for
the current to become unbalanced. The arc current flows
more easily in one direction because it takes greater en-
ergy to obtain electrons from the base metal than from
the tungsten electrode. The tungsten electrode emits
electrons more easily because it becomes much hotter
during welding than the base metal does. The amplitude
of the current in the cycle, when the electrode is nega-
tive, is normally higher than it is during the cycle when
the electrode is positive. This tends to produce an un-
balanced current. Either series connected capacitators
or a direct current voltage inserted in the welding circuit
can be used to balance the current. Balanced current is
desirable for some applications like high-speed mecha-
nized welding, but it is not necessary for most manual
welding applications. Balanced current flow has three
main advantages:
1) A better oxide-cleaning action
2) Better and smoother welding action
3) There is no reduction in the output rating of a conven-
tional welding transformer
Disadvantages of a balanced current flow are:
1) Larger electrodes are needed
2) Wave balancing systems are more expensive
–7–
High-Frequency Current
The high-frequency current is separate, superimposed
current that is used to maintain a pilot arc and help start
the arc. The pilot arc does not do any welding but it is
needed to start the welding arc without touching the
electrode to the work when using either direct or alter-
nating current. When alternating current is used, the high
frequency current keeps the arc from going out when the
alternating current is changing cycles, from either the
positive to the negative or the negative to the positive.
When direct current is used, the high frequency is only
needed to help start the arc and may be turned off after
the arc is established. The use of a high frequency cur-
rent is the best starting method because touching the tip
of the electrode to the work or starting on a piece of car-
bon can cause contamination of the tungsten electrode.
When this superimposed high frequency current is used
with AC gas tungsten arc welding, certain precautions
are required. These are necessary because the high fre-
quency spark gap oscillators in the power sources radiate
power at frequencies that can interfere with commercial,
police, and aviation radio broadcasts. This can also in-
terfere with television transmissions. Because of this, the
operation of high frequency for AC is subject to control
by the Federal Communication Commission in the United
States. Most other countries have similar regulations.
Welding machines that use high frequency stabilizers
must be installed with special attention to provide earth
grounding and special shielding. Manufacturers provide
special installation instructions which require that all
metal conductors in the area of the machine must also
be earth grounded. These requirements help to limit high
frequency radiation. If these instructions are followed
carefully, the user can post a certificate stating the high
frequency stabilizer may be reasonably expected to meet
FCC regulations.
TYPES OF POWER SOURCES
Constant current (CC) machines can produce AC or DC
welding power and can be rotating (generators) or static
(transformer/rectifier) or three phase inverter machines.
Generator and Alternator Welding Machines
The generator welding machine can be powered by an
electric motor, for shop use, or by an internal combustion
engine (gasoline, gas or diesel) for field use. Generator
welding machines used for shielded metal arc welding
can be adjusted for gas tungsten arc welding if an inert
gas and high frequency attachment is added.
Engine driven welding machines can also be adapted.
These can be either water or air cooled engines. Many

Illustration 3-6 – 350 Ampere Transformer Rectifier
Welding Machine
Photo courtesy of Miller Electric Manufacturing Co.
of them also provide auxiliary power for emergency light-
ing, power tools, etc. Generator welding machines can
provide DC power, and in some cases, both AC and DC
power, to the arc, depending on the machine design.
Alternator welding machines can also be adapted for
gas tungsten arc welding. These machines consist of
an electric generator that is made to produce AC power.
These machines are also called rotating or revolving field
machines.
Transformer-Rectifier Welding Machines
The transformer-rectifier welding machines are much
more widely used for gas tungsten arc welding than mo-
tor generator welding machines. Transformer-rectifier
machines provide both AC and DC welding current to
the arc. A single phase transformer producing alternating
current is connected to the rectifier, which then produces
DC current for the arc. The rectifier is an electrical device
which changes alternating current into direct current.
Transformer-rectifier welding machines operate on single
phase input power.
Because of this, an unbalance may be created in the
power supply lines, which is objectionable to most pow-
er companies. This type of welding machine is the most
versatile for gas tungsten arc welding because it can be
used for welding of a variety of base metals. A program-
mable type of transformer-rectifier power source is of-
ten used for welding this process. By means of a switch
which can change the output terminals to the transform-
er or to the rectifier, the welder can select either AC or
–8–
DC current for the application. The transformer-rectifier
welding machines are available in different sizes. These
welding machines have several advantages over rotating
power sources which are:
1) Lower operating costs
2) Lower maintenance costs
3) Quieter operation
4) Lower power consumption while idling
5) No rotating parts
Inverter Welding Machines
These widely used welding machines use the inverter
and different levels of programming. They operate on
three phase input power. The three phase input helps
overcome the line unbalance that occurs with the single
phase transformer-rectifier machines. Inverters provide
power down to .5 ampere with a very fast response time
of one millisecond and less than 1% ripple, Different pro-
gramming is available, depending on the complexity of
the job. The high frequency inverters are very quiet and
provide outstanding arc stability.
Transformer Welding Machines
Transformer welding machines are not often used for
gas tungsten arc welding except for home shop use or
a small job shop where gas tungsten arc welding is only
occasionally used. Transformer welding machines pro-
duce AC power only and operate on single phase input
power. Transformer welding machines used for shielded
metal arc welding can be adapted for gas tungsten arc
welding by adding an inert gas and a high frequency at-
tachment.
Illustration 3-7 – 180 Ampere Inverter,
Direct Current Arc Welding Package
Photo courtesy of Miller Electric Manufacturing Co.
The transformer welding machine takes power directly Balanced Wave
from the line, transforms it to the power required for
welding, and by means of various magnetic circuits, in- Reverse
Polarity 50%
ductors, etc., provides the volt-ampere characteristics 0 Straight
proper for welding. The main advantage of the trans- Polarity 50%
former is that it has the lowest initial investment cost and
uses electric power efficiently. However, movable parts
tend to vibrate, wear, and become loose, which creates Max. Straight Polarity – Max. Penetration
undesirable noise. Reverse
Polarity 80%
0
Square Wave Power Source Straight Polarity
80%

To overcome the arc extinguishing-restriking problem, a

square wave AC output power source was developed. Max. Reverse Polarity – Max. Cleaning
The square wave output form can be utilized by either
Reverse
the conventional constant current type or by the constant Polarity 55%
0
voltage type power source. In either case, the time for Straight
Polarity 45%
switching from positive to negative or negative to posi-
tive current pulse, is on the order of 50 to 150 microsec-
onds; thus the arc is difficult to restart and is unstable. Illustration 3-8 – Output Wave Variations

Power electronics can be used to vary the positive and

negative output of the machine. The area above the zero
point on the curve (the direct current positive area) and
the area below the curve (the negative area) can be equal-
ized or balanced. A power source developed specifically
for gas tungsten arc and plasma arc welding provides
a square-wave output form, but also allows a balance
or imbalance between the straight polarity and reverse
polarity half-cycles of each cycle. In welding aluminum, it
has been established that the electrode negative (straight
polarity half-cycle) gives maximum penetration, where-
as the electrode positive (reverse polarity half-cycle)
provides for the cleaning action. It is advantageous to
provide the most straight polarity half-cycle, and this is
possible as shown in Illustration 3-8. This machine also
has programming ability and encloses a high-frequency
oscillator plus gas and water valves.

Illustration 3-9 – Programmer

Photo courtesy of Miller Electric Manufacturing Co.

–9–
CONTROLS 6) Hot Start. This control consists of a knob on some
welding machines. When in use, this control causes
Welding machines used for gas tungsten arc welding the machine to momentarily furnish a surge of current
have some or all of the following controls to operate the substantially above the welding current, to get the arc
welding. initiated. The amount of “hot start” current required
1) On-off power switch can also be set by the knob.
2) Polarity selection switch. This is for machines that 7) Pulsation Controls. When pulsed current is desired,
produce DC power several controls are usually needed.
3) Welding current control. This consists of a knob or 8) Up-slope and down-slope controls. These are
tap switch on the front of the welding machine that optional controls that are timers. The up-slope control
controls the amount of welding current to be deliv- allows the welding current to build up gradually at a
ered to the arc. set rate at the beginning of the welding. The down-
slope control allows the welding current to decay
4) Foot pedal. This is an optional piece of equipment
gradually at a set rate at the end of the welding to
used for manual welding. It is used to start the cur-
prevent crater cracking.
rent flow, vary the current during welding, and reduce
the current at the end of the weld. This control also 9) Shielding gas controls. These consist of timers that
starts the high frequency current when high frequen- can be set to start the flow of shielding gas before the
cy current is used. welding current starts and to maintain gas shielding
after the welding arc has been broken. Both of these
5) High frequency control. This is used to turn the high
controls are used to prevent oxidation of the tungsten
frequency current on and off and select the type of
electrode and contamination of the weld puddle when
high frequency current used. Continuous high fre-
hot.
quency current is used for AC welding where high
frequency current is only needed for arc starting with Several or all of these controls are used with a program-
DC welding current. Also included is a knob to control mable panel. A wide variety of controls can be obtained
the amount of high frequency current desired. depending on the programmer used.

Welding
Current
Current and High Frequency

Taper
High Current Final
Taper

FINISH•
Frequency
and Hot Start Current
Increase
START•

Current Pulse Upslope Downslope

Final
Current

Initial Current

Gas Final Gas

Pre- Upslope Weld Taper Delay Time Taper Downslope Post
Weld Taper Time Time
Purge Time Time Flow
Time Weld Time Post Heat Time Time
Welding Cycle Time

Time >
Filler Metal Feed and Travel Motion –

Cooling Water
Gas and Water Control ON

FINISH

Shielding Gas
START

Filler Metal Feed

Travel
•

Travel
Delay
Time Filler Metal
Feed Stop
Filler Metal Delay Time
Feed Start
Delay Time
Welding Cycle Time

Illustration 3-10 – Typical GTAW Program for Automatic Welding

– 10 –
WELDING TORCHES

Torches for gas tungsten arc welding, designed and used

only for this process, are available in a variety of types and
sizes. The welding torch is used to conduct the welding
current to the arc and the shielding gas to the arc area.
The torch usually includes various cables, hoses, and
adaptors for connecting the torch to the power, gas, and
cooling supplies. Manual torches should also have a han-
dle so the welder can manipulate the arc. Manual torches
can weigh from as little as three ounces (85 grams) to
about sixteen ounces (450 grams). The torches are rated
according to the maximum welding current with which
they can be used. These torches can utilize various types
and sizes of electrodes and cups. The angle of the elec-
trode to the handle (the head angle) may vary from torch
to torch. The most common head angle is 120 degrees, Illustration 3-11 – A Variety of Manual Torches
but some torches use 90 degree head angles and others
have adjustable heads. Illustration 3-11 shows a variety
of manual gas tungsten arc welding torches. Torch
Head
There are two major types of welding torches used for gas
End
tungsten arc welding. These are the air-cooled and the Collet Cap
water-cooled types. The air-cooled torches are cooled by
the flow of the shielding gas (which means that they are re- Collet
ally gas-cooled.) The only air-cooling occurs from the heat Gas Body
radiating into the atmosphere. Water-cooled torches have Cup
water circulating through the torch which accounts for
most of the cooling. The rest is done by the shielding gas. Illustration 3-12 – Parts of a Manual Torch

Collet

Handle

Water Passages
Gas Passage in Collet Water IN
Water OUT
Gas Cup
Electric Current
Tungsten Electrode
Gas IN

Illustration 3-13 – Cross-Section View of a Water-Cooled Torch

– 11 –
Air-cooled torches are usually small, light-weight, and
less expensive than water-cooled torches. They gener-
ally have a maximum welding current of 200 amperes
and they are normally used for welding thin metal. These
torches are used for low duty cycle welding, but are also
more versatile than water-cooled torches because no
water is needed. The tungsten electrode becomes hotter
than when water-cooled torches are used, which could
cause tungsten to transfer to the welding causing inclu-
sions.
Water-cooled torches can operate continuously up to
about 200 amperes and some are designed for welding
currents up to 500 amperes. These torches are usually
heavier and more expensive than the air-cooled types.
The water hose and connectors are usually supplied with
the torch.
There are four types of gas cups used for gas tungsten
arc welding: ceramic; metal; fused-quartz; and dual-
shield cups. These are used to provide shielding gas to
the welding electrode and metal.
Ceramic cups are the cheapest and most popular type,
however, they are brittle. Ceramic cups are the best kind
to use with high frequency current to prevent cross-firing
to the cup.
Metal cups can be either the slip-on type or the water-
cooled type. The slip-on type is limited to low current
welding and where the water-cooled cups can be used
with high welding current.
Fused quartz cups are transparent and some welders
prefer them because of increased visibility. The inside of
the cup can be dulled by vapors when the electrode is
contaminated which impairs the vision. The dual-shield
cup allows a small amount of helium or argon around the
electrode to shield the immediate weld puddle. Around
Illustration 3-14 – Gas Cups
– 12 –
the central part of the cup, an annular grooved section
sends an atmosphere of carbon dioxide or nitrogen to
keep air from contact with the central inert-gas shield.
The dual-shield cup is rarely used in industry.
Inside the cup is the gas orifice. The gas orifice is a se-
ries of holes in the end of the collet body, around the
electrode which supplies the shielding gas into the cup.
This gives a more even flow of shielding gas around the
electrode.
Orbital welding heads are specifically designed to pro-
duce high quality welds in critical welding applications.
Because companies related to the aircraft, pharmaceuti-
cal, semiconductor, food processing, and related indus-
tries require superior weld quality in terms of bead shape,
integrity and cleanliness, these advanced systems incor-
porate computer technology to control the variables in a
weld.
Torch oscillation speed and width are independently ad-
justable and automatically synchronized to allow precise
positioning of filler wire entry into the weld puddle. Com-
pact wire feeders are electronically controlled for accu-
racy and repeatability.
GAS SHIELDING SYSTEM
Shielding gas may be supplied from single cylinders, por-
table or stationary manifold systems, or by pipes con-
nected to bulk storage torches. The most widely used
form of gas flow control is the combination regulator
and flowmeter. Different flowmeters are used for vari-
ous shielding gases. Flowmeters are calibrated for each
of the different shielding gases used. Regulators and
flowmeters are designed for use with a specific gas and
should only be used with the gas for which they were
designed.
Illustration 3-15 – Flowmeter and Regulator for Argon
Photo courtesy of Smith Equipment
 Weld Weld Length of Cable in Feet – Cable Size A.W.G.
Type Current 60' 100' 150' 200' 300' 400'
100 4 4 4 2 1 1/0
150 2 2 2 1 2/0 3/0
200 2 2 1 1/0 3/0 4/0
Manual 250 2 2 1/0 2/0
(Low 300 1 1 2/0 3/0
Duty
Cycle) 350 1/0 1/0 3/0 4/0
400 1/0 1/0 3/0
450 2/0 2/0 4/0
500 2/0 2/0 4/0
Note: Length of cable circuit equals total electrode and work cable
Illustration 3-16 – Suggested Copper Welding Cable Sized for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

The shielding gas is brought to the welding torch through
hoses. Plastic hoses are used because helium will diffuse
through the walls of rubber or rubber-fabric hoses. To
standardize the hose system, these same plastic hoses
are also used for argon. The hoses may be connected
straight to the torch or through the power source or inert
gas attachment to the torch.
WELDING CABLES
The welding cables and connectors connect the power
source to the torch and to the work. These are essentially
the same as those used for shielded metal arc welding.
The cables are normally made of copper or aluminum
and consist of hundreds of fine wires that are enclosed
in an insulated casing of natural or synthetic rubber. The
cable that connects the work to the power source is
called the work lead. The work lead is usually connected
to the work by a pincher, clamps, a bolt, or a special con-
nection. The cable that connects the torch to the power
source is call the electrode lead and is part of the torch
assembly.
The size of the welding cable used depends on the out-
put capacity of the welding machine and the distance
between the welding machine and the work. Cable sizes
range from the smallest at AWG No. 8 to AWG No. 4/0
with amperage ratings of 75 amperes and upward. Il-
lustration 3-16 shows recommended cable sizes for use
with different welding currents and cable lengths.
OTHER EQUIPMENT
Filler Wire Feeders
When semiautomatic, machine, and automatic welding
are employed and filler metal is being used, filler wire
feeders are needed. For manual welding, filler metal is
fed by hand. Either preheated (hot) or room temperature
(cold) filler can be fed into the weld pool.
A cold wire feeding system consists of a wire drive
mechanism, a speed control, and a wire guide attach-
ment which directs the wire into the molten weld pool.
The wire drive consist of a motor and gear train which
power a set of drive rolls to push the filler wire. A con-
stant speed governor, which can be either electronic or
mechanical, is used as the wire feed speed control. The
filler wire is usually guided to the weld puddle through a
flexible conduit, which is connected to the drive mecha-
nism. The wire guide is often attached to the torch and it
maintains the angle of approach to the weld puddle. For
heavy duty applications, the wire guide is water-cooled.
Filler wire used for this application range from 1/32 inch
(0.8 mm) to 3/32 inch (2.4 mm) in diameter. Cold wire is
generally fed into the leading edge of the weld puddle.
The equipment used for a hot wire system is similar to that
for cold wire, except the wire is electrically preheated to
the desired temperature before it reaches the weld pool.
The wire is heated by alternating current from a constant
voltage to complete the circuit. In many cases, a shield-
ing gas is used to protect the filler wire from oxidation.
The hot wire method will give a high deposition rate which
is comparable to that obtained using gas metal arc weld-
ing. This method is sometimes employed when weld-
ing carbon and low alloy steels, stainless steels, copper
alloys, and nickel alloys. Preheating of the filler wire is
not recommended for aluminum, aluminum alloys, and
copper because very high heating currents are required
which causes uneven melting and arc blow. Hot wire is
usually fed into the trailing edge of the weld puddle.
Water Circulators
When a water cooled torch is used, a water supply must
be included in the system. This can be supplied by a wa-
ter circulator or directly from a hose connection to a wa-
ter tap. The water circulator can either be built into the

– 13 –
welding machine or a separate unit. The water is carried
to the welding torch through hoses that may or may not
go through a valve in the welding machine.

Motion Devices

Motion devices are used for machine and automatic

welding. These motion devices can be used to move the
welding head, workpiece, or torch depending on the type
and size of the work and the preference of the user.

Motor driven carriages that run on tracks or directly on the

workpiece are commonly used. Carriages can be used
for straight-line, contour, vertical, or horizontal welding.
Side beam carriages are supported on the vertical face of
a flat track and they can be used for straight-line welding.
Illustration 3-17 – Orbital Welding Head
Photo courtesy of Liburdi Dimetrics
Welding head manipulators may be used for longitudinal
welds and in conjunction with a rotary weld positioner
for circumferential welds. These welding head manipula-
tors come in many boom sizes and can also be used for
manual welding with mounted welding heads.

Oscillators are optional equipment that are used to oscil-

late the torch for surfacing, vertical-up and other welding
operations that require a wide bead. Oscillators can ei-
ther be mechanical or electromagnetic devices.

Orbital heads are compact and rugged and clamp on a

pipe or tube. A family of heads is required to weld the
smallest to the largest tubes. The orbital welding head
shown in Illustration 3-17 is designed for pipe diameters
from 1.5” (38 mm) to 6.7” (170 mm). The welding torch
rotates around the pipe and carries the tungsten elec-
trode. These heads will rotate the torch around the pipe
continuously. Multiple adjustments and computer control
allow for precise positioning

– 14 –
 CHAPTER 4
ELECTRODES, SHIELDING GAS, AND FILLER METALS

The electrodes used for this process are non-consum-
able, so a tungsten electrode is needed as well as a filler
rod if any filler metal is to be added. The shielding gas is
an important consumable of gas tungsten arc welding be-
cause its main purpose is to shield the electrode and mol-
ten weld puddle from the atmosphere. Filler metal may
or may not be added, depending on the specific welding
application.
(.25 to 6.4 mm). Illustration 4-2 shows the metals. Illustra-
tion 4-3 shows the welding current ranges for tungsten
electrodes. Pure tungsten electrodes are generally used
on the less critical applications with alternating current.
The pure tungsten electrodes have a relatively low cur-
rent carrying capacity and a low contamination resis-
tance but they give good arc stability. These are identi-
fied by a green marking on them.

ELECTRODES Tungstens alloyed with ceria and lanthana are recom-

The gas tungsten arc welding process uses an electrode
that is nonconsumable or nearly nonconsumable. These
electrodes are made of tungsten or tungsten alloys that
melt at 6170º F (3410º C) which is the highest melting
point of all metals. It is virtually impossible to vaporize a
tungsten electrode during welding, provided the electrode
is used within the current-carrying capacity range for its
specific type and diameter, with sufficient inert shielding
gas. Tungsten retains its hardness, even at red heat.
Electrodes for gas tungsten arc welding are made of pure
tungsten or alloyed with thoria, zirconia, ceria, lanthana,
or a combination of oxides. The E indicates electrode and
the W indicates Wolfram, the German word for tungsten.
The welding electrodes are classified by chemical com-
position and are identified by colored markings in the
form of bands, dots, etc. on the surface of the electrode.
mended as alternatives to thoriated tungsten, because
the thorium is mildly radioactive and there are health
concerns about inhaling the grinding dust. It is necessary
to use local exhaust ventilation during grinding. Ceriated
and lanthanated tungstens provide very similar perfor-
mance characteristics to thoriated electrodes.
Pure and zirconiated tungsten electrodes are used for AC
welding. Pure tungstens are expensive and provide good
arc stability. However, they are prone to tungsten spitting
because they have limited current carrying capability. Zir-
coniated electrodes are used with AC when X-ray quality
welds are required, because they can carry twice the cur-
rent and are less prone to tungsten spitting.
Ceriated tungsten electrodes (gray marking) contain ce-
rium oxide and exhibit a reduced rate of vaporization or
bur-off, as compared with pure tungsten electrodes.

Tungsten electrodes usually come in lengths of 3 to 24 The EWLa electrodes (black, gold, and blue marking) and
inches (76-610 mm) and in diameters from .01 to 1/4 inch Wth electrodes (violet marking) contain lanthanum oxide

Chemical Composition Requirements

Classification Color Code, RGB
Symbol (ISO 6848 Oxide Addition Impurities Mass Tungsten Mass Color Value and
Classification) Principle Oxide Mass Percent Percent Percent Color Samplea
EWP (WP) None N.A.b .05 max. 99.5 min. Greenf #008000
EWCe-2 (WCe 20) CeO2 1.8-2.2 .05 max. Balance Gray #808080
EWLa-1 (WLa 10) La2O2 .08-1.2 .05 max. Balance Black #000000
EWLa-1.5 (WLa 15) La2O2 1.3-1.7 .05 max. Balance Gold #FFD700
EWLa-2 (WLa 20) La2O2 1.8-2.2 .05 max. Balance Blue #0000FF
EWTh-1 (WTh 10) ThO2 .08-1.2 .05 max. Balance Yellow #FFFF00
EWTh-2 (WTh 20) ThO2 1.7-2.2 .05 max Balance Red #FF0000
(WTh 30) La2O2 2.8-3.2 .05 max Balance Violet #EE82EE
EWZr-1 (WZr 3) ZrO2 .015-.050 .05 max. Balance Brown #A52A2A
EWZr-8 (WZr 8) ThO2 .08-1.2 .05 max. Balance White #FFFFFF
EWG c d
.05 max. Balance e

NOTE: Intentional additions of “doping oxides” other than indicated for a particular electrode classification is prohibited.
a) RGB color values and color samples can be found at the following web site: http://msdn2.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms531197.aspx.
b) N.A. = Not Applicable.
c) The manufacturer must identify all additions.
d) The manufacturer must state the nominal quantity of each addition.
e) The manufacturer may select any color not already in use.
f) Formerly orange
Illustration 4-1 – Chemical Composition Requirements for Tungsten Electrodes
(Source: AWS A5.12)

– 15 –
 Type of Metal Thickness Type of Current Electrode Shielding Gas

All AC Pure, Zirconium Argon, Argon-helium

Aluminum Thick Only DCEN Thoriated Argon-helium, Argon
Thin Only DCEP Thoriated, Zirconium Argon
Copper and All DCEN Thoriated Argon, Argon-helium
Copper Alloys Thin Only AC Pure, Zirconium Argon
Magnesium All AC Pure, Zirconium Argon
Alloys Thin Only DCEP Thoriated Argon
Nickel and
All DCEN Thoriated Argon
Nickel Alloys

Plain Carbon and

All DCEN Thoriated Argon, Argon-helium
Low Alloy Steels
Stainless Steel All DCEN Thoriated Argon, Argon-helium
Titanium All DCEN Thoriated Argon
Illustration 4-2 – Types of Tungsten Electrodes and Shielding Gas Recommended for Welding Different Metals

Direct Current
Electrode Alternating Current
Electrode Negative (-) Electrode Positive (+)
Diameter
Tungsten Tungsten Tungsten
Pure with Oxide Pure with Oxide Pure with Oxide
mm in Tungsten Additives Tungsten Additives Tungsten Additives
0.25 0.010 Up to 15 Up to 15 N.A. N.A. Up to 15 Up to 15
0.30 Up to 15 Up to 15 N.A. N.A. Up to 15 Up to 15
0.50 0.020 2-20 2-20 N.A. N.A. 2-15 2-15
1.0 0.040 10-75 10-75 N.A. N.A. 15-55 15-70
1.5 0.060 60-150 60-150 10-20 10-20 45-90 60-125
1.6 60-150 60-150 10-20 10-20 45-90 60-125
2.0 75-180 100-200 15-25 15-25 65-125 85-160
2.4 0.093 (3/32) 120-220 150-250 15-30 15-30 80-140 120-210
2.5 130-230 170-250 17-30 17-30 80-140 120-210
3.0 150-300 210-310 20-35 20-35 140-180 140-230
3.2 0.125 (1/8) 160-310 225-330 20-35 20-35 150-190 150-250
4.0 0.156 (5/32) 275-450 350-480 35-50 35-50 180-260 240-350
4.8 0.187 (3/16) 380-600 480-650 50-70 50-70 240-350 330-450
5.0 400-625 500-675 50-70 50-70 240-350 330-460
6.3 550-875 650-950 65-100 65-100 300-450 430-575
6.4 0.250 (1/4) 575-900 750-1000 70-125 70-125 325-450 450-600
8.0 650-830
10.0
NOTE: If no value is given, no recommendation is available.
a) The current values are based on the use of argon gas, and these values may vary depending on the type of shielding gas, type of equipment, and application.

Illustration 4-3 – Approximate Current Ranges Depending on the Electrode Diametera

(Source: AWS A5.12)

– 16 –
and are very similar to the ceriated tung-
sten electrodes. EWZr electrodes (brown
marking) contain a small amount of zir-
conium oxide. Their welding characteris-
tics generally fall between those of pure
and thoriated tungsten, but have a high-
er resistance to contamination. The EWG
electrodes (any marking not already in
use as specified by AWS A5.12) contain
an unspecified addition of oxides (rare
earth or others) which affect the charac-
teristics of the arc. Illustration 4-4 shows
a variety of tungsten electrodes.
Thoria is a very low-level radioactive
oxide. However, if welding is to be per- Illustration 4.4
formed in confined spaces for prolonged Tungsten Electrodes
periods of time or if electrode grinding Photo courtesy of Weldcraft
dust might be ingested, special precau-
tions relative to ventilation should be considered. The
user should consult appropriate safety personnel.*
The level of contamination/radiation has not been found
to represent a health hazard during welding, but rather
the grinding dust from the electrodes may be a concern.
However, in other nations, especially European coun-
tries, tungsten electrodes containing greater than 2%
thoria are used less now because of concerns with radia-
tion exposure to the welder. Alternative rare earth doped
(alloyed) tungsten electrodes are available.*
SHIELDING GASES
Argon and helium or mixtures of the two gases are the
most widely used shielding gases for gas tungsten arc
welding. The characteristics most desirable for shielding
purposes are chemical inertness and an ability to pro-
duce smooth arc action at high current densities. Argon
and helium are both inert, which means that they do not
form compounds with other elements. Inert shielding gas
is used because it will protect the tungsten electrode as
well as the molten weld metal from contamination. Addi-
tions of hydrogen and nitrogen have been utilized in spe-
cial applications. Illustration 4-2 shows the type of shield-
ing gas recommended when welding different metals.
Gas purity can have a considerable effect on welding.
Metals such as carbon steel, stainless steel, copper and
aluminum will usually tolerate very small amounts of im-
purities. For the best results, the purity rating should be
99.99+%. Titanium and zirconium have a very low toler-
ance to impurities in the shielding gas and only the very
purest should ever be used.
Argon
Argon is a heavy gas that is obtained from the atmo-
sphere by the liquification of air. Argon may be supplied
as a compressed gas or as a liquid, depending on the vol-
– 17 –
ume of use. This gas can be purchased
at much lower prices in the bulk liquid
form compared to the compressed gas
form and is the most widely used type of
shielding gas for gas tungsten arc weld-
ing. Argon has several advantages over
helium:
1) Quieter and smoother arc action
2) Easier arc starting
3) Lower arc voltage for current settings
and arc
4) Good cleaning action which is
preferred for the
5) Lower flow rates are required for
good shielding
6) Lower cost and more availability
7) Better resistance to cross-drafts
8) Better for welding dissimilar metals
9) Better weld puddle control in the overhead and
lengths. This is good on thin metals, welding of alumi-
num and magnesium. Argon is heavier than air.
Helium
Helium is a light gas that is obtained by separation from
natural gas. Helium may be distributed as a liquid, but
it is more often used as compressed gas in cylinders.
Since helium is lighter than air, it leaves the welding area
quicker and therefore, higher flow rates are needed. An-
other disadvantage is that it is more expensive and is less
available than argon. Helium does have several advan-
tages over argon shielding gas:
1) Gives a smaller heat affected zone
2) Higher arc voltages are produced for given current
settings and arc lengths. This is good on thicker met-
als and metals with high conductivity
3) Better for welding at higher speeds
4) Gives better coverage in vertical and overhead posi-
tions
5) Deeper penetration because of more heat input
6) When used as a backing gas, it tends to flatten out
the root pass of the weld bead.
Argon-Helium Mixtures
The argon-helium mixtures are used when better control
of argon and the deeper penetration of helium are need-
ed. Common mixtures of these gases by volume are 75%
helium, 25% argon or 80% helium, 20% argon. There is a
wide variety of mixtures available. Combinations of argon
and helium are widely used for automatic welding.
Argon-Hydrogen Mixtures
Mixtures of argon and hydrogen are often used when
welding metals such as stainless steel, Inconel, Monel,
*Source: AWS C5.5
 AWS
Specification Specification Title / Metal
A5.7 Copper and copper alloy welding rods and electrodes
A5.9 Corrosion-resisting chromium & chromium nickel steel bare &
composite metal cored & standard arc welding electrodes & rods
A5.10 Aluminum & aluminum alloy welding rods & bare electrodes
A5.12 Chemical Composition Requirements for Tungsten Electrodes
A5.13 Surfacing welding rods & electrodes
A5.14 Nickel & nickel alloy bare welding rods and electrodes
A5.16 Titanium & titanium alloy bare welding rods & electrodes
A5.18 Carbon steel filler metals for gas shielded arc welding
A5.19 Magnesium alloy welding rods & bare electrodes
A5.21 Composite surfacing welding rods & electrodes
A5.24 Zirconium & zirconium alloy bare welding rods and electrodes
A5.27 Copper and copper alloy gas welding rods
A5.28 Low-alloy steel filler metals for gas shielded arc welding
A5.30 Consumable inserts
Illustration 4-5 – AWS Filler Metals and Electrodes
Specifications for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
and when porosity is a problem. In some cases, argon-
hydrogen mixtures are used when no other shielding gas
can prevent porosity.
The purpose of argon-hydrogen mixtures is to increase
the welding heat and help control the weld bead profile.
The argon-hydrogen mixtures give the weld puddle bet-
ter wetting action and a more uniform weld bead. This
gas mixture is not completely inert.
Argon-hydrogen mixtures should not be used for welding
plain carbon or low alloy steels. Stainless steel can be
welded with argon-hydrogen mixtures with the hydrogen
percentage up to 15%. A typical argon-hydrogen mixture
is 95% argon and 5% hydrogen.
Nitrogen
Nitrogen can also be used as shielding gas, but is rarely
used. Because of the higher voltage obtainable, higher
currents can be produced. The efficiency of heat transfer
is higher than for either helium or argon, which makes ni-
trogen good for welding copper and copper alloys. How-
ever, nitrogen will reduce arc stability and contaminate
the electrodes because it is not an inert gas. If thoriated
electrodes are used, there is negligible contamination by
the nitrogen.
SHIELDING GAS FLOW
The requirements for shielding gas flow depend on the
cup size, air movement in the area, and the weld pool
– 18 –
size. The need for a stiff gas stream to overcome
the heating effects of the arc and cross drafts,
determines the minimum flow rate. Turbulence
in the gas stream is caused by excessive flow
rates. If a breeze or draft is moving at five or more
miles per hour, it can disrupt the shielding gas
coverage. Screens that block airflow may be uti-
lized rather than increasing the gas flow rate.
When the back side of a weld is exposed to air
during the root pass, the weld may become con-
taminated. Purging air from this region is essen-
tial. Argon and helium are satisfactory for purging
all materials. Nitrogen may be used for stainless
steel, copper, and copper alloys.
Purge blocks are available to contain the shield-
ing gas on the back side of the weld. These
blocks normally are equipped with inlet and out-
let valves or vents. Extra care should be taken
to ensure that the backup purge pressure is not
excessive when welding the last inch or two of
the root pass to prevent blowout or concavity.
When welding reactive metals, it is helpful if
the weldment can be placed in a chamber with
a controlled atmosphere. Argon is used as the
purge gas and instruments are used to analyze oxygen,
nitrogen and water vapor to reduce contaminants before
the welding begins.
If chambers are not practical for the application, trailing
shields are used.
FILLER METALS
Gas tungsten arc welding is used to weld a wide variety
of metals which generates a need for the use of various
filler metals. Illustration 4-5 lists the American Welding
Society specifications covering the different filler metals
and tungsten electrodes used for gas tungsten arc weld-
ing. The selection of the proper filler metal is primarily de-
pendent on the chemical composition of the base metal
being welded. Filler metals are often similar, although not
necessarily identical, to the base metal being welded.
Filler metals are produced with closer control on chem-
istry, purity, and quality than are base metals. The choice
of a filler metal for a given application depends on the
suitability for the intended operation, the cost, and the
metallurgical compatibility. The tensile strength, impact
toughness, electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity,
corrosion resistance, and weld appearance that are re-
quired of a weldment are also important considerations.
Deoxidizers are frequently added to the filler metals to
give better weld soundness.
 Weight Percenta,b

Other Elements
AWS UNS
Classification Numberc Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr Ni Zn Ti Each Total Al
ER1100 0.05 to
A91100 d d
0.20 0.05 – – – 0.10 – 0.05 0.15e 99.0 minf
R1100
ER1188g
A91188 0.06 0.06 0.005 0.01 0.01 – – 0.03 0.01 0.01 – 98.88 minf
R1188g
ER2319c 5.8 to 0.20 to 0.10 to
A92319 0.20 0.30 0.02 – – 0.10 0.05 0.15e Remainder
R2319c 6.8 0.40 0.20

ER4009 0.45 to
A94009 4.5 to 5.5 0.20 1.0 to 1.5 0.10 – – 0.10 0.20 0.5 0.15e Remainder
R4009 0.6

ER4010 0.30 to
A94010 6.5 to 7.5 0.20 0.20 0.10 0.45 – – 0.10 0.20 0.05 0.15e Remainder
R4010
0.45 to 0.4 to
ER4011k A94011 6.5 to 7.5 0.20 0.20 0.10 – – 0.10 0.05 0.15 Remainder
0.7 0.20
ER4043
A94043 4.5 to 6.0 0.8 0.30 0.05 0.05 – – 0.10 0.20 0.05 0.15e Remainder
R4043
ER4047 11.0 to
A94047 0.8 0.30 0.15 0.10 – – 0.20 – 0.05 0.15e Remainder
R4047 13.0

ER4145
A94145 9.3-10.7 0.8 3.3 to 4.7 0.15 0.15 0.15 – 0.20 – 0.05 0.15e Remainder
R4145
ER4643 0.10 to
A94643 3.6 to 4.6 0.8 0.10 0.05 – – 0.10 0.154 0.05 0.15e Remainder
R4643 0.30

ER5183 0.50 to 4.3 to 5.2 0.05 to

A95183 0.40 0.40 0.10 1.0 0.25 – 0.25 0.15 0.05 0.15e Remainder
R5183
ER5356 0.05 to 4.5 to 5.5 0.05 to 0.06 to
A95356 0.25 0.40 0.10 – 0.10 0.05 0.15e Remainder
R5356 0.20 0.20 0.20

ER5554 0.50 to 2.4 to 3.0 0.05 to 0.05 to

A95554 0.25 0.40 0.10 – 0.25 0.05 0.15e Remainder
R5554 1.0 0.20 0.20

ER5556 0.50 to 4.7 to 5.5 0.05 to 0.05 to

A95556 0.25 0.40 0.10 – 0.25 0.05 0.15e Remainder
R5556 1.0 0.20 0.20

ER5654
3.1 to 3.9 0.15
A95654 to 0.05 to
i i 0.05 0.01 – 0.20 0.05 0.15e Remainder
R5654 0.35 0.15

4.2 to 5.0 0.20 to 0.15 to 0.15 to

R-206.0j A02060 0.10 0.15 – 0.05 0.10 0.05 0.15 Remainder
0.50 0.35 0.30
0.40 to
R-C355.0 A33550 4.5 to 5.5 0.20 1.0 to 1.5 0.10 – – 0.10 0.20 0.05 0.15 Remainder
0.6
0.25 to
R-A356.0 A13560 6.5 to 7.5 0.20 0.20 0.10 – – 0.10 0.20 0.05 0.15 Remainder
0.45
0.45 to
R-357.0 A03570 6.5 to 7.5 0.15 0.05 0.03 – – 0.05 0.20 0.05 0.15 Remainder
0.6
0.40 to 0.04 t0
R-A357.0k A13570 6.5 to 7.5 0.20 0.20 0.10 – – 0.10 0.05 0.15 Remainder
0.7 0.20
a) The filler metal shall be analyzed for the specific elements for which values are shown in this table. If the presence of other elements is indicated in the course of this work, the
amount of those elements shall be determined to ensure that their total does not exceed the limits specified for “Other Elements Total”.
b) Single values are maximum, except where otherwise specified.
c) SAE HS-1086 / ASTM DS-56, Metals & Metal Alloys in the Unified Numbering System.
d) Silicon plus iron shall not exceed 0.95%.
e) Beryllium shall not exceed 0.0008%.
f) The aluminum content for unalloyed aluminum is the difference between 100.00% and the sum of all other metallic elements present in the amounts of 0.010% or more, ex
pressed to the second decimal before determining the sum.
g) Vanadium content shall be 0.05% maximum. Gallium content shall be 0.03% maximum.
h) Vanadium content shall be 0.05 to 0.15%. Zirconium content shall be 0.10 to 2.5%.
i) Silicon plus iron shall not exceed 0.45%.
j) Tin content shall not exceed 0.05%.
k) Beryllium content shall be 0.04 to 0.07%.
Illustration 4-6 – Chemical Composition Requirements for Aluminum Electrodes and Rods
(Source: AWS A5.10)
– 19 –
 Weight Percenta,b
Other
AWS UNS Rare Elements
Classification Numberc Mg Al Be Mn Zn Zr Earth Cu Fe Ni Si Total

ER AZ61A
5.8 to .0002 to 0.15 to 0.40 to
M11611 Rem – – 0.05 0.005 0.005 0.05 0.30
7.2 .0008 0.5 1.5
R AZ61A

ER AZ92A
8.3 to .0002- to 0.15 to 1.7 to
M11922 Rem – – 0.05 0.005 0.005 0.05 0.30
9.7 .0008 0.5 2.3
R AZ92A

ER AZ101A
9.5 to .0002 to 0.15 to 0.75 to
M11101 Rem – – 0.05 0.005 0.005 0.05 0.30
10.5 .0008 0.5 1.25
R AZ101A

ER EZ33A
2.0 to .45 to 2.5 to
M12331 Rem – 0.0008 – – – – – 0.30
3.1 1.0 4.0
R EZ33A

a) The filler metal shall be analyzed for the specific elements for which values are shown in this table. If the presence of other elements is indicated in the course of this work, the
amount of those elements shall be determined to ensure that their total does not exceed the limits specified for “Other Elements Total”.
b) Single values are maximum.
c) SAE HS-1086 / ASTM DS-56, Metals & Metal Alloys in the Unified Numbering System.

Illustration 4-7 – Chemical Composition Requirements for Magnesium Alloy Electrodes and Rods
(Source: AWS A5.19)

Weight Percenta,b
Cu Ni Total
AWS UNS Common including including Other
Classification Numberc Name Ag e
Zn Sn Fe Si Co f
P Al Ph Ti Elements

ERCu C18980 Copper 98.0 min – 1.0 0.50 – 0.50 – 0.15 0.01 0.02 – 0.50

Silicon Bronze 2.8 to

ERCuSi-A C65600 Remainder 1.0 1.0 1.5 0.50 – – 0.01 0.02 – 0.50
(Copper Silicon) 4.0

4.0 to 0.10 to
ERCuSn-A C51800 Remainder – – – – – 0.01 0.02 – 0.50
6.0 0.35
Phosphor Bronze
(Copper Tin)
7.0 to 0.10 to
ERCuSn-C C52100 Remainder 0.20 – 0.10 – – 0.01 0.02 – 0.50
9.0 0.35

0.40 to 0.25 29.0 to 0.20 to

ERCuNid C71580 Copper-Nickel Remainder – – 1.00 0.02 – 0.02 0.50
0.75 32.0 0.50

6.0 to
ERCuAl-A1 C61000 Remainder 0.20 – 0.50 – 0.10 – – 0.02 – 0.50
8.5

Aluminum 8.5 to
ERCuAl-A2 C61800 Remainder 0.02 – – 1.5 0.10 – – 0.02 – 0.50
Bronze 11.0

2.0 to 10.0 to
ERCuAl-A3 C62400 Remainder 0.10 – – 0.10 – – 0.02 – 0.50
4.5 11.5

Nickel-Aluminum 0.60 to 3.0 to 4.0 to 8.50 to

ERCuNiAl C63280 Remainder 0.10 – 0.10 – 0.02 – 0.50
Bronze 3.50 5.0 5.50 9.50

Manganese-Nickel Remainder 11.0 to 2.0 to 1.5 to 7.0 to

ERCuMnNiAl C63380 0.15 – 0.10 – 0.02 – 0.50
Aluminum Bronze 14.0 4.0 3.0 8.5
a) Analysis shall be made for the elements for which specific values are shown in this table. If, however, the presence of other elements is indicated in the course of routine analysis,
further analysis shall be made to determine that the total of these elements is not present in excess of the limits specified for “Total Other Elements” in the last column of this table.
b) Single values shown are maximum, unless otherwise noted.
c) SAE HS-1086 / ASTM DS-56, Metals & Metal Alloys in the Unified Numbering System.
d) Sulfur shall be 0.01 percent maximum for the ERCuNi classification.
e) Ag may or may not be present.
f) Co may or may not be present
Illustration 4-8 – Chemical Composition Requirements for Copper Alloy Electrodes and Rods
(Source: AWS A5.7)

– 20 –
Classification
The classification system for filler metal used with gas
tungsten arc welding was devised by the American Weld-
ing Society. In this system, designations for filler metal
rods consist of the letters ER (for electrode or rod) and an
alloy number in most cases. The difference between an
electrode and a rod is that an electrode carries welding
current and the metal is transferred across the arc, but
a filler rod is added directly to the weld puddle without
electricity turning through it. Because gas tungsten arc
welding filler rods are generally chosen on the basis of
chemical composition, they are also classified accord-
ing to their chemical composition. This is not true of the
specification for carbon and low alloy steel welding rods
which are classified according to mechanical properties
and chemical compositions.
An example of a classification is an ER4043 aluminum
welding rod. The ER indicates that the wire can be used
as either an electrode or a filler wire and the 4043 indi-
cates the chemical composition as shown in Illustration
4-6.
The other nonferrous metals and stainless steels are
classified in a similar way. Manganese classifications are
shown in Illustration 4-7, copper and copper alloys in Il-
lustration 4-8, stainless steel in Illustration 4-9, and nickel
and nickel alloys in Illustration 4-10.
Sizing
Filler metals come in either straight cut lengths that are
36 inches (914 mm) long for manual welding or in contin-
uous spooled wire for mechanized welding. The diameter
of the filler wire ranges from about .020 inches (.50 mm)
for delicate or fine work, to about 1/4 inch (6.4 mm) for
high current welding and surfacing.
SELECTION OF FILLER METAL
The type of metal being welded and the specific mechan-
ical and chemical properties desired are the major fac-
tors in determining the choice of a filler metal. Identifica-
tion of the base metal is absolutely required to select the
proper filler metal. If the type of base metal is not known,
tests can be made based on appearance, weight, a mag-
– 21 –
netic check, chisel tests, flame tests, fracture tests, spark
tests, and chemistry tests. The selection of the proper
filler metal for specific job applications is quite involved
but can be based on the following factors:
1) Base metal strength properties – This is done by
choosing a filler metal to match the tensile strength
of the base metal. This is usually most important with
steel.
2) Base metal composition – The chemical composi-
tion of the base metal must be known. Matching
the chemical composition is not as important for
mild steel as it is for stainless steels and nonferrous
metals. Closely matching the filler metal to the base
metal is needed when corrosion resistance and color
match are important considerations.
3) Thickness and shape of base metal weldments
– Thick sections or complex shapes may require
maximum ductility to avoid weld cracking. Filler metal
types that give best ductility should be used.
4) Service conditions and/or specifications – When
weldments are subjected to severe service conditions
such as low temperatures, high temperatures, or
shock loading, a filler metal that closely matches the
base metal composition, ductility and impact resis-
tance properties should be used.
More exact recommendations for choosing filler metal
will be given in Chapter 7 with the discussion of the weld-
ing of different metals.
CONFORMANCES
Filler metals must conform to written specifications for
many applications of gas tungsten arc welding. The three
major code-making organizations that issue filler metal
specifications are the American Welding Society (AWS),
the American Society for Mechanical Engineers (ASME),
and the military. The ASME recognizes the AWS speci-
fications or makes its own specifications. The filler wire
must meet particular requirements in order to conform to
filler metal specifications.
 Weight Percentb,c Other Elements
AWSd UNS
Classification Numberf C Cr Ni Mo Mn Sie
P S N Cu Element Amount
20.5 to 9.5 to 1.58 to 4.0 to 0.10 to 0.10 to
ER209 S20980 0.05 0.90 0.03 0.03 0.75 V
24.0 12.0 3.0 7.0 0.30 0.30
16.0 to 8.0 to 7.0 to 3.5 to 0.08 to
ER218 S21880 0.10 0.75 0.03 0.03 0.75 – –
18.0 9.0 9.0 4.5 0.18
19.0 to 5.5 to 8.0 to 0.10 to
ER219 S21980 0.05 0.75 1.00 0.03 0.03 0.75 – –
21.5 7.0 10.0 0.30
17.0 to 4.0 to 10.5 to 0.10 to
ER240 S24080 0.05 0.75 1.00 0.03 0.03 0.75 – –
19.0 6.0 13.5 0.30
0.04 to 19.5 to 8.0 to 3.30 to 0.30 to
ER307 S30780 0.75 0.03 0.03 – 0.75 – –
0.14 22.0 10.7 4.75 0.65
19.5 to 9.0 to 0.5 to 1.0 to 0.30 to
ER308 S30880 0.08 0.03 0.03 – 0.75 – –
22.0 11.0 1.5 2.5 0.65
19.5 to 9.0 to 1.0 to 0.65 to
ER308Si S30881 0.08 0.75 0.03 0.03 – 0.75 – –
22.0 11.0 2.5 1.00
0.04 to 19.5 to 9.0 to 1.0 to 0.30 to
ER308H S30880 0.50 0.03 0.03 – 0.75 – –
0.08 22.0 11.0 2.5 0.65
19.5 to 9.0 to 1.0 to 0.30 to
ER308L S30883 0.03 0.75 0.03 0.03 – 0.75 – –
22.0 11.0 2.5 0.65
19.5 to 9.0 to 1.0 to 0.65 to
ER308LSi S30888 0.03 0.75 0.03 0.03 – 0.75 – –
22.0 11.0 2.5 1.00
18.0 to 9.0 to 2.0 to 1.0 to 0.30 to
ER308Mo S30882 0.08 0.03 0.03 – 0.75 – –
21.0 12.0 3.0 2.5 0.65
18.0 to 9.0 to 2.0 to 1.0 to 0.30 to
ER308LMo S30886 0.04 0.03 0.03 – 0.75 – –
21.0 12.0 3.0 2.5 0.65
23.0 to 12.0 to 1.0 to 0.30 to
ER309 S30980 0.12 0.75 0.03 0.03 – 0.75 – –
25.0 14.0 2.5 0.65
23.0 to 12.0 to 1.0 to 0.65 to
ER309Si S30981 0.12 0.75 0.03 0.03 – 0.75 – –
25.0 14.0 2.5 1.00
23.0 to 12.0 to 1.0 to 0.30 to
ER309L S30983 0.03 0.75 0.03 0.03 – 0.75 – –
25.0 14.0 2.5 0.65
23.0 to 12.0 to 1.0 to 0.65 to
ER309LSi S30988 0.03 0.75 0.03 0.03 – 0.75 – –
25.0 14.0 2.5 1.00
23.0 to 12.0 to 2.0 to 1.0 to 0.30 to
ER309Mo S30982 0.12 0.03 0.03 – 0.75 – –
25.0 14.0 3.0 2.5 0.65
23.0 to 12.0 to 2.0 to 1.0 to 0.30 to
ER309LMo S30986 0.03 0.03 0.03 – 0.75 – –
25.0 14.0 3.0 2.5 0.65
0.08 to 25.0 to 20.0 to 1.0 to 0.30 to
ER310 S31080 0.75 0.03 0.03 – 0.75 – –
0.15 28.0 22.5 2.5 0.65
28.0 to 8.0 to 1.0 to 0.30 to
ER312 S31380 0.15 0.75 0.03 0.03 – 0.75 – –
32.0 10.0 2.5 0.65
18.0 to 11.0 to 2.0 to 1.0 to 0.30 to
ER316 S31680 0.08 0.03 0.03 – 0.75 – –
20.0 14.0 3.0 2.5 0.65
18.0 to 11.0 to 2.0 to 1.0 to 0.65 to
ER316Si S31681 0.08 0.03 0.03 – 0.75 – –
20.0 14.0 3.0 2.5 1.00
0.04 to 18.0 to 11.0 to 2.0 to 1.0 to 0.30 to
ER316H S31680 0.03 0.03 – 0.75 – –
0.08 20.0 14.0 3.0 2.5 0.65
18.0 to 11.0 to 2.0 to 1.0 to 0.30 to
ER316L S31683 0.03 0.03 0.03 – 0.75 – –
20.0 14.0 3.0 2.5 0.65
18.0 to 11.0 to 2.0 to 1.0 to 0.65 to
ER316LSi S31688 0.03 0.03 0.03 – 0.75 – –
20.0 14.0 3.0 2.5 1.00
19.0 to 15.0 to 2.5 to 5.0 to 0.30 to 0.10 to
ER316LMn S31682 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.75 – –
22.0 18.0 3.5 9.0 0.65 0.20
18.5 to 13.0 to 3.0 to 1.0 to 0.30 to
ER317 S31780 0.08 0.03 0.03 – 0.75 – –
20.5 15.0 4.0 2.5 0.65
18.5 to 13.0 to 3.0 to 1.0 to 0.30 to
ER317L S31783 0.03 0.03 0.03 – 0.75 – –
20.5 15.0 4.0 2.5 0.65
18.0 to 11.0 to 2.0 to 1.0 to 0.30 to 8xC min/
ER318 S31980 0.08 0.03 0.03 – 0.75 Nb h 1.0 max
20.0 14.0 3.0 2.5 0.65
19.0 to 32.0 to 2.0 to 3.0 to 8xC min/
ER320 N08021 0.07 2.5 0.60 0.03 0.03 – Nbh 1.0 max
21.0 36.0 3.0 4.0
19.0 to 32.0 to 2.0 to 1.5 to 3.0 to 8xC min/
ER320LR N08022 0.025 0.15 0.015 0.02 – Nbh 0.40 max
21.0 36.0 3.0 2.0 4.0
18.5 to 9.0 to 1.0 to 0.30 to 9xC min/
ER321 S32180 0.08 .0.75 0.03 0.03 – 0.75 Ti 1.0 max
20.5 10.5 2.5 0.65
Continued on next page.
Illustration 4-9 – Chemical Compositions of Filler Wire and Rods Used for Stainless and Corrosion Resisting Steelsa
(Source: AWS A5.9)
– 22 –
 Weight Percentb,c Other Elements
AWSd UNS
Classification Numberf C Cr Ni Mo Mn Si e
P S N Cu Element Amount
0.18 to 15.0 to 34.0 to 1.0 to 0.30 to
ER330 N08331 0.75 0.03 0.03 – 0.75 – –
0.25 17.0 37.0 2.5 0.65
19.0 to 9.0 to 1.0 to 0.30 to 10xC min/
ER347 S34780 0.08 0.75 0.03 0.03 – 0.75 Nbh 1.0 max
21.5 11.0 2.5 0.65
19.0 to 9.0 to 1.0 to 0.65 to 10xC min/
ER347Si S34788 0.08 0.75 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.75 Nbh 1.0 max
21.5 11.0 2.5 1.00
26.5 to 30.0 to 3.2 to 1.0 to 0.70 to
ER383 N08028 0.025 0.50 0.02 0.03 – – –
28.5 33.0 4.2 2.5 1.50
19.5 to 24.0 to 4.2 to 1.0 to 1.2 to
ER385 N08904 0.025 0.50 0.02 0.03 – – –
21.5 26.0 5.2 2.5 2.0
10.5 to 10xC min/
ER409 S40900 0.08 0.6 0.50 0.8 0.8 0.03 0.03 – 0.75 Ti 1.5 max
13.5

ER409Nbi 10.5 to 10xC min/

S40940 0.08 0.6 0.50 0.8 1.0 0.04 0.03 – 0.75 Nbh 0.75 max
13.5
11.5 to
ER410 S41080 0.12 0.6 0.75 0.6 0.5 0.03 0.03 – 0.75 – –
13.5
11.0 to 4.0 to 0.4 to
ER410NiMo S41086 0.06 0.6 0.5 0.03 0.03 – 0.75 – –
12.5 5.0 0.7
0.25 to 12.0 to
ER420 S42080 0.6 0.75 0.6 0.5 0.03 0.03 – 0.75 – –
0.40 14.0
15.5 to
ER430 S43080 0.10 0.6 0.75 0.6 0.5 0.03 0.03 – 0.75 – –
17.0
17.0 to 10xC min/
ER439 S43035 0.04 0.6 0.5 0.8 0.8 0.03 0.03 – 0.75 Ti 1.1 max
19.0
25.0 to 0.75 to
ER446LMo S44687 0.015 g
0.4 0.4 0.02 0.02 0.015 g – –
27.5 1.50

ER630 S17480 0.05 16.0 to 4.5 to 0.25 to 3.25 to 0.15 to

0.75 0.75 0.03 0.03 – Nbh
16.75 5.0 0.75 4.0 0.30
0.04 to 18.5 to 9.0 to 1.0 to 0.30 to
ER19 to 10H S30480 0.08 20.0 11.0 0.25 2.0 0.65 0.03 0.03 – 0.75 Nbh 0.05

ER16 to 8 S16880 0.10 14.5 to 7.5 to 1.0 to 1.0 to 0.30 to 0.03 0.03
to 2 16.5 9.5 2.0 2.0 0.65 – 0.75 Ti 0.05

21.5 to 7.5 to 2.5 to 0.50 to 0.08 to

ER2209 S39209 0.03 0.90 0.03 0.03 0.75 – –
23.5 9.5 3.5 2.00 0.20
24.0 to 4.5 to 2.9 to 0.10 to 1.5 to
ER2553 S39553 0.04 1.5 1.0 0.04 0.03 – –
27.0 6.5 3.9 0.25 2.5
24.0 to 8.0 to 2.5 to 0.20 to
ER2594 S32750 0.03 2.5 1.0 0.03 0.02 1.5 – –
27.0 10.5 4.5 0.30
31.0 to 30.0 to 0.5 to 0.35 to 0.3 to
ER33 to 31 R20033 0.015 2.00 0.50 0.02 0.01 W 1.0
35.0 33.0 2.0 0.60 1.2

Co 16.0 to 21.0

W 2.0 to 3.5
Nb 0.30

Ta 0.30 to 1.25
0.05 to 21.0 to 19.0 to 2.5 to 4.0 0.50 to 0.20 to 0.10 to
ER3556 R30556 0.04 0.015 –
0.15 23.0 22.5 2.00 0.80 0.30 Al 0.10 to 0.50
0.001 to
Zr 0.100
0.005 to
La 0.1000
B 0.02
a) Classifications ER502 and ER505 have been discontinued. Classifications EB6 and ER80S-B6, which are similar to ER502, have been added to AWS A5.23 and A5.28,
respectively. EB8 and ER80S-B8, which are similar to ER505, have been added to AWS A5.23 and AWS A5.28, respectively.
b) Analysis shall be made for the elements for which specific values are shown in this table. If the presence of other elements is indicated in the course of this work, the amount of
those elements shall be determined to ensure that their total, excluding iron, does not exceed 0.50 percent.
c) Single values shown are maximum percentages.
d) In the designator for composite, stranded, and strip electrodes, the “R” shall be deleted. A designator “C” shall be used for composite and stranded electrodes and a designator
“Q” shall be used for strip electrodes. For example, ERXXX designates a solid wire and EQXXX designates a strip electrode of the same general analysis, and the same UNS
number. However, ECXXX designates a composite metal cored or stranded electrode and may not have the same UNS number. Consult SAE HS-1086/ASTM DS-56, Metals &
Alloys in the Unified Numbering System, for the proper UNS number.
e) For special applications, electrodes and rods may be purchased with less than the specified silicon content.
f) SAE HS-1086 / ASTM DS-56, Metals & Metal Alloys in the Unified Numbering System.
g) Nickel + copper equals 0.5 percent maximum.
h) Nb may be reported as Nb + Ta.

Illustration 4-9 – Chemical Compositions of Filler Wire and Rods Used for Stainless and Corrosion Resisting Steelsa
(Source: AWS A5.9)
– 23 –
 Weight Percenta,b
UNS Other
AWS Num- Cb plus Elements
Classificationm berc C Mn Fe P S Si Cu Nid Co Al Ti Cr Ta Mo V W Total

2.0 to
ERNi-1k N02061 0.15 1.0 1.0 0.03 0.015 0.75 0.25 93.0 min – 1.5 3.5 – – – – – 0.50

62.0 to 1.5 to
ERNiCu-7k N04060 0.15 4.0 2.5 0.02 0.015 1.25 Rem 69.0 – 1.25 3.0 – – – – – 0.50

63.0 to 2.0 to 0.25 to

ERNiCu-8k N05504 0.25 1.5 2.0 0.03 0.015 1.00 Rem 70.0 – 4.0 1.00 – – – – – 0.50

2.5 to 18.0 to 2.0 to

ERNiCr-3k,i N06082 0.10 3.5 3.0 0.03 0.015 0.50 0.50 67.0 min e
– 0.75 22.0 3.0f – – – 0.50

N06072 0.01 to 0.3 to 42.0 to

ERNiCr-4 0.20 0.50 0.02 0.015 0.20 0.50 Rem – – – – – – 0.50
0.10 1.0 46.0

N06076 0.08 to 0.15 to 19.0 to

ERNiCr-6k 0.15 1.00 2.00 0.03 0.015 0.30 0.50 75.0 min – 0.40 0.50 21.0 – – – – 0.50

.075 to 0.25 to 36.0 to 0.25 to

ERNiCr-7r N06073 0.03 0.50 1.0 0.02 0.015 0.30 0.30 Rem 1.0 1.20 0.75 39.0 1.00 0.50 – – 0.50

6.0 to 14.0 to 1.5 to

ERNiCrFe-5k N06062 0.08 1.0 10.0 0.03 0.015 0.35 0.50 70.0 min e
– – 17.0 3.0f – – – 0.50

2.0 to 2.5 to 14.0 to

ERNiCrFe-6k N07092 0.08 2.7 8.0 0.03 0.015 0.35 0.50 67.0 min – – 3.5 17.0 – – – – 0.50

7.0 to 28.0 to
ERNiCrFe-7j N06052 0.04 1.0 11.0 0.02 0.015 0.50 0.30 Rem – 1.10 1.0 31.5 0.10 0.50 – – 0.50

7.0 to 28.0 to 0.5 to

ERNiCrFe-7Aj N06054 0.04 1.0 11.0 0.02 0.015 0.50 0.30 Rem 0.12 1.10 1.0 31.5 1.0 0.50 – – 0.50

5.0 to 0.4 to 2.0 to 14.0 to .070 to

ERNiCrFe-8k N07069 0.08 1.0 9.0 0.03 0.015 0.50 0.50 70.0 min – 1.0 2.75 17.0 1.20 – – – 0.50

58 to 1.0 to 21.0 to
ERNiCrFe-11 N06601 0.10 1.0 Rem 0.03 0.015 0.50 1.0 – – – – – – 0.50
63.0 1.7 25.0

N06025 0.15 to 8.0 to 1.8 to 1.10 to 24.0 to

ERNiCrFe-12 0.50 0.020 0.010 0.5 0.1 Rem 1.0 – – – – 0.50
0.25 11.0 2.4 0.20 26.0
52.0 to 28.5 to 2.1 to 3.0 to
ERNiCrFe-13r N06055 0.03 1.0 Rem 0.02 0.015 0.50 0.30 62.0 0.10 0.50 0.50 31.0 4.0 5.0 – – 0.50

ERNiCrFeSi-1 N06045 0.05 to 21.0 to 2.5 to 26.0 to

1.0 0.020 0.010 0.3 Rem 1.0 0.30 – – – – – 0.50
0.12 25.0 3.0 29.0
2.5 to 2.5 to 27.0 to 0.5 to
ERNiCrFeAl-1 N06693 0.15 1.0 0.03 0.01 0.5 0.5 Rem – 1.0 – – – 0.50
6.0 4.0 31.0 2.5
1.5 to 38.0 to 0.6 to 19.5 to 2.5 to
ERNiFeCr-1k N08065 0.05 1.0 22.0 min 0.03 0.03 0.50 3.0 46.0 – 0.20 1.2 235 – 3.5 – – 0.50

50.0 to 0.20 to 0.65 to 17.0 to 4.75 to 2.80 to

ERNiFeCr-2g N07718 0.08 0.35 Rem 0.015 0.015 0.35 0.30 55.0 – 0.80 1.15 21.0 5.5 3.30 – – 0.50

4.0 to 26.0 to 0.20 to

ERNiMo-1 N10001 0.08 1.0 0.025 0.03 1.0 0.50 Rem 2.5 – – 1.0 – 1.0 0.50
7.0 30.0 0.40

N10003 0.04 to 6.0 to 15.0 to

ERNiMo-2 1.0 5.0 0.015 0.02 1.0 0.50 Rem 0.20 – – – 0.50 0.50 0.50
0.08 8.0 18.0
4.0 to 4.0 to 23.0 to
ERNiMo-3 N10004 0.12 1.0 0.04 0.03 1.0 0.50 Rem 2.5 – – – 0.60 1.0 0.50
7.0 6.0 26.0
26.0 to
ERNiMo-7 N10665 0.02 1.0 2.0 0.04 0.03 0.10 0.50 Rem 1.0 – – 1.0 – – 1.0 0.50
30.0
0.5 to 18.0 to 2.0 to
ERNiMo-8 N10008 0.10 1.0 10.0 0.015 0.015 0.50 0.50 60.0 min – – – – – 0.50
3.5 21.0 4.0
0.3 to 65.0 min 19.0 to 2.0 to
ERNiMo-9 N1009 0.10 3.0 5.0 0.015 0.015 0.50 – 1.0 – – – – 0.50
1.3 22.0 4.0
1.0 to 1.0 to 27.0 to
ERNiMo-10 n N10675 0.01 1.0 3.0 0.03 0.01 0.10 0.20 65.0 min 3.0 0.50 0.20 3.0 0.20 32.0 0.20 3.0 0.50

2.0 to 0.1 to 0.5 to 26.0 to

ERNiMo-11 N10629 0.010 1.0 0.020 0.010 0.10 0.5 Rem 1.0 0.30 0.50 – – 0.50
5.0 0.5 1.5 30.0
7.0 to 24.0 to
ERNiMo-12g N10242 0.03 0.80 2.0 0.030 0.015 0.80 0.50 Rem 1.0 – – 9.0 – 26.0 – – 0.50

Continued on next page.

Illustration 4-10 – Chemical Composition of Filler Wire and Rods Used for Welding Nickel and Nickel Alloys
(Source: AWS A5.14)
– 24 –
 Weight Percenta,b
UNS Other
AWS Num- Cb plus Elements
Classificationm berc C Mn Fe P S Si Cu Nid Co Al Ti Cr Ta Mo V W Total

1.0 to 18.0 to 1.5 to 21.0 to 1.75 to 5.5 to

ERNiCrMo-1 N06007 0.05 0.04 0.03 1.0 Rem 2.5 – – – 1.0 –
2.0 21.0 2.5 23.5 2.50 7.5

N06002 0.05 to 17.0 to 0.50 to 20.5 to 8.0 to 0.20 to

ERNiCrMo-2 1.0 0.04 0.03 1.0 0.50 Rem – – – – 0.50
0.15 20.0 2.5 23.0 10.0 1.0
20.0 to 3.15 to 8.0 to
ERNiCrMo-3k N06625 0.10 0.50 5.0 0.02 0.015 0.50 0.50 58.0 min – 0.40 0.40 23.0 4.15 10.0 – – 0.50

4.0 to 14.5 to 15.0 to 3.0 to

ERNiCrMo-4 N10276 0.02 1.0 0.04 0.03 0.08 0.50 Rem 2.5 – – – 0.35 0.50
7.0 16.5 17.0 4.5
14.0 to 14.0 to
ERNiCrMo-7 N06455 0.015 1.0 3.0 0.04 0.03 0.08 0.50 Rem 2.0 – 0.70 – – 0.50 0.50
18.0 18.0
0.7 to 47.0 to 0.70 to 23.0 to 5.0 to
ERNiCrMo-8 N06975 0.03 1.0 Rem 0.03 0.03 1.0 – – – – – 0.50
1.20 52.0 1.50 26.0 7.0
18.0 to 1.5 to 21.0 to 6.0 to
ERNiCrMo-9 N06985 0.015 1.0 0.04 0.03 1.0 Rem 5.0 – – 0.50 – 1.5 0.50
21.0 2.5 23.5 8.0
2.0 to 20.0 to 12.5 to 2.5 to
ERNiCrMo-10 N06022 0.015 0.50 0.02 0.010 0.08 0.50 Rem 2.5 – – – 0.35 0.50
6.0 22.5 14.5 4.5
13.0 to 1.0 to 28.0 to 0.30 to 4.0 to 1.5 to
ERNiCrMo-11 N06030 0.03 1.5 0.04 0.02 0.08 Rem 5.0 – – – 0.50
17.0 2.4 31.5 1.50 6.0 4.0
0.1 to 22.0 to 15.0 to
ERNiCrMo-13 N06059 0.010 0.5 1.5 0.015 0.010 0.10 0.50 Rem 0.3 – – – 0.50
0.4 24.0 16.5
19.0 to 15.0 to 3.0 to
ERNiCrMo-14 N06686 0.01 1.0 5.0 0.02 0.02 0.08 0.5 Rem – 0.5 – – 0.50
23.0 17.0 4.4
55.0 to 19.0 to 2.75 to 7.0 to
ERNiCrMo-15 N07725 0.03 0.35 Rem 0.015 0.01 0.20 – – 0.35 – – 0.50
59.0 22.5 4.00 9.5
29.0 to 10.0 to
ERNiCrMo-16 N06057 0.02 1.0 2.0 0.04 0.03 1.0 – Rem – – – 0.4 – 0.50
31.0 12.0
1.3 to 22.0 to 15.0 to
ERNiCrMo-17 N06200 0.010 0.5 3.0 0.025 0.010 0.08 Rem 2.0 – – – – 0.50
1.9 24.0 17.0
12.0 to 19.0 to 0.05 to 9.5 to 0.5 to
ERNiCrMo-18 o N06650 0.03 0.5 16.0 0.020 0.010 0.50 0.30 Rem 1.0 – 21.0 0.50 12.5 0.30 2.5 0.50

20.0 to 19.0 to
ERNiCrMo-19q N06058 0.01 0.5 1.5 0.015 0.010 0.10 0.50 Rem 0.3 – 23.0 – 21.0 – 0.3 0.50

21.0 to 9.0 to 2.0 to

ERNiCrMo-20 N06660 0.03 0.5 2.0 0.015 0.015 0.5 0.3 Rem 0.2 0.4 0.4 .02 – –
23.0 11.0 4.0
24.0 to 14.0 to
ERNiCrMo-21 N06205 0.03 0.5 1.0 0.015 0.015 0.5 0.2 Rem 0.2 0.4 0.04 – – 0.3 –
26.0 16.0
32.25 to 7.60 to
ERNiCrMo-22 N06035 0.050 0.50 2.00 0.030 0.030 0.60 0.30 Rem 1.00 0.40 0.2 .05 0.20 0.60 0.50
34.25 9.00

ERNiCrCoMo-1 N06617 0.05 to 10.0 to 0.80 to 20.0 to 8.0 to

1.0 3.0 0.03 0.015 1.0 0.50 Rem 0.60 – – – 0.50
0.15 15.0 1.50 24.0 10.0

ERNiCoCrSi-1 N12160 0.02 to 2.4 to 27.0 to 0.20 to 26.0 to

1.0 3.5 0.030 0.015 0.50 Rem 0.40 0.30 0.7 – 0.5 0.50
0.10 3.0 32.0 0.60 29.0
0.5 to 0.3 to 0.25 to 0.2 to 20.0 to 1.0 to 13.0 to
ERNiCrWMo-1h,i N06231 0.15 1.0 3.0 0.03 0.015 0.75 0.50 Rem 5.0 0.5 – 24.0 – 3.0 – 15.0 0.50

a) The weld metal shall be analyzed for the specific elements for which values are shown in this table. If the presence of other elements is indicated in the course of the work, the
amount of those elements shall be determined to ensure that their total does not exceed the limit specified for “Other Elements” in the last column of the table.
b) Single values are maximum, except where otherwise specified.
c) SAE HS-1086 / ASTM DS-56, Metals & Metal Alloys in the Unified Numbering System.
d) Includes incidental cobalt.
e) Co is 0.12 maximum when specified by the purchaser.
f ) MIL-E-21562 grade; Ta is 0.30 maximum.
g) Boron is 0.006 maximum.
h) Boron is 0.003 maximum.
i) La is 0.050 maximum.
j) Al + Ti is 1.5 maximum.
k) Mil-E-21562 grade; Pb <0.010. “Other Elements Total” shall include Pb, Sn, Zn.
l) Mil-E-21562 grades; EN82H or RH82H; Carbon is 0.03 to 0.10.
m) For strip, the classification designator “R” shall be replaced with “Q”.
n) Ni + Mo is 94.0 to 98.0; Ta is 0.20 maximum; Zr is 0.10 maximum.
o) Nitrogen is 0.05 maximum an Zr is 0.02 maximum.
p) B is 0.005 maximum and ZR is 0.02 maximum.
q) Nitrogen is 0.02 to 0.15.
r) B is 0.003 percent maximum and Zr is 0.02 maximum.

Illustration 4-10 – Chemical Composition of Filler Wire and Rods Used for Welding Nickel and Nickel Alloys
(Source: AWS A5.14)
– 25 –
 CHAPTER 5
WELDING APPLICATIONS
Gas tungsten arc welding is widely used because of its
versatility. Stainless steel, low alloy steel, maraging steel,
nickel, cobalt, titanium, aluminum, copper, magnesium,
and most other metals are welded by this process when
weld purity is important. It can be used in all positions and
produces clean weld deposits. The clean weld deposits
produced usually avoid the need of grinding and finishing.
Manual, semiautomatic, mechanized, and fully automatic
gas tungsten arc welding can be employed. Welding pipe
or nuclear power components are typical examples of the
wide variety of applications. This process can also weld
thin metals and small objects such as transistor cases,
instrument diaphragms, and other delicate parts.
INDUSTRIES
Industrial Piping
Manual gas tungsten arc welding is appropriate for weld-
ing of pipe and tubing in all positions. The excellent control
of heat input gives maximum penetration while preventing
melt-through on the root pass. Industrial piping made of
various metals is welded by the gas tungsten arc welding
process using both the manual and automatic methods.
Thicknesses from 1/32 inch (.8 mm) and up can be practi-
cally welded. The maximum thickness welded depends
on the equipment available and the type of metal to be
welded. In some critical welds with metal thicknesses
greater than 1/4-3/8 inch (6.4-9.5 mm) the root pass of
the pipe is deposited by this process and then completed
Illustration 5-1 – Gas Tungsten Arc Welding on Pipe
Photo courtesy of Miller Electric Manufacturing Co.
– 26 –
with shielded metal arc welding, gas metal arc welding, or
flux cored arc welding. This procedure is used in order to
obtain a high quality, low cost weld.
Consumable inserts are sometimes used in critical service
applications. These inserts reduce porosity when alloyed
with deoxidizers, improve the contour of the underside of
the weld, and minimize cracking in the weld. In thin pipe
wall (depending on the base metal), complete fusion is
obtained without the use of filler metal. Filler metal, usu-
ally of the same composition as the base metal, is used
with thicker sections in order to fill the joint.
Thus, the different ways of depositing the first layer on a
pipe or tube are:
1) Ends abutted and fused
2) Ends abutted or slightly separated with filler metal
added to the arc area, or
3) Ends abutted against a filler ring and then completely
fused.
If deep penetration with controlled heat input is needed,
then pulsed current may be employed.
Automatic circumferential or orbital gas tungsten arc
welding is also used to weld tube and pipe. The pro-
grammed procedure can produce a quantity of identical
welds with a high degree of quality and efficiency. Indus-
tries with high quality control requirements and which
Illustration 5-2 – Pipe to Pipe Automatic Orbital Welding
Photo courtesy of Liburdi Dimetrics

Illustration 5-3 – Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
an Automotive Manifold
Photo courtesy of Miller Electric Manufacturing Co.
demand accessibility to the joint, use this method to the
fullest extent.
Power piping, air piping, refrigeration piping, chemical in-
dustry process piping, and nuclear power piping are some
of the different industries that apply the gas tungsten arc
welding process for welding piping and tubing. Vacuum
jacketed piping and pressure piping are a couple cases
where critical welding is required. Illustration 5-1 shows
manual gas tungsten arc welding on pipe. Illustration
5-2 shows an automatic welding head for circumferential
pipe to pipe welding.
Nuclear Power Facilities
Critical welding is required in the construction and repair
of nuclear power facilities. Both the manual and automat-
ic methods are employed for many nuclear applications
because of their precise control of the welding.
The welding of end closure caps and plugs to fuel rods,
and the airtight sealing of the end closures on fuel rods,
are performed by gas tungsten arc welding. This process
is also a primary welding method for rod-type fuel ele-
ments. It is used to close a backfilling hole that was used
to pressure the fuel rods after welding the end closures.
Fuel rod bundle spacers are arc spot welded together.
– 27 –
Spacer springs are assembled and welded into the fuel
rod bundle spacers to hold the fuel rods in their exact
positions in the spacer and to prevent corrosion between
the fuel rod and the fuel rod bundle spacers. Attach-
ments and nozzles are also welded to pressure contain-
ing vessels.
The critical welding on the barrels of the core internals
is done by hot wire gas tungsten arc welding in the 3
o’clock position, which eliminates the twist caused by
welding. The deep beam and tubular upper support col-
umns, which are included in the reactor core, are also hot
wire welded.
Manual gas tungsten arc welding is performed on the
valve development diaphragm assemblies used in nucle-
ar systems.
Transportation
Gas tungsten arc welding is used only to a small extent
in the automotive and railroad industries. It is used mainly
for the welding of nonferrous metals, maintenance, and
for small components. Fabrication of aluminum fuel tanks
of 3/32-1/8 inch (2.4-3.2 mm) thickness is one applica-
tion used in these industries. In the railroad industry, sev-
eral of the interior components that are made of alumi-
num, monel, stainless steel, and copper are sometimes
welded by this process. Some maintenance and repair of
passenger trains is also performed. Illustration 5-3 shows
an automotive exhaust manifold being joined by the gas
tungsten arc welding process.
Ships
Gas tungsten arc welding is applied in the shipbuild-
ing industry because different materials like aluminum,
stainless steel and molybdenum are used. On hydrofoils,
which are primarily made of aluminum, light gauge mate-
rial and root passes of heavier sections are welded by
this process. Gas metal arc welding is usually used to
complete the weld on the heavier sections. Stainless
steel hydrofoils and struts are virtually all welded by the
gas tungsten arc welding process.
Liquified natural gas (LNG) tanks have a stainless steel
liner inside the vessel that is complete gas tungsten arc
welded. First the stainless sheets are welded to the stain-
less anchors imbedded in the balsa insulation. Then, the
stainless membrane panels are tack welded together. Fi-
nally, the seams are welded in a continuous pass without
addition of filler metal in order to make a liquid-tight tank.
Aerospace
The gas tungsten arc welding process is the major weld-
ing process used in the aerospace industry. This in-
dustry includes the welding of aircraft, spacecraft, and
launch vehicles. Some of the materials welded include
aluminum, titanium, low-alloy steel, maraging
steel, magnesium, nickel, stainless steel, and
super alloys. Both the manual and automatic
methods are employed in this industry. In the
aircraft industry, examples of the many differ-
ent parts and assemblies welded include the
fuselage, wing and tail assemblies, landing
wheels, engine parts, engine motor cases,
and conventional aircraft assemblies such as
ducts, fittings, accumulators, check valves,
exhaust mufflers, and fairing and cowling
components.

Launch vehicles and spacecraft are other

major applications of the gas tungsten arc
welding process. Most aluminum tank fabri-
cators use this process for the critical pres-
sure vessel butt welds. Titanium alloys used
in the liquid propellant tanks, high pressure
gas storage tanks, and solid rocket motor
cases are almost exclusively welded by this
process.

From landing gears and re-entry capsules

to large diameter rocket booster cases with
Illustration 5-5 – Gas Tungsten Arc Welding Maintenance and Repair
0.04-2.0 inch (1.0-5.1 mm) thicknesses made
of high strength, high carbon, low alloy steel,
are also welded by this process. Maraging
steels used to make solid rocket motor chambers are
reliably fabricated using gas tungsten arc welding, but
sufficient inert gas shielding must be supplied to protect
the face and root of the weld from oxidation. This is of-
ten accomplished by welding in inert gas chambers or by
using a backing gas to protect the root of the joint and
a training gas to protect the cooling weld metal behind
the torch.
Pressure Vessels, Boilers, and Heat Exchangers
Photo courtesy of Miller Electric Manufacturing Co.
Cast aluminum engine blocks and heads are repaired by
the gas tungsten arc welding process. The area of a de-
fect is puddle melted, scraped out with a steel rod, and
finally the hole is filled. Stainless valves and copper heat
sealing dies for heat exchangers are also repaired by this
process. Repairing the part instead of buying a new one
saves money and time. There are many other possible
applications for gas tungsten arc welding in maintenance
and repair. In Illustration 5-4, a tubular steel scaffold is
repaired with the gas tungsten arc welding process.

Gas tungsten arc welding has wide applications in the Miscellaneous

pipe and tube industry for welding of pressure vessels,
boilers, and heat exchangers. It is employed where full
fusion welding is made from one side, without the use of
permanent backing rings, and on girth butt welds with a
smooth internal contour. Adequate mechanical strength
and corrosion resistance for a particular service encoun-
tered can be obtained by choosing the correct filler metal
and welding conditions.
Virtually all tube-to-tube sheet welding of heat exchang-
ers is done by the automatic method.
Maintenance and Repair
Maintenance and repair is done by both the manual and
automatic methods of gas tungsten arc welding. Several
industries use this process because its versatility and
weldability permit quality welding for various applications.
The gas tungsten arc welding process is used for a vari-
ety of general applications throughout industry. The fol-
lowing are all welded by the gas tungsten arc process:
stainless aeration parts for pollution control equipment;
thin steel brackets on lift trucks; low alloy steel stop ring
to the accumulator on shock absorbers; small sized
pressure sensing cells; stainless steel jacket around the
coil of superconducting magnets; stainless steel adapter
bushings to stainless steel bulbs for self actuated ther-
mostatic regulators; aluminum frame for elevating plat-
forms; hospital equipment; mixers; vats; tanks; freezers;
coolers; and cold rooms made from stainless steel. Il-
lustration 5-5 shows gas tungsten arc welding used in
stainless steel fabrication. The process is often used for a
wide variety of applications where the parts are made out
of nonferrous metals. Other applications too numerous to
discuss here are also performed.

– 28 –
 Illustration 5-5 – A Gas Tungsten Arc Welding Fabrication
Photo courtesy of Miller Electric Manufacturing Co.

GAS TUNGSTEN ARC SPOT WELDING

Gas tungsten arc spot welding is a resistance welding

method used for making small localized fusion welds from
one side of a lap joint. The spot weld is obtained through
the melting and fusion of the metal joint. Welding thick
metals tends to cause depressions and surface cracking
in the center of the weld. For this reason, gas tungsten arc
spot welding is limited to welding metal about 16 gauge
(1.5 mm) thick or less. A gas tungsten arc spot welding
gun is shown in Illustration 5-6. Illustration 5-6 – Gas Tungsten Arc
Spot Welding Gun
Photo courtesy of TEC Torch Company, Inc.
Filler metal may or may not be added depending on the
metal thickness and size of the weld puddle. The equip-
ment that is used is similar to that for gas tungsten arc
welding except that a timing device and a specially de-
signed gun and cup are used for spot welding.

This spot welding process is primarily used on mild steel,

low alloy steel, stainless steel, and aluminum. This meth-
od of spot welding can replace resistance spot weld-
ing and riveting for many applications, including garage
doors, radar cabins, electrical fittings, cable sheaths, and
domestic hardware. The advantages of this process are
the high production rates and low costs obtained. The
cost of the equipment is low compared to resistance
welding equipment. Also, when the proper settings are
used, visual inspection of the gas tungsten arc spot
welds is more reliable than when resistance spot welding
is done.
– 29 –
 CHAPTER 6
COST OF GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING
The cost of welding is an important factor to consider
when determining whether to use this process. Gas tung-
sten arc welding is expensive and not very economical to
use on thick metal, but on many other applications, it will
be the best method. Because this process can be used to
weld very thin metal, dissimilar metals, and a wide variety
of non-ferrous metals, it is often chosen for its capabili-
ties with less consideration given to cost factors. In some
cases, it is the only welding process that is practical to
use. The cost calculation methods used in this chapter
can be used to compare the cost of this welding process
with other welding processes.
The initial investment cost for this process can vary widely
depending on the complexity of the equipment required.
This can range from a high frequency current and inert
gas attachment added to a shielded metal arc welding
machine up to a fully automatic welding head and a pro-
grammable power source. There are also many possibili-
ties that exist between these extremes. The type of equip-
ment used depends on the type of application.
Manual gas tungsten arc welding generally produces
moderate deposition rates and low operator factors com-
pared to other arc welding processes. Automatic opera-
tions will generally giver higher deposition rates and high-
er operator factors.
The cost of consumables can also vary widely because of
the price differences for the different shielding gases and
filler metals. For some applications, no filler metal is used
and for the welding of some of the more exotic metals,
filler wire can be very expensive. Technically, the tungsten
electrode is nonconsumable, but tungsten electrodes
have to be replaced after a period of time. The frequency
at which electrodes must be replaced depends on condi-
tions such as the welder skill and the amount of welding
current. A good approximation of the cost of the tungsten
electrode is 4% of the shielding gas cost. The torch cups
may also have to be replaced from time to time, depend-
ing on the type of cup and the care that they are given by
the welder.
The cost of this welding process consists of four major
items including:
1) Labor and overhead cost
2) Filler metal cost
3) Shielding gas cost
4) Electric power cost
– 30 –
LABOR COST
The labor and overhead costs are often combined in cost
calculations, which is common practice in many metal-
working plants. The hourly rate and the overhead rate will
vary from plant to plant and the actual labor and overhead
rates for each plant should be used for cost calculations.
This is usually the largest cost factor in welding.
The operator factor is the percentage of the total welding
time that the arc is in operation. Because this process can
be used manually and automatically, the operator factor
can vary widely. For manual welding, the operator factor
is relatively low and may range from about 10% to as high
as 50%, but is normally in the range of 20% to 40%. The
reasons for the low operator factors are the large amount
of time that goes into items such as set-up, preheating,
and changing filler rods. Automatic welding generally
gives high operator factors because it can usually pro-
ceed to completion without interruption. Operating fac-
tors for this can rise as high as 80% or more, depending
on the specific application.
The deposition rates and travel speeds affect the labor and
overhead costs because the rate at which the weld can
be completed affects the productivity. The travel speeds
that are used with this process are often fairly low.
The equation for determining the labor and overhead cost
is:
Labor + Overhead Pounds of Weld
X
Cost/hr Deposit/Weld
Labor Cost =
Deposition Rate X Operator Factor
Or....
Labor Cost = Total Welding Time X Labor + Overhead
FILLER METAL COST
The cost of the filler metal used per weld is determined
by several factors. The first is the weight of the weld de-
posit, each is dependent on the size and shape of the
weld to be made. The second is the cost per pound of
the filler metal, which is dependent on the size and type
of filler rod. The third is the deposition efficiency of the
filler metal. The deposition efficiency is the percentage of
the total weight of the filler rod that is actually deposited
in the weld. This amount is nearly 100% for most welding
operations because little or no filler metal is lost through
spatter, vaporization, or stub-end loss. For the calcula-
tions to be used in this chapter, a deposition efficiency of
100% will be assumed. The equations used for determin-
 Wieght of deposit per
linear foot of weld
TYPE OF Joint
Dimensions Nickel*
WELD JOINT Inches (mm) Steel* Copper Aluminum Magnesium
Stainless Steel Phosphor
Bronze

1/16 (1.6) .02 .03 .01 >.01

1/8 (3.2) .05 .06 .02 .01

T 3/16 (4.8) .10 .11 .03 .02
T/2
1/4 (6.4) .16 .18 .05 .04

3/8 (9.6) .32 .37 .11 .07

1/4 (6.4) .19 .22 .07 .04

5/16 (7.9) .27 .31 .09 .06

60º
3/8 (9.5) .37 .42 .13 .08

T 7/16 (11.1) .48 .55 .16 .11

1/2 (12.7) .61 .70 .21 .14

1/16
5/8 (15.9) .91 1.04 .31 .20

3/4 (19.1) 1.28 1.47 .44 .29

1/8 (3.2) .03 .03 .01 >.01

3/16 (4.8) .06 .07 .02 .01

1/4 (6.4) .11 .12 .04 .02

5/16 (7.9) .17 .19 .06 .04

S 3/8 (9.5) .24 .27 .08 .05

1/2 (12.7) .43 .49 .15 .09

5/8 (15.9) .66 .76 .23 .15

3/4 (19.1) .96 1.09 .33 .21

1 (25.4) 1.70 1.94 .58 .38

60º 5/8 (15.9) .70 .80 .24 .16

3/4 (19.1) .92 1.05 .32 .21

T
1/8 7/8 (22.2) 1.18 1.35 .40 .26

60º 1 (25.4) 1.46 1.67 .50 .33

20º 5/8 (15.9) 1.04 1.19 .36 .23

3/4 (19.1) 1.37 1.57 .47 .31

1/4R
T
7/8 (22.2) 1.73 1.98 .59 .39

1/8 1 (25.4) 2.14 2.45 .73 .48

* The metals within these categories do not have exactly the same density, but are closed enough to give a good approximation.

Illustration 6-1 – Filler Metal Consumption for Different Sizes and Types of Welds Made With Different Types of Base and
Filler Metals. These figures are based on a 1/16 inch (1.6 mm) reinforcement and a 100% deposition efficiency. For manual weld-
ing, approximately a 5% increase should be added to these figures.

– 31 –
 Metal or Alloy
Wire Bronze
Diameter Bronze Copper Copper Mild Stainless
Aluminum Aluminum Magnesium Nickel
Silicon (deox.) Nickel Steel Steel
Decimal (Fraction) 10%

.020" 32400 11600 10300 9800 9950 50500 9900 11100 10950

.025" 22300 7960 7100 6750 6820 34700 6820 7680 7550

.030" 14420 5150 4600 4360 4430 22400 4400 4960 4880

.035" 10600 3780 3380 3200 3260 16500 3240 3650 3590

.040" 8120 2900 2580 2450 2490 12600 2480 2790 2750

.045" (3/64) 6410 2290 2040 1940 1970 9990 1960 2210 2170

.062" (1/16) 3382 1120 1070 1020 1040 5270 1030 1160 1140

.078" (5/64) 2120 756 675 640 650 3300 647 730 718

.093" (3/32) 1510 538 510 455 462 2350 460 519 510

.125" (1/8) 825 295 263 249 253 1280 252 284 279

.156" (5/32) 530 189 169 160 163 825 162 182 179

.187" (3/16) 377 134 120 114 116 587 115 130 127

.250" (1/4) 206 74 66 62 64 320 63 71 70

Illustration 6-2 – Inches Per Pound of Filler or Bare Electrode Wire

ing the cost of the filler metal for manual welding are as ELECTRIC POWER COST
follows:
Filler Length Wire Electric power is a relatively minor cost factor, but it can
Deposition Wire Weight
Metal = of Wire X Efficiency X X Cost Per become important when large amounts of welding are
Cost Used Unit of Length Pound required on a specific application. The cost of the electric
Or... power used is dependent on the amount of welding cur-
Filler Weight of Deposit X Wire Cost Per Pound rent, welding voltage, power source efficiency, and the
Metal = power cost per kilowatt hour. The power consumption
Cost Deposition Efficiency when the machine is idling will not be calculated because
it is a small percentage of the total power consumption of
The equation used for determining the cost of the filler the welding machine. The power source efficiency will be
metal for automatic welding is as follows: assumed for the calculations in this chapter. The equa-
tion for the electric power cost is:
Filler Arc Wire Wire Weight Wire Cost
Metal = Time X Feed X X Per Pound
Cost Rate Unit of Length Welding Welding Power Cost
Electric Current X Voltage Arc per kW-hr
Power Cost = X Time X
Power Source Efficiency 1000
SHIELDING GAS COST

The cost of the shielding gas depends on the gas flow

rate, the arc time, and the type of shielding gas. Helium
costs much more than argon per cubic foot and higher
flow rates must be used with helium which can make it
much more expensive than argon. The equation for de-
termining the shielding gas cost is:
Cost of
Arc Gas
Shielding Gas Cost = Time X Flow X Gas per
Cubic Ft.

– 32 –
Examples Method of Welding
Manual Automatic
Illustration 6-3 shows the figures used for
Welding Current (amps) 240 300
the cost calculations of both manual and
automatic gas tungsten arc welding. Welding Voltage (volts) 25 30
Travel Speed (IPM) 10 15
Gas Flow (ft3/hr) 30 40
Total Welding Time (hr) .057 .022
Arc Time (hr/ft) .020 .013
Labor + Overhead Costs ($/hr) 30.00 30.00
Operator Factor (%) 35 60
Weight of Deposit (lbs) .04 .04
Filler Wire Cost ($/lb) 3.15 3.15
Deposition Efficiency (%) 100 100
Deposition Rate (lbs/hr) 2.00 3.08
Gas Cost ($/ft3) .06 .06
Gas Used ($/ft )3
.60 .53
Electric Power Cost ($/kW-hr) .06 .06
Power Source Efficiency (%) 50 50
Labor Cost ($/ft) 1.71 1.54
Filler Wire Cost ($/Ft) .126 .126
Shielding Gas Cost ($/Ft) .036 .031
Electric Power Cost ($/Ft) .014 .014
Total Cost ($/Ft) 1.886 1.711

Illustration 6-3 – Cost Comparison of Manual vs. Automatic Welding

of a 1/4" fillet weld made on aluminum with a 3/16" filler wire
and argon shielding gas

The following is a sample cost per foot of weld calculation for making a 1/4 in. (6.4 mm) fillet weld on aluminum with
manual gas tungsten arc welding using the figures from Illustration 6-1 and 6-2.

Labor + Overhead Pounds of Weld

Cost/hr X Deposit/Weld 30 $/hr X .04 lbs/ft
Labor Cost = = $1.71
=
Deposition Rate X Operator Factor 2.00 lbs X 35 %

Filler Length Deposition Wire Weight Wire 1 lb

Metal = of Wire X Efficiency X X Cost Per = 8.24 in X 100 % X X 3.15 $/lb
Cost Used Unit of Length Pound 206 in.
Or, = $.126
Filler ..04 lbs/ft X 3.15 $/lb
Weight of Deposit X Wire Cost Per Pound =
Metal = 100 %
Cost Deposition Efficiency

Cost of
Arc Gas
Shielding Gas Cost = Time X Flow X Gas per = .020 hr/ft X 30 ft3/hr X .06 $/ft3 = $.036
Cubic Ft.

Welding Welding Power Cost

Electric Current X Voltage Arc per kW-hr = 240 amps X 25 volts .020 .06 $/kW-hr
Power Cost = X Time X X hr/ft X = $.014
Power Source Efficiency 1000 50 % 1000

TOTAL WELD COST PER FOOT = $1.183

– 33 –
 CHAPTER 7
WELDING METALLURGY

PROPERTIES OF THE WELD

The properties of a weld include the chemical composi-
tion, strength, ductility, toughness, and the microstruc-
ture. These items will relate to the weldability of the metal.
The weldability of a metal is the quality obtained and the
ease of welding for the intended service conditions. The
chemical and physical properties of the weld are affected
by the types of materials used. The mechanical properties
and microstructure are determined by the heat input, as
well as the chemical composition of the weld.
Chemical Properties
The chemical and physical properties such as the chemi-
cal composition, melting point, and thermal conductiv-
ity have a great influence on the weldability. These three
items have an influence on the amount of preheating and
postheating used, as well as the welding parameters, be-
cause preheating and postheating are used to prevent the
area from becoming brittle and weak.
When welding steel, the carbon and other alloy content
influence the hardness and hardenability of the weld
metal, which in turn influences the amount of preheat
needed. The two terms, hardness and hardenability are
not the same. The maximum hardness of a steel is the
resistance to indentation. Hardenability is a measure of
how easily a martensite structure is formed when the steel
is quenched.
Martensite is the phase or metallurgical structure in steel
where the maximum hardness of the steel can be ob-
tained. Steels with low hardenability must have very high
cooling rates after welding to form martensite. Steels with
high hardenability will form martensite even when they
are slow cooled in air. The hardenability will determine
to what extent a steel will harden during welding. The
carbon equivalent formula is one of the best methods of
determining the weldability of steels. This value is deter-
mined by the amounts of some of the alloying elements
used. There are several different formulas used. One of
these is:
Carbon = %C + %Cr + %Mn + %Mo + %Ni + %Cu
Equivalent 10 6 10 20 40
Steels with lower carbon equivalents generally are read-
ily weldable and require fewer precautions such as the
use of preheat and postheat. Steels with higher carbon
equivalents are usually more difficult to weld. When weld-
ing many of the steels, matching the chemical composi-
tion of the filler metal to the base metal is not as impor-
tant as matching the mechanical properties. Often, filler
metal with a lower carbon content than the base metal is
used because the weld metal absorbs carbon from the
base metal during solidification. The carbon content is
kept low to minimize the tendency toward weld crack-
ing. Alloys are used in the filler metal to maintain weld
strength.

Type of Metal Preheat

Low Carbon Steel
Medium Carbon Steel
High Carbon Steel
Low Alloy Nickel Steel
Low Alloy Nickel Chrome Steel
Low Alloy Manganese Steel
Low Alloy Chrome Steel
Low Alloy Molybdenum Steel
Low Alloy High Tensile Steel
Austenitic Stainless Steel
Ferritic Stainless Steels
Martensitic Stainless Steels
Cast Irons
Copper
Nickel
Aluminum
Room Temperature or up to 200º F (93º C)
400-500º F (205-260º C)
500-600º F (260-315º C)
Less than 1/4” (6.4 mm) thick Room Temperature
More than 1/4” (6.4 mm) thick 500º F (260º C)
Carbon less than .20% 200-300º F (93-150º C)
Carbon .20%-.35% 600-800º F (315-425º C)
Carbon above .35% 900-1100º F (480-595º C)
400-500º F (205-260º C)
Up to 750º F (400º C)
Carbon less than .15% Room Temperature
Carbon more than .15% 400-650º F (205-345º C)
150-300º F (66-150º C)
Room Temperature
300-350º F (150-260º C)
400-600º F (205-315º C)
700-900º F (370-480º C)
500-800º F (260-425º C)
200-300º F (93-150º C)
Room Temperature or up to 300º F (150º C)
Illustration 7-1 – Preheats for Various Metals

– 34 –
For the welding of stainless steels and nonferrous met-
als, the chemical composition of the weld is often the
most important property. The chemical composition of
the weld must match the composition of the base metal
when corrosion resistance, thermal and electrical con-
ductivity, and appearance are major considerations.
Preheating helps reduce the cooling rate of the weld
after welding to prevent cracking of the weldment. The
amount of preheat needed depends on the type of metal
being welded, the metal thickness, and the amount of
joint restraint. In steels, those with higher carbon equiva-
lents generally need higher preheats than those with low-
er carbon equivalents. For the nonferrous metals, this will
often depend on the melting points and thermal conduc-
tivity of the metal. Illustration 7-1 shows typical preheat
values for various metals welded by this process.
Another major factor that also determines the amount of
preheat needed is the thickness of the base metal. Thick-
er base metals usually need higher preheat temperatures
than thinner base metals because of the larger heat sinks
that thicker metals provide. Thick metal draws the heat
away from the welding zone quicker because there is a
large mass of metal to absorb the heat. It would increase
the cooling rate of the weld if the same preheat tempera-
ture was used on thick, as is used on thinner, base met-
als.
The third major factor for determining the amount of
preheat needed is the amount of joint restraint. Joint re-
straint is the resistance of a joint configuration to moving
or relieving the stresses due to welding during the heat-
ing and cooling of the weld zone. Where there is high
resistance to moving or high joint restraint, large amounts
of internal stress build up. High preheat temperatures are
needed as the amount of joint restraint increases. Slower
cooling rates reduce the amount of internal stress that is
built up as the weld cools.
The melting point of the metal is a major consideration in
determining the weldability of a metal. Metals with very
Illustration 7-2 – Tensile Strength Testing Bar
– 35 –
low melting points are difficult to weld because the in-
tense heat of the welding arc will melt them too quickly
to join them easily. Many of these metals must be brazed
because welding is not practical.
Another property that affects the weldability is the ther-
mal conductivity. The thermal conductivity is the rate at
which heat is conducted by the metal and it determines
the rate at which heat will leave the welding area. Metals
that have a high thermal conductivity often require higher
preheats and welding currents to avoid cracking. Metals
that have very low thermal conductivity may require no
preheat and lower welding currents to prevent overheat-
ing of an area, which can cause distortion, warpage, and
changes in the mechanical properties.
Mechanical Properties
Mechanical properties that are most important in the
weld are the tensile strength, yield strength, elongation,
reduction of area, and the impact strength. The first two
are measures of the strength of the material. The next
two are measures of the ductility of the material; and the
last is a measure of the toughness of the material. These
properties are often important in gas tungsten arc weld-
ing, especially when welding steel and non-ferrous alloys
that have been developed to give maximum strength,
ductility and toughness. The yield strength, ultimate ten-
sile strength, elongation, and reduction of area are all
measured from a .505 inch (12.8 mm) diameter machined
tensile bar. The metal is tested by pulling it in a tensile
testing machine. Illustration 7-2 shows a tensile bar be-
fore and after testing. The yield strength of the metal is
the stress at which the material is pulled beyond the point
where it will return to its original length.
The ultimate tensile strength is the maximum stress or
load that can be carried by the metal without breaking.
These two strengths are measured in psi (MPa). Elonga-
tion is a measure of ductility where the distance is mea-
sured between two points marked on the tensile bar be-
fore testing. After testing, the distance between the two
Illustration 7-3 – Charpy V-Notch Bar
points is measured again by putting the two pieces of the
tensile bar back together and measuring the change in
the distance between them in percent. Reduction of area
is another method of measuring ductility. The original
area of the cross section of the testing bar is .20 square
inches (128 sq. mm). During the testing, the diameter
of the bar reduces as it elongates. When the bar finally
breaks, the diameter of the bar at the breaking point is
measured, which is then used to determine the area. The
percent reduction of this cross sectional area is called
the reduction of area. Impact tests are used to measure
the toughness of a metal. The toughness of a metal is
the ability to absorb mechanical energy by deforming be-
fore breaking. The Charpy v-notch test is the most com-
monly used method of determining impact toughness.
Illustration 7-3 shows some typical Charpy v-notch bars. Illustration 7-4 – Cross-Section of a Weld showing the
These bars are usually 10 mm square and have v-shaped Different Zones and Lines in the Weld Area
notches ground or machined in them. The bars are then
put into a machine where they are struck by a hammer
Liquid
attached to a pendulum. The energy that it takes to break Initial
Crystals
these bars is known as the impact strength and is mea-
sured in foot-pounds (Joules). 1. Crystal Formation

Microstructure
Liquid
Solid Grains
There are three basic microstructural areas within a weld-
(Dendrites)

ment. These are the weld metal, the heat affected zone,
2. Solidification
and the base metal. The weld metal is the area that was
molten during welding. This is bounded by the fusion line
which is the maximum limit of melting. The heat affected
zone is the area where the heat from welding has an ef- Grains

fect on the microstructure of the base metal. The limit of

visible heat affect is the outer limit of this area. The base 3. Complete Solidification
metal zone is the area that was not affected by the weld- Illustration 7-5 – The Solidification Pattern
ing. of the Weld Area

The extent of change of the microstructure is dependent
on four factors:
1) The maximum temperature that the weld metal reached
2) The time that the weld spent at that temperature
3) The chemical composition of the base metal
4) The cooling rate of the weld
The weld metal zone, which is the area that is heated up
and melted, generally has the coarsest grain structure of
the three areas. For the most part, when welding with
the gas tungsten arc welding process, a fairly fine grain
size is produced on cooling in most metals. In some met-
als, especially refractory metals, rapid grain growth in the
weld metal can become a problem. Large grain size is
undesirable because it makes the weld weak and less
crack resistant. The solidification of the weld metal starts
at the edge of the weld puddle next to the base metal. The
grains that form at the edge, called dendrites, grow to-
ward the molten center of the weld. Illustration 7-5 shows
the solidification pattern of a weld. These dendrites give
the weld metal its characteristic columnar grain struc-
ture. The grains that form in the weld zone are similar to
the grains that form in castings. Deoxidizers and scaven-
gers are often added to the filler metal to help refine the
grain size in the weld. The greater the heat input to the
weld and the longer that it is held at high temperatures,
the larger the grain size. A fast cooling rate will produce
a smaller grain size than a slow cooling rate. Preheating
will give larger grain sizes, but is often necessary to pre-
vent the formation of a hard, brittle microstructure.
The heat affected zone is an area of changes in the mi-
crostructure of the base metal. The area that is closest
to the weld metal usually undergoes grain growth. Other
parts of the heat affected zone will go through grain re-
finement. Other areas may be annealed and considerably
softened. Because of the changes due to the heat input,
areas of the heat affected zone can become embrittled
and become the source of cracking. A large heat input
during welding will cause a larger heat affected zone.
This is often not desirable, so the welding parameters

– 36 –
used can help influence the size of the heat affected
zone. The rest of the base metal is unchanged by the
heat of welding.
WELDABLE METALS
The gas tungsten arc welding process is used to weld
most metals and their alloys. Some of the most common
metals welded by this process are aluminum, copper,
magnesium, nickel, mild steel, low alloy steel, titanium,
zirconium, and the refractory metals. Lead and zinc are
difficult to weld because of their low melting points and
tendency to contaminate the tungsten electrode, but gas
tungsten arc welding is widely used for the welding of
lead.
Direct current electrode positive is only used for some
very thin metal applications. Direct current electrode
negative is sometimes used for high current automatic
welding applications.
Pure or zirconium tungsten electrodes are the most com-
monly used types for aluminum. The thoriated tungsten
electrodes have a tendency to spit and cause inclusions
when alternating current is used and are not very popu-
lar for welding aluminum. Argon shielding gas is normally
used, but argon-helium mixtures are sometimes used to
give deeper penetration and allow faster travel speeds,
When direct current electrode negative is used, mixtures
of argon and helium are preferred.

Filler metal may or may not be added, depending upon

Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys the joint and the application. Thin metal is often welded
together without the use of filler metal. The filler metal
The gas tungsten arc welding process is one of the most used for welding aluminum is generally of the non-heat
widely used processes for welding aluminum and its al- treatable type. When welding some of the higher strength
loys. The major alloying elements used in aluminum heat treatable alloys, the weld deposit will be weaker
are copper, manganese, silicon, magnesium, and zinc. than the base metal because of this.
Illustration 7-6 shows how aluminum alloys are classi-
fied according to their alloy content. Aluminum alloys are
also classified into heat treatable and non-heat treatable Choosing the type of filler metal that is used for welding a
categories. Alloys of the 2XXX, 6XXX and 7XXX series specific aluminum alloy is based on the ease of welding,
are heat treatable. Alloys of the 1XXX, 3XXX, 4XXX, and corrosion resistance, strength, ductility, elevated temper-
5XXX series are non-heat treatable, so they derive their ature service and color match with the base metal after
strength from working. welding. Aluminum filler metal with magnesium contents
greater than 3% should not be used at service tempera-
Series Alloy Type* Characteristics tures greater than 150º F, because they become sensi-
Commercially Electrical conductivity, Electrical buses,
tive to stress corrosion cracking. Illustration 7-7 shows a
1XXX
pure
NHT
corrosion resistance chemical industry filler metal selection chart based on the specific proper-
ties desired. Illustration 7-8 shows a filler metal selection
2XXX Copper HT High strength Aerospace chart for welding different aluminums together.
Radiator heat exchang-
Excellent ductility,
3XXX Manganese NHT ers, spouting, siding &
moderate strength
beverage cans The oxide layer on the surface of the aluminum is what
makes aluminum more difficult to weld than many other
Low melting point,
4XXX Silicon NHT Filler metals metals. This oxide layer has a very high melting point
fluidity
compared to the melting temperature of the aluminum
Strength, corrosion
5XXX Magnesium NHT resistance
Marine, trucks, itself. Direct current electrode positive gives the weld-
bridges, sign frames ing arc an oxide cleaning action which breaks the oxide
Silicon and Strength, corrosion resis- layer so that welding can take place. This type of current
6XXX HT Structural applications
can only be used at very low current levels because the
Magnesium tance, extrudability
heat build up on the tungsten electrode can cause it to
7XXX Zinc HT High strength Aerospace, automotive melt. Direct current electrode negative can be used at
high current levels, but it has difficulty removing the oxide
Illustration 7-6 – Aluminum Alloy Classifications layer. For these reasons, alternating current is the most
popular for the welding of aluminum.
Gas tungsten arc welding is generally used to weld the
thinner materials. Manual welding is usually done on
thicknesses ranging from .030 inch (1 mm) to 3/8 inch During the electrode positive portion of the cycle, the ox-
(9.5 mm). Automatic welding is usually performed on ide layer is broken down and during the electrode nega-
metal ranging in thickness from .010 inch (.25 mm) to 1 tive portion of the cycle, the penetration is obtained. Al-
inch (25.4 mm). Either alternating current or direct cur- ternating current prevents the electrode from overheating
rent welding power may be used, but alternating current and permits the use of enough welding current to give
is the most popular for almost all manual and automatic good penetration. The oxide should be chemically or me-
welding applications. chanically removed before welding.

– 37 –
 Property Desireda
Type of Color Match Least Cracking Saltwater Corrosion
Base Metal After Anodizing Ductility Tendency Resistance Strength
1100 1100 1100 4043 1100 4043

2219 2319 2319 2319 2319 2319

3003 1100 1100 4043 1100 4043

5052 5356 5654 5356 5554 5356

5083 5183 5356 5356 51083 5183

5086 5356 5356 5356 5356 5356

5454 5554 5554 5356 5554 5356

5456 5556 5356 5356 5556 5556

6061 5654 5356 4043 4043 5356

6063 5356 5356 4043 4043 5356

7005 5039 5356 5356 5039 5039

7039 5039 5356 5356 5039 5039

a) 5XXX series filler metal with a magnesium content greater then 3% should not be used at service temperatures greater than 150º F (65º C)
because they become sensitive to stress corrosion cracking
Illustration 7-7 – Aluminum Filler Metal Selection Based on Properties Desired

A preheat is only used on aluminum when the tempera- alloys to weld are those with the highest zinc content,
ture of the parts are below 15º F (-10º C) or when a large which have a high cracking tendency and electrolytic
mass of metal is being welded which will draw the heat tough pitch copper which causes problems with poros-
away very quickly. Aluminum has high thermal conduc- ity. Illustration 7-9 shows the relative ease of welding of
tivity so heat is drawn away from the welding area. Be- the copper and copper alloys.
cause aluminum has a relatively low melting point and a
high thermal conductivity, overheating can be a problem, Copper and copper alloys welded by this process are
especially on thin metal, so preheat is often not used. A usually done with direct current electrode negative be-
preheat of 200-300° F (93-15º C) is often employed when cause of the high current capacity. Exceptions to this in-
using alternating current on metal thicknesses greater clude welding beryllium coppers and aluminum bronzes
than 3/16 inch (4.8 mm). Some alloys such as 5083, where alternating current is often used to prevent the
5086, and 5456 should not be preheated to between 200 build-up of oxides. Care must be taken when welding
and 300º F (95-150º C) because their resistance to stress beryllium coppers because the fumes given off are dan-
corrosion cracking will be reduced, due to high magne- gerous to the health of the welder. For this reason, a gas
sium contents. mask should be worn by the welder. Thoriated or zirco-
nium tungsten electrodes are recommended with the 2%
Copper and Copper Alloys
Type Weldability
Gas tungsten arc welding is well suited for welding cop- Oxygen Free Copper 2
per and copper alloys because of the intense arc gen-
Electrolytic Tough Pitch Copper 3
erated by this process. This is advantageous because
copper has very high thermal conductivity and the heat Deoxidized Copper 1
is conducted away from the weld zone quite rapidly. An Beryllium Copper 2
intense arc is important in completing the fusion with Low Zinc Brass 2
minimum heating of the surrounding base metal.
High Zinc Brass 3
The main alloying elements used in copper are zinc Tin Brasses 3
(brasses), phosphorous (phosphor bronzes), aluminum Nickel Silvers 3
(aluminum bronzes), beryllium (beryllium coppers), nickel
Phosphor Bronzes 2
(nickel silvers), silicon (silicon bronzes), tin and zinc (tin
brasses) and nickel and zinc (nickel silvers). All of these Aluminum Bronzes 2
are weldable with this process, but some are easier to Silicon Bronzes 1
weld than others. Copper Nickels 1
The most weldable are the deoxidized coppers, the sili- Illustration 7-9 – Weldability Ratings of Copper and Copper
con bronzes, and the copper nickels. The most difficult Alloys. 1 = Excellent, 2 = Good, 3 = Fair

– 38 –
 6005
356.0 6061
A356.0 6063
319.0 357.0 511.0 7004 6101
333.0 A357.0 512.0 7005 6151 1060
201.0 354.0 413.0 513.0 7039 6009 6201 1100 1070
Base 206.0 355.0 443.0 514.0 710.0 6010 6351 5154 5052 5005 3004 2014 3003 1080
Metal 224.0 C355.0 A444.0 535.0 712 6070 6951 5456 5454 5254i 5086 5083 5651i 5050 Alc3004 2219 2036 Alc3003 1350

1060, 1070, ER4145 ER4145 ER4043 ER5356 ER5356 ER4043 ER4043 ER5356 ER4043 ER356 ER356 ER5356 ER1100 ER1100 ER4043 ER4145 ER4145 ER1100 ER1188
1080, 1350 a,b c,d c,d a,b b d b,d c,d d d b,c c b,d b,c b,c b,c,h,j

1100, 3003 ER4145 ER4145 ER4043 ER5356 ER5356 ER4043 ER4043 ER5356 ER4043 ER356 ER5356 ER5356 ER1100 ER4043 ER4043 ER4145 ER4145 ER1100
Alclad 3003 a,b c,d c,d a,b b d b,d c,d d d b,c e b,d b,c b,c

2014, 2036 ER4145 ER4145 ER4145 — — ER4145 ER4145 — — — — — — — ER4145 ER4145 ER4145
e e e e

2219 ER2319 ER4145 ER4145 ER4043 ER4043 ER4043 ER4043 — ER4043 ER4043 — — ER4043 ER4043 ER4043 ER2319
a e b,c a,b a,b b b a,b a

3004 — ER4043 ER4043 ER5356 ER5356 ER4043 ER4043 ER5356 ER5356 ER356 ER5656 ER5356 ER5356 ER4043 ER5356
Alclad 3004 b b f f b b,f d f f d d c,f e c,f

5005, 5050 — ER4043 ER4043 ER5356 ER5356 ER4043 ER4043 ER5356 ER5356 ER356 ER5356 ER5356 ER5356 ER4043
b b f f b b,f d f f d d c,d d,e

5052, 5652a — ER4043 ER4043 ER5356 ER5356 ER4043 ER5356 ER5356 ER5356 ER356 ER5356 ER5356 ER5654
b f f f b c,f f f f d d c,f,i

5083 — — ER5356 ER5356 ER5183 — ER5356 ER5183 ER5356 ER5356 ER5356 ER5183
c,d d d d d d d d d

5086 — — ER5356 ER5356 ER5356 — ER5356 ER5356 ER5356 ER5356 ER5356

c,d d d d d d d d

5154, 5254a — — ER4043 ER5356 ER5356 — ER5356 ER5356 ER3656 ER5654

f f f f f f f,i

5454 — ER4043 ER4043 ER5356 ER5356 ER4043 ER5356 ER5356 ER5554

b f f f b c,f f c,f General Notes:
1. Service conditions such as immersion in fresh or salt water,
exposure to specific chemical or a sustained high temperature (over
150ºF) may limit the choice of filler metals. Filler metals ER5183,
5456 — — ER5356 ER5356 ER5556 — ER5356 ER5556
c,d d d d d ER5356, ER5556 are not recommended for sustained elevated
temperature service

6061, 6061, 6063, ER4145 ER4145 ER4043 ER5356 ER5356 ER4043 ER4043 2. Recommendations in this table apply to gas shielded arc welding
6101, 6151, 6201, b,c b,f,g f c,f a,b,g b,f,g processes. For oxyfuel gas welding, only ER1188, ER1100, ER4043,
6351, 6951 ER4047, and ER4145 filler metals are ordinarily used.

6009, 6010, 6070 ER4145 ER4145 ER4043 ER4043 ER4043 ER4043 3. Where no filler metal is listed, the base metal combination is not recom-
b,c a,b,g a,b,g mended for wiring.

Notes
a ER4145 may be used for some applications.
7004, 7005, 7039 — ER4043 ER4043 ER5356 ER5356
b ER4047 may be used for some applications.
710.0, 712.0 b b,f f d
c ER4043 may be used for some applications
d ER5183, ER5356 or ER5556 may be used.
e ER2319 may be used for some applications. It can supply high strength
511.0, 512.0, 513.0, — — ER4043 ER5356 when the weldment is postweld solution heat treated and aged.
514.0, f f f ER5183, ER5356, ER5554, ER5556, and ER5654 may be used. In some
535.0
cases, they provide: (1) improved color match after anodizing treatment,
(2) highest weld ductility, and (3) higher weld strength.
356.0, A356.0, ER4145 ER4145 ER4043 g ER4643 will provide higher strength in 1/2" (12 mm) and thicker groove
357.0, A357.0, b,c b,h welds in 6XXX base alloys when postweld solution heat treated
413.0, 443.0, A444.0 and aged.
h Filler metal with the same analysis as the base metal is sometimes used.
The following wrought filler metals possess the same chemical com-
319.0, 333.0, ER4145 ER4145 position limits as cast filler alloys: ER4009and R4009 as R-C355.0;
354.0,355.0, c b,c,h ER4010 and R4010 as R-A356.0; and R4011 as R-A357.0.
C355.0
i Base metal alloys 5254 and 5652 are used for hydrogen peroxide
service. ER5654 filler metal is used for welding with alloys for service
201.0, 206.0, ER2319 temperatures below 150º F (66º C).
224.0 a,b j ER1100 may be used for some applications.

Illustration 7-8 – Aluminum Filler Metal Selection Chart

– 39 –
thoriated type being the most popular for welding copper Magnesium Major Alloying Weldability
and copper alloys. Argon shielding gas is generally used Alloy Elements Rating Filler Metal
on the thinner sections while helium and mixtures of ar- Aluminum,
gon and helium are more commonly used on the thicker AZ100A 1 AZ61A, AZ92A
Zinc
sections. Preheating is generally not used on the thinner Aluminum,
sections, but it is frequently required on sections thicker AZ31B 1 AZ61A, AZ92A
Zinc
than 1/8 inch (3.2 mm) so that the heat does not leave the Aluminum,
AZ31C 1 AZ61A, AZ92A
weld area as quickly. A temperature of 500-800° F (260- Zinc
425º C) is typical when preheat is used. Aluminum,
AZ61A 2 AZ61A, AZ92A
Zinc
Gas tungsten arc welding is primarily used for welding Aluminum,
AZ80A 2 AZ61A, AZ92A
metal thicknesses up to 1/8 inch (3.2 mm) and for repair Zinc

WROUGHT ALLOYS
welding or castings. Welding currents used for copper Thorium,
HK31A 1 EZ33A
are 50-75% higher than those used for aluminum be- Zirconium
cause of the high thermal conductivity of copper. Filler HM21A
Thorium,
1 EZ33A
metal is frequently eliminated for the welding of thinner Manganese
material. Thorium,
HM31A 1 EZ33A
Manganese
On thicknesses greater than 1/8 inch (3.2 mm), filler met- LA141A
Lithium,
2 LA141A, EZ33A
al is almost always used. The maximum thickness that is Aluminum
practical for gas tungsten arc welding to be used is about M1A Manganese 1 AZ61A, AZ92A
1/2 inch (12.7 mm). Above this thickness, gas metal arc
welding is recommended. Zinc,
ZE10A 1 AZ61A, AZ92A
Rare Earths
When filler metal is used, it is usually selected so that the Zinc,
ZK21A 2 AZ61A, AZ92A
chemical composition of the filler rod closely matches Zirconium
that of the base metal. This is often necessary to obtain a Zinc,
ZK60A 4 EZ23A
Zirconium
strong weld joint, in some of the copper alloys.
Aluminum,
AM100A 2 AZ101A, AZ92A
A filler metal, with a different chemical composition than Manganeses
the base metal, may be selected when welding some of Aluminum,
AZ63A 3 AZ101A, AZ92A
the weaker alloys to give the weld joint added strength. Zinc
The best choice of filler metal depends primarily on the Aluminum,
AZ81A 2 AZ101A, AZ92A
Zinc
type of copper alloy being welded, with the application
Aluminum,
also being considered. AZ91C
Zinc
2 AZ101A, AZ92A
Aluminum,
Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys AZ92A
Zinc
2 AZ101A
Rare Earths,
Gas tungsten arc welding is the most popular process EK41A 2 EZ33A
Zirconium
for the welding of magnesium and magnesium alloys.
Rare Earths,
The major alloying elements used with magnesium are EZ33A 1 EZ33A
CAST ALLOYS

Zinc
aluminum, zinc, and thorium. Most magnesium alloys Thorium,
are weldable with this process, but the weldability will HK31A 2 EZ33A
Zirconium
vary with the alloy. Illustration 7-10 shows the main al- Thorium,
loying elements used and the relative weldability of the HZ32A 2 EZ33A
Zinc
alloys. The rating is based mainly on the susceptibility
K1A Zirconium 1 EZ33A
to cracking. Aluminum contents up to about 10% help
the weldability because they promote grain size refine- Silver,
QE22A 2 EZ33A
ment. Zinc contents above about 1% will increase the Rare Earths
tendency towards hot cracking. Alloys that have a high ZE41A
Zinc,
2 EZ33A
zinc content are very susceptible to cracking and have Rare Earths
poorer weldability. Thorium alloys generally have excel- Zinc,
ZH62A 3 EZ33A
lent weldability. Thorium
Zinc,
ZK51A 4 EZ33A
Magnesium forms an oxide similar to aluminum oxide Zirconium
which gives these two metals similar welding character- Zinc,
ZK61A 4 EZ33A
istics. Alternating current is used for most magnesium Zirconium
and magnesium alloy welding applications because of its Illustration 7-10 – Magnesium Alloy Classification,
good oxide cleaning action, which allows higher welding Weldability, and Filler Metal Selection. 1 = Excellent,
speeds. Direct current electrode positive is often used for 2 = Good, 3 = Fair

– 40 –
 BASE ZH62A
ZK51A
METAL AZ31B M1A ZK60A
AM100A AZ10A AZ31C AZ61A AZ63A AZ80A AZ81A AZ91C AZ92A EK41A EZ33A HK31A HM21A HM31A HZ32A K1A LA141A MG1 QE22A ZE10A E41A ZE21A ZK61A
AZ101A
AZ100A
AZ92A
AZ61A
AZ10A AZ92A AZ92A
AZ31B AZ61A AZ61A
AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A
AZ31C
AZ61A AZ61A AZ61A
AZ61A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A NOTES:
a) When more than one filler metal is given, they are listed in order of preference.
AZ101A b) Th eletter prefix (ER or R), designating usability of the filler metal, has been deleted to reduce clutter in the table.
AZ63A c c c c
AZ92A c) Welding not recommended.
AZ61A AZ61A AZ61A AZ61A d) No data available.
AZ80A AZ92A c
AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A
AZ101A
AZ81A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A c AZ92A
AZ92A
AZ101A
AZ91C AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A c AZ92A AZ92A
AZ92A

AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A c AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ101A

EK41A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A c AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A EZ33A

EZ33A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A c AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A EZ33A EZ33A
– 41 –

HK31A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A c AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A EZ33A EZ33A EZ33A

HM21A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A c AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A EZ33A EZ33A EZ33A EZ33A

HM31A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A c AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A EZ33A EZ33A EZ33A EZ33A EZ33A

HZ32A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A c AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A EZ33A EZ33A EZ33A EZ33A EZ33A

K1A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A c AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A EZ33A EZ33A EZ33A EZ33A EZ33A EZ33A EZ33A

LA141A d d EZ33A c c c c c c d d d EZ33A d d d EZ31A

M1A AZ61A AZ61A AZ61A AZ61A AZ61A

AZ92A c AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A d
MG1 AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A

QE22A d d AZ92A d c d d d d EZ33A EZ33A EZ33A EZ33A EZ33A EZ33A EZ33A EZ33A c EZ33A
AZ61A AZ61A AZ61A AZ61A EZ33A EZ33A EZ33A EZ33A EZ33A EZ33A EZ33A AZ61A EZ33A AZ61A
ZE10A AZ92A c AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A EZ33A
AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A

ZE41A d d d d c d d d d EZ33A EZ33A EZ33A EZ33A EZ33A EZ33A EZ33A d d EZ33A d EZ33A
AZ61A AZ61A AZ61A AZ61A AZ61A AZ61A AZ61A
ZE21A AZ92A c AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A d AZ92A AZ92A
AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A

ZH62A
ZK51A c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c EZ33A
c
ZK60A
ZK61A

Illustration 7-11 – Magnesium Filler Metal Selector Chart for General Purpose Welding
(Source: AWS A5.19)
welding metal thicknesses from less than 3/16 inch (4.8
mm) up to 3/8 inch (4.8 mm). Above this thickness, gas
metal arc welding is often used.
Inert gases such as argon, argon-helium mixtures, and
helium are required for shielding because magnesium will
react chemically with an active gas. Preheating is often
used on thin sections and on highly restrained joints to
prevent weld cracking. Thicker sections generally do not
require preheating unless there is a high degree of joint
restraint. All of the different types of tungsten electrodes
are used, especially the pure and zirconium tungsten
electrodes.
Filler metal for the gas tungsten arc welding of magne-
sium and magnesium alloys generally is one of four dif-
ferent types. Filler metals with lower melting points and
wider freezing ranges than the base metal are often used
to avoid cracking. Illustration 7-11 also shows a filler
metal selection chart. The type of filler metal used is gov-
erned by the chemical composition of the base metal.
Nickel and Nickel Alloys
Gas tungsten arc welding in one of the major processes
used for the welding of nickel and nickel alloys. The major
alloying elements used in nickel are iron, chromium, cop-
per, molybdenum, and silicon. The classification system
for nickel and nickel alloys is shown in Illustration 7-12.
This process is used for welding both the solid solution
strengthened alloys and the precipitation hardenable al-
loys. Many of the cast alloys, especially ones with high
silicon contents, are more difficult to weld.
One of the most important factors in welding nickel and
nickel alloys is the cleanliness of the base metal. These
metals are susceptible to embrittlement caused by sul-
fur, phosphorous, and lead. Therefore, the surface of the
metal to be welded should be cleaned of any grease, oil,
paint, dirt and processing chemicals. Another welding
characteristic of these metals is that the weld puddle is
not very fluid. Because of this, it is more difficult to get
complete fusion.
Direct current electrode negative welding current is usu-
ally recommended for both manual and mechanized
welding. Argon, argon-helium mixtures, and helium are
used for shielding. Helium is generally better for welding
when filler metal is not added. Argon-hydrogen mixtures
are often used for single pass welding of nickels, when
porosity is a problem. All of the different types of tung-
sten electrodes are used, but the alloyed tungsten elec-
trodes are the most common.
A filler metal is almost always used when welding nickel
and nickel alloys. The filler metals used for welding of
these metals are generally similar in composition to the
base metal being welded. The filler metals are alloyed to
resist hot cracking and porosity in the weld metal.
– 42 –
Nickel
Alloy Group
Series
200 Nickel, Solid-Solution
300 Nickel, Precipitation-Hardenable
Nickel-Copper, Solid-Solution
400
(Monel)
Nickel-Copper, Precipitation-Hardenable
500
(Monel)
Nickel-Chromium, Solid-Solution
600
(Inconel)
Nickel-Chromium, Precipitation-Hardenable
700
(Inconel)
Nickel-Iron-Chromium, Solid-Solution
800
(Incoloy)
900
Nickel-Iron-Chromium, Precipitation-Hardenable
(Incoloy)
Illustration 7-12 – Classification of Nickel and Nickel Alloys
STEELS
Gas tungsten arc welding is not as popular for welding
the plain carbon and alloy steels as it is for welding stain-
less steel and nonferrous metals, because the process
is relatively slow and expensive. Its best applications are
for critical applications and for stainless steel.
Plain Carbon and Low Alloy Steels
The gas tungsten arc welding process can be employed
to weld all of the different kinds of steel that can be weld-
ed by the other arc welding processes, such as mild, low
alloy, heat treatable, and chromium-molybdenum steels.
The major alloying elements in these steels are carbon,
manganese, silicon, nickel, chromium, and molybdenum.
The weldability of the steel depends largely on the car-
bon content. The higher the carbon content of the steel,
the more susceptible to cracking it becomes and the
need for preheating and postheating increases.
Low carbon and mild steels have carbon contents rang-
ing up to 29%. These are generally the easiest to weld
and usually do not require preheat and post heat.
Alloy steels with carbon contents greater than .20% gen-
erally require preheating and postheating due to the in-
creased alloy content.
Medium carbon steels have carbon contents ranging
from .30% to .59% and high carbon steels have carbon
contents ranging from .60% to 1.00%. Many of the very
high carbon steels are not welded except for repair work
because they are very susceptible to cold cracking.
Gas tungsten arc welding is generally more sensitive to
sulfur, phosphorous, and oxygen in the steel because
there is no slag formed to help remove these elements
from the weld puddle. Silicon in the base metal and fill-
er metal helps the weld puddle to wet out better at the
edges and it improves the bead shape. An extremely low
silicon content in the base metal will make welding dif-
ficult, so a filler metal is required to provide the silicon for
the weld bead. An excessively high amount of silicon in
the base metal can promote cracking.
Direct current electrode negative is the most common-
ly used type of welding current. Alternating current is
sometimes used for welding thin sheet welds. All of the
different types of shielding gases that are employed for
gas tungsten arc welding may be used for welding steel.
Argon is the most common with argon-hydrogen mix-
tures used when better weld puddle wetting and bead
shape are desired. The thoriated tungsten electrodes are
the most popular for welding steel.
Filler metal for the low carbon and low alloy steels is cho-
sen on the basis of matching the tensile strength of the
filler metal to that of the base metal. For the welding of
the heat treatable and chromium-molybdenum steels,
the filler metal is chosen on the basis of approximately
matching the chemical composition to give similar hard-
enability and corrosion or heat resistant properties.
Free Machining Steels
Free machining steels are steels that have additional
sulfur, phosphorous, selenium, or lead in them to make
these steels easier to machine. Except for the high sulfur,
phosphorous, lead, and selenium contents, these steels
have compositions similar to mild, low alloy, and stain-
less steels. The addition of these elements makes these
steels nearly unweldable. The reason for this is that the
elements lead, phosphorous, and sulfur, have melting
points that are much lower than the melting point of the
steel. As the weld solidifies, these elements retain liquid
much longer than the steel so that they coat the grain
boundaries, which causes hot cracking in the weld. Hot
cracking is cracking that occurs before the weld has had
a chance to cool. Because of this hot cracking problem,
free machining steels cannot be welded easily. High man-
ganese filler metal will help give the best results possible.
Stainless Steels
Most stainless steels can be welded. The types that are
very difficult to weld are those such as 303, 416, 416
Se, 430F, and 430 FSe, which have high sulfur and se-
lenium contents, and type 440, which has a high carbon
content. The major alloying element which distinguishes
stainless steels from the other types of steel is the chro-
mium. Steels that have chromium contents greater than
11% are considered stainless steels. The high chromium
content gives them very good corrosion and oxidation re-
sistance. The three major groups of stainless steels that
are welded are the austenitic, martensitic, and ferritic
– 43 –
types. The austenitic stainless steels are generally the
easiest to weld. These steels are designated by the AlSl
as the 200 and 300 series. In addition to the high chro-
mium content of about 16-26%, the 300 series has a high
nickel content ranging from 6-22%. The 200 series has
a high manganese content to replace some of the nickel.
Nickel and manganese are strong austenite formers and
maintain an austenitic structure at all temperatures. This
structure gives these steels good toughness and ductility,
but also makes them non-hardenable. A major problem
when welding these types of steels is carbide precipita-
tion or sensitization which only occurs in the austenitic
structure. This occurs when the temperature of the steel
is between approximately 1000-1600°F (540-870°C) and
can greatly reduce the resistance to corrosion. Following
are several methods for preventing this problem:
1) A fast cooling rate after welding through this temper-
ature range. This is a major reason why these steels
require a relatively low maximum interpass tempera-
ture on multiple pass welds.
2) The use of extra low carbon base and filler metal
(.03%C max.). Examples are 304L and 316L.
3) The use of a stabilized alloy containing columbium,
tantalum, or titanium. Examples are 347 and 321.
4) The use of a solution heat treatment to redissolve the
carbides after welding.
Martensitic stainless steels are not as easy to weld as the
austenitic stainless steels. These stainless steels have
approximately 11-18% chromium, which is the major al-
loying element. Martensitic stainless steels are designat-
ed by the AlSl as the 400 series. Some examples are 403,
410, 420, and 440. These stainless steels are heat treat-
able because they generally contain higher carbon con-
tents and a martensitic structure. Stainless steels with
higher carbon contents are more susceptible to cracking
and some, such as Type 440, have carbon contents so
high that they are often considered unweldable.
A stainless steel with a carbon content greater than .10%
will often need preheating. Preheating is frequently re-
quired and usually done in the range of 400-600º F (205-
315° C) to avoid cracking. For steels containing carbon
contents greater than .20%, a postweld heat treatment,
such as annealing, is often required to improve the tough-
ness of the weld produced.
Ferritic stainless steels are designated by the AlSl as the
400 series and are also more difficult to weld than aus-
tenitic stainless steels because they produce welds hav-
ing lower toughness than the base metal. These stainless
steels form a ferritic grain structure. Some examples are
types 405, 430, 442, and 446. These types are generally
less corrosion resistant than austenitic stainless steel. To
avoid a brittle structure in the weld, preheating and pos-
theating are often required. Typical preheat temperatures
range from 300-500° F (150-260º C). Annealing is often
used after heat treatment to increase the toughness of
the weld.
The gas tungsten arc welding process is especially well
suited for welding stainless steel because the filler metal
does not cross the arc and therefore change the com-
position. The process provides an inert atmosphere and
leaves no slag to react with the base metal. Lower current
levels may be desirable for welding stainless steel com-
pared to welding mild steel because of the higher ther-
mal expansion, lower thermal conductivity and generally
lower melting points of stainless steel. The lower thermal
conductivity and higher thermal expansion cause more
distortion and warpage for a given heat input. Direct cur-
rent electrode negative is used for most applications. The
most widely used tungsten electrode is the 2% thoriated
type. Argon, argon-helium mixtures, and helium shielding
gases are used, with argon being the preferred shield-
ing gas. Argon-hydrogen mixtures are sometimes used to
improve the bead shape and the wetting.
The filler metal used for welding stainless steel is gen-
erally chosen to match the chemical composition of the
base metal. In the 200 series austenitic stainless steels,
300 series austenitic filler metal is usually used, due to a
lack of availability of 200 series filler metal. This weld joint
will generally be weaker than the surrounding base metal.
The Type 410 and 420 electrodes are the only martensitic
stainless steel types recognized by the American Welding
Society. This limitation is the reason why austenitic stain-
less steel filler metal is often used. Austenitic filler metal
provides a weld with lower strength but higher toughness.
It will also eliminate the need for preheating and posthe-
ating. For the welding of ferritic stainless steels, both fer-
ritic and austenitic filler metal may be used. Ferritic filler
metal is used when higher strength and an annealing
postheat are required. Austenitic filler metal is employed
when higher ductility is required. Illustration 7-13 shows
filler metal selection for stainless steels.
Titanium and Titanium Alloys
Titanium and many of the titanium alloys are welded by
gas tungsten arc welding. The major alloying elements
contained in titanium alloys are aluminum, tin, zirconium,
vanadium, and molybdenum. The four basic groups of
this metal are: unalloyed titanium, alpha alloys, alpha-
beta alloys, and beta alloys. The unalloyed titanium and
alpha alloys are all weldable. The weakly beta-stabilized
alpha-beta alloys are weldable, but the strongly beta-sta-
bilized alpha-beta alloys are embrittled by welding. Most
beta alloys can be welded but proper heat treatment
must be used to prevent the welds from becoming brittle.
In general, titanium requires the same welding tech-
niques used for welding stainless steel with two excep-
tions: titanium requires greater cleanliness and an auxil-
iary shielding gas. The molten weld puddle reacts with
most materials and contamination from the atmosphere
or from material on the surface of the metal, can cause
embrittlement in the weld zone and a loss of corrosion
– 44 –
resistance. The surface of the metal to be welded must
be cleaned thoroughly to avoid these problems. Argon or
helium shielding gases are almost exclusively used for
welding titanium. The only other shielding gas used is an
argon-helium mixture. Welding titanium requires a shield-
ing gas on the backside of the root pass. A trailing shield-
ing gas is used behind the torch to protect the hot metal
until it cools below about 600º F (315º C). In many cases,
welding is done in an inert gas filled chamber. Thoriated
tungsten electrodes are the best types for welding these
metals with the 2% thoriated type being the most widely
used with direct current electrode negative. Preheating
is rarely used except when removing moisture from the
surface of the metal.
For welding thicknesses greater than .10 in. (2.5 mm),
filler metal is required. Filler metal of the same chemical
composition as the base metal is usually used. Some-
times filler metal with a lower yield point than the base
metal is used to improve the joint ductility, when welding
higher strength titanium alloys. The filler metal must also
be very clean because it too, can cause contamination of
the weld metal.
Other Metals
Gas tungsten arc welding can also be used to weld the
reactive and refractory metals. Reactive metals include
zirconium and beryllium. Refractory metals are metals
such as tungsten, molybdenum, columbium, and tan-
talum. The weldability of zirconium is similar to that of
titanium, because this metal, when hot, is highly reactive
with the atmosphere. Welding must be protected by ad-
equate shielding and is frequently done in vacuum cham-
bers. Zirconium is welded using direct current electrode
negative and an argon or helium shielding gas
Beryllium is sometimes welded by this process, but the
heat input must be closely controlled to prevent very large
grains from being formed and avoid cracking caused by
the inherent low ductility of this metal. Beryllium is very
toxic and strict safety measures must be taken, such as
the wearing of special safety clothes and gas masks to
prevent contact with the fumes. Usually, alternating cur-
rent with an argon shielding gas is used. A low heat input
is essential when welding beryllium.
Gas tungsten arc welding is commonly used to weld
tungsten and molybdenum. When welding these metals,
good cleaning is necessary. Welding is performed using
direct current electrode negative and is often done in a
vacuum chamber. Preheating is usually required.
Columbium and tantalum and have good weldability. Gas
tungsten arc welding is the most popular process for
welding these metals. Direct current electrode negative
welding current in a vacuum chamber is often used. A
vacuum chamber is recommended for welding tantalum,
but columbium can be welded without one.
 Chemical Analyses of Stainless Steels (percent)
AISI Other
Number Carbon Manganese Silicon Chromium Nickel Elements
Chromium-Nickel-Magnesium-Austenitic-Nonhardenable
201 0.15 max. 5.5-7.5 1.0 16.0-18.0 3.5-5.5 N2 0.25 max.
202 0.15 max. 7.5-10. 1.0 17.0-19.0 4.0-6.0 N2 0.25 max.
Chromium-Austenitic-Nonhardenable
301 0.15 max. 2.0 1.0 16.0-18.0 6.0-8.0 –
302 0.15 max. 2.0 1.0 17.0-19.0 8.0-10.0 –
302B 0.15 max. 2.0 2.0-3.0 17.0-19.0 8.0-10.0 –
303 0.15 max. 2.0 1.0 17.0-19.0 8.0-10.0 S 0.15 min.
303Se 0.15 max. 2.0 1.0 17.0-19.0 8.0-10.0 Se 0.15 min.
304 0.08 max. 2.0 1.0 18.0-20.0 8.0-10.0 –
304L 0.03 max. 2.0 1.0 18.0-20.0 8.0-10.0 –
305 0.12 max. 2.0 1.0 17.0-19.0 10.0-13.0 –
308 0.08 max. 2.0 1.0 19.0-21.0 10.0-12.0 –
309 0.20 max. 2.0 1.0 22.0-24.0 12.0-15.0 –
309S 0.08 max. 2.0 1.0 22.0-24.0 12.0-15.0 –
310 0.25 max. 2.0 1.0 24.0-26.0 19.0-22.0 –
310S 0.08 max. 2.0 1.50 24.0-26.0 19.0-22.0 –
314 0.25 max. 2.0 1.50 23.0-26.0 19.0-22.0 –
316 0.08 max. 2.0 1.5-3.0 16.0-18.0 10.0-14.0 Mo 2.0-3.0
316L 0.03 max. 2.0 1.0 16.0-18.0 10.0-14.0 Mo 2.0-3.0
317 0.08 max. 2.0 1.0 18.0-20.0 11.0-15.0 Mo 3.0-4.0
321 0.08 max. 2.0 1.0 17.0-19.0 9.0-12.0 Ti 5xC min.
347 0.08 max. 2.0 1.0 17.0-19.0 9.0-13.0 Cb + Ta 10xC min.
348 0.08 max. 2.0 1.0 17.0-19.0 9.0-13.0 Ta 0.10 max.
Chromium-Martensitic-Hardenable
403 0.15 max. 1.0 .05 11.5-13.0 – –
410 0.15 max. 1.0 1.0 11.5-13.5 – –
414 0.15 max. 1.0 1.0 11.5-13.5 1.25-2.5 –
416 0.15 max. 1.25 1.0 12.0-14.0 – S 0.15 min.
416Se 0.15 max. 1.25 1.0 12.0-14.0 – Se 0.15 min.
420 Over 0.15 1.0 1.0 12.0-14.0 – –
431 0.20 max. 1.0 1.0 15.0-17.0 1.25-2.5 –
440A 0.60-0.85 1.0 1.0 16.0-18.0 – Mo 0.75 max.
440B 0.75-0.95 1.0 1.0 16.0-18.0 – Mo 0.75 max.
440C 0.95-1.2 1.0 1.0 16.0-18.0 – Mo 0.75 max.
Chromium-Ferritic-Nonhardenable
405 0.08 max. 1.0 1.0 11.5-14.5 – Al 1.1-0.3
430 0.12 max. 1.0 1.0 14.0-18.0 – –
430F 0.12 max. 1.25 1.0 14.0-18.0 – S 0.15 min
430Se 0.12 max. 1.25 1.0 14.0-18.0 – Se 0.15 min.
446 0.20 max. 1.50 1.0 23.0-27.0 – N 0.25 max.
Martensitic
501 Over 0.10 1.0 1.0 4.0-6.0 – Mo 0.40-0.65
502 0.10 max. 1.0 1.0 4.0-6.0 – Mo 0.40-0.65

Illustration 7-13 – AISI Stainless Steel Classification System (Courtesy of the American Iron and Steel Institute)

– 45 –
 CHAPTER 8
WELD AND JOINT DESIGN

The weld joint design used for gas tungsten arc welding The purpose of any joint design is to produce a sound
is determined by the design of the weldment, metallur- weld deposit with the desired properties as economically
gical considerations, and by codes or specifications. A as possible. The edge and joint preparation are important
weld joint consists of a specific weld made in a specific because they will affect both the quality and the cost of
joint. A joint is defined as being the junction of members welding. The exactness of the joint and edge preparation
which are to be joined or have been joined. Illustration is dependent on the method of welding. Manual welding
8-1 shows the five basic joint types. Each of the differ- applications can tolerate greater irregularities in joint fit up
ent joints can be joined by many different types of welds. than machine and automatic applications.
In Illustration 8-2, the most common types of welds are
shown. The type of weld made is governed by the joint Of the five basic types of joints, the butt and T are the
configuration. Illustration 8-3 lists the nomenclature used most commonly used. Since gas tungsten arc welding is
for groove and fillet welds. often used on thinner material, proper fit up can eliminate
the need for filler metal when welding square groove butt
Several factors that influence the joint design to be used joints.
are:
Lap joints have the advantage of not requiring much prep-
1) Metal composition aration other than squaring the edges and making sure
the metal is in close contact. On lap joints in thinner met-
2) Strength required als, filler metal is not always required. Edge joints usually
do not require the addition of filler metal. This type of joint
3) Welding position
is widely used on thin material. For example, on tubing,
4) Metal thickness the end of the tubes are often flared or flanged so that the
Butt edges may be melted and provide theLap filler metal for the
Butt Lap
5) Joint accessibility weld as shown Corner
in IllustrationCorner
8-4. Corner joints will usually

B – Butt C – Corner E – Edge L – Lap T – Tee

Butt Lap
Butt Corner
Butt Lap Lap
Corner Corner
1
8

1
8
1 2
8 1
8 9

2
2 1 9
3 8
2
1 9

Edge
8

T-Joint
9

Edge T-Joint
Illustration 8-1 – There are only five basic joints. They can, however, be used in combinations.
3
2
3
2 3 9
1 13
9 8 4 12

3
4 12
3 13 2

Plug
4 1 13 1

Edge
12

T-Joint
9

Plug
4 8 8 14

Slot
12 5

Edge Edge T-Joint T-Joint Slot 1

8

1. Square-Groove 1
2. Single-V-Groove 3. Single-Bevel-Groove 4. Double-V-Groove 5. Double-Bevel-Groove
Groove
13

Gro
3 4 5 14
8 2 2 12
13
5 4 14
12 149 9
5 6
2 16
1 9
8 15
2
9 3 3 14 6

Plug
5 13
4

Slot
14 16 12
6 5 1
6 16 8 3 7 15

Plug Plug
2

Slot Slot Groove

15 9
1 15
3 1 8
8

13 7

Groove
13 6

Bead
2 16

6. Single-U-Groove 7. Double-U-Groove 8. Single-J-Groove

9. Double-J-Groove Groove
Bead 10. Single Fillet
4 1 5 14 4 12
12 8
7 6 16 9
7 3 10

Arc Seam Arc Seam

15 13
2 4 12
15 2
9
13 9
4 12
2
3 7
5 14 5 14
10 9 6 16
7 10
3 13
4 15 12 5 14
3
11
5 14 3

Bead 6 7 4 6
13 10
16

Bead
10 16 12

Arc Seam
11. Double Fillet 12. Single-Flare-
15
Bead
13. Edge
13
Weld in a
5
14. Bead
14 6
15. Plug
15
15. Arc-Spot
1

Arc Seam
4 13 16

Arc SeamV-Groove
11 12
4 12 11

Edge
Flanged Butt Joint
Edge Fillet or Arc-Seam
15

Fillet
6 16 13
4 12
7 5 14 7 10
15
11
6 7 16
5 14
11 5 14

Illustration 8-2 – Common Types of Welds (Many other variations of welds are possible)
15
7
5 14
10 10
6 16

– 46 –
7 15 11 10
6

Edge Fillet
6 16
16

Edge Fillet
10 15
15
6 16
7
 aluminum and magnesium. The reason for these differ-
ences is that stainless steel can be welded using direct
current electrode negative which gives better penetration
than the alternating current used on aluminum and mag-
nesium.

In aluminum, the weld puddle will become larger, quicker,

Illustration 8-4 – Edge Joint between Aluminum Tubing
and an Aluminum Fitting where the Edges of the Flanges
were Melted Down Without the Use of Filler Metal
require the addition of filler metal and edge preparations
similar to those used for T-joints are used.
TYPES OF METAL
Due to the variety of base metals and their individual char-
acteristics such as surface tension, fluidity, melting tem-
perature, etc. joint designs that provide optimum welding
conditions should be used. The type of metal influences
the maximum thickness of the base metal that can be
practically welded for a given joint design.
The maximum thickness that a square-groove butt joint
can be used for full penetration is about 5/16 inch (7.9
mm) in stainless steel and about 3/16 inch (4.8 mm) in
making it more difficult for the welder to control. This is
due to the higher thermal conductivity, the wider, shal-
lower bead produced by alternating current, and the nar-
rower melting temperature range of aluminum. For exam-
ple, on 1/4 inch (6.4 mm) thick metal, a V-groove would
be used in aluminum while a square-groove would allow
full penetration in stainless steel. This difference between
the metals will also affect the size of the root face used.
In general, larger root faces can be used in mild, low al-
loy and stainless steel than can be used in aluminum and
magnesium because of the difference in the penetration
capability.
In nickel and high nickel alloys, the weld puddle is very
sluggish when molten, so the puddle does not spread or
wet out very well. Because of this, the filler metal must
be placed at the proper location in the joint. Larger root
openings are then used to permit enough space for ma-
nipulation than the root openings used in carbon and low
alloy steels.

Groove Weld Fillet Weld

4
5 5 47
6
4 5 2 56 7
6 2 6
4
7 3 1
7 3 1
1 2 3
1 2 3
1. ROOT OPENING (RO): the separation between the 1. ACTUAL THROAT OF A FILLET WELD: The shortest
members to be joined at the root of the joint. distance from the root of the fillet weld to its face.
2. ROOT FACE (RF): Groove face adjacent to the root 2. LEG OF A FILLET WELD: The distance from the root
of the joint. of the joint to the toe of the fillet weld.
3. GROOVE FACE: The surface of a member included
in the groove. 3. ROOT OF A WELD: The points at which the back of
the weld intersects the base metal surfaces.
4. BEVEL ANGLE (A): the angle formed between the
prepared edge of a member and a plane perpendicu- 4. TOE OF A WELD: The junction between the face of
lar to the surface of the member. the weld and the base metal.
5. GROOVE ANGLE (A): the total included angle of the 5. FACE OF WELD: The exposed surface of a weld on
groove between parts to be joined by a groove weld. the side from which the welding was done.
6. SIZE OF WELD (S): the joint penetration (depth of
bevel plus the root penetration when specified). The 6. DEPTH OF FUSION: The distance that fusion ex-
size of a groove weld and its effective throat are one tends into the base metal or previous pass from the
in the same. surface melted during welding.
7. PLATE THICKNESS (T): Thickness of plate welded. 7. SIZE OF WELD (S): Leg length of the fillet.
Illustration 8-3 – Weld Nomenclature

– 47 –
STRENGTH
The strength required of a weld joint is another major fac-
tor governing weld joint design. Weld joints may be either
full or partial penetration, depending on the strength re-
quired of the joint. Full penetrating welds are those that
have weld metal through the full cross-section of the joint.
Partial penetrating welds are those that have an unfused
area in the joint. Welds that are subject to cyclic, impact,
or dynamic loading require full penetration welds. This
is even more important for applications that require low
temperature service. Partial penetration welds may be
adequate for joints that are statically loaded. This type
of joint is easier to prepare, fit up, and requires less filler
metal than full penetration joints.
The amount of penetration obtained will depend on the
root opening and the root face used. Root openings are
used to allow good access to the root of the joint and are
usually used in full penetration weld joints. A root opening
is usually not used on partial penetration joints, because
access to the root is not necessary and parts are easier to
fit together without a root opening. Root faces are also in-
volved. Larger root faces can be used for partial penetra-
tion welds because penetration through the full thickness
of the root face is not required.
POSITION
Gas tungsten arc welding can be used in all welding po-
sitions. The welding position selected often affects the
shape of the joint. A diagram of the welding position ca-
pabilities is shown in Illustration 8-6. Good quality weld-
ing in flat, horizontal, vertical, and overhead positions de-
pends on the skill of the welder.
Welding positions are classified by a set of numbers and
letters. The four basic welding positions are designated
by the numbers 1 (for flat) 2 (for horizontal) 3 (for verti-
cal) and 4 (for overhead). F designations are used for fillet
welds and G designations are used for groove welds. The
5G and 6G positions are used in pipe welding.
The groove angle is often varied for different positions.
Wider groove angles are often used when welding in
the vertical and horizontal positions. Some groove joints
welded in the horizontal position have unsymmetrical
groove angles. Usually the lower groove face is horizontal
or nearly horizontal and the upper groove face is raised
accordingly.
THICKNESS
The thickness of the base metal has a large influence on
the type of groove that gives the best weld joint possible.
The thickness of the base metal welded by this process
is not limited, but gas tungsten arc welding is particularly
– 48 –
1/8”
60º
1/8”
10º
3/8”
Illustration 8-5 – V-Groove Joint in the Horizontal Position
well adapted for welding thin metal. Thicknesses down
to .005 inch (.1 mm) can be welded.
Thick metal sections are generally not welded by this
process because of its relatively low deposition rate. Gas
metal arc welding is used on many of these applications,
especially on the non-ferrous metals.
The most common groove preparations used on butt
joints are the square-, V-, J-, U-, bevel-, and combina-
tion-grooves. The square-, J-, bevel-, and combination-
groove configurations are also used for T-joints. These
preparations are employed to make it possible to get full
or adequate penetration.
Square-groove welds are the most commonly used weld
joints for gas tungsten arc welding because most appli-
cations of this process are on thin metal. The square-
groove joint design is the easiest to prepare and requires
the least addition of filler metal. In many cases, filler met-
al is not used at all. Thicknesses up to 3/16 inch (4.8 mm)
or 5/16 inch (7.9 mm) can be welded with full penetra-
tion, depending on the type of metal being welded. Many
square-groove joints are welded in one pass. A backing
strip may be used so that the root can be opened to in-
sure adequate penetration.
V-grooves for groove welds on butt joints and bevel-
grooves for T-joints are commonly used for thicker metal
up to about 1/2 inch (12.7 mm). These joints are more
difficult to prepare which increases the cost of prepara-
tion. Filler metal must be used for V-grooves and bevel-
grooves. The included angle for a V-groove is usually
up to 90 degrees. The wider angles are used to provide
better accessibility to the root. Root faces usually range
from 1/8 inch (3.2 mm) to 1/4 inch (6.4 mm) depending
on the thickness and type of metal being welded.
 Fillet Welds
FLAT POSITION HORIZONTAL POSITION VERTICAL POSITION OVERHEAD POSITION
1F 2F 3F 4F

Axis of Weld Axis of Weld Axis of Weld Axis of Weld

Horizontal Horizontal Vertical Horizontal

Groove Welds
FLAT POSITION HORIZONTAL POSITION VERTICAL POSITION OVERHEAD POSITION
1G 2G 3G 4G

Plates, Axis of Weld Plates vertical, Axis Plates vertical, Axis of Plates Overhead, Axis
Horizontal of Weld Horizontal Weld Vertical of Weld Horizontal

FLAT HORIZONTAL HORIZONTAL FIXED 45º FIXED

1G 2G 5G 6G

“Bell Hole” “Arkansas Bell Hole”

45º ±5º

Pipe shall be turned or Pipe shall not be turned or

rolled while welding axis of rolled while welding axis of Pipe stationary with axis
pipe horizontal Axis of Pipe Vertical pipe horizontal approximately 45º

Illustration 8-6 – Welding Test Positions

– 49 –
U- and J-grooves are generally used in metal thicknesses
over 1/2 inch (12.7 mm) to reduce the filler metal required
for thicker sections. These joint configurations are also
the most difficult and expensive to prepare, but greatly
add to the ease of depositing the root pass. When pos-
sible in thick sections, the fill passes in this type of joint
are deposited by the higher deposition processes.
ACCESSIBILITY
A major consideration in gas tungsten arc welding joint
design is provision for proper accessibility. Welds can be
made either from one side or both sides of the joint. On
thicker metals, when both sides of the joint are acces-
sible, double-grooves are usually made. Double-grooves
have less area to fill than single-grooves and therefore
require less filler metal and distortion is less of a problem
with a proper weld bead sequencing.
The roots of the welds are usually near the center of the
base metal when double-grooves are used. Welding from
both sides of a square-groove usually insures complete
penetration is better on thicker metal than complete pen-
etration welding from one side. Smaller root openings
may be used which will require less filler metal.
When the joints are only accessible from one side, back-
ing strips and consumable inserts are often employed so
that wider root openings may be used to provide better
accessibility to the root of the joint.
On thick metal which is accessible from only one side,
V-, U-, and J-grooves are often used. U- and J-grooves
are often preferred on the thicker metal sections because
they provide better accessibility to the root of the joint
and require less filler metal than V-groove preparations.
However, U- and J-grooves are more difficult to prepare.
CONSUMABLE INSERTS
The use of consumable inserts will also have an effect
on the joint design and are widely used in the welding of
tube and pipe. These are used when the joint is acces-
sible from one side and then a uniform, high quality root
pass is required.
Illustration 8-7 – Various Types of Consumable Inserts
Consumable inserts also provide full penetration to the
root of the weld as long as enough heat is available to
melt the insert to the root of the joint. Consumable in-
serts help during the fit up procedure because they may
be used to help line up the joint. For best results, joints
with consumable inserts must be precisely prepared and
closely fitted. They are often used when there is joint mis-
alignment.
– 50 –
60º
3/8”
1/16”
1/16”
60º
3/8”
3/32-1/8”
Illustration 8-8 – A V-Groove Joint With and Without
a Consumable Insert
Consumable inserts also serve as a type of backing. In-
serts usually require the use of a different joint design,
depending on the type used. Consumable inserts are
available in various shapes and sizes.
When an insert is employed, the dimensions of the joint
must be compatible with the particular insert to be used.
An insert may require the use of different size root face
and root opening than a normal joint. On square-groove
joints, wider root openings are often used so that the
insert will fit. An example of this is shown in Illustration
8-8, where a weld joint in the same type and thickness of
metal is shown with and without a consumable insert. In
this case, a smaller root face and root opening are used
when a consumable insert is employed. A smaller root
face can be used because the insert reduces the danger
of melt-through.
WELD JOINT DESIGNS
The weld joint designs shown in the rest of the chap-
ter are those typically used for gas tungsten arc weld-
ing. The thickness limits placed on the weld joints are
approximate numbers and will vary, depending on the
type of metal being welded. While the thickness limits are
generally smaller than what can be used for steels and
silicon bronze, they may be slightly large for aluminum
and magnesium applications.
These joint designs are generally for thinner material.
Thick material is not included because it is rarely welded
by gas tungsten arc welding. Included are several joint
designs used with consumable inserts. Illustration 8-9
shows the “Standard Welding Symbols’’ of the American
Welding Society. Some of these are shown in the weld
joint designs.
Basic Welding Symbols and their Basic Joints Identification
Location Significance No Arrow of Arrow Side
Arrow Other Both
Side or
Other Side and Other Side Joint
Type of Weld Side Side Sides Significance

Fillet not used

Arrow of
Welding Arrow Side
Symbol of Joint
Plug or Slot not used not used
Butt Joint
Spot or Projection not used
Other Side Arrow Side
of Joint of Joint
Stud not used not used not used
Other Side
Corner Joint of Joint
Seam not used

Arrow of
Back or Backing not used not used Welding
Symbol
Arrow of Arrow Side
Welding of Joint
Surfacing not used not used not used Symbol T-Joint
Other Side
of Joint
Edge not used
Other Side
Member of Joint

G Square
R
Lap Joint
O V not used

O Arrow Side
Arrow of Member of Joint
Bevel not used Welding
V Arrow Side
Symbol
of Joint
E
U not used
Arrow of
Welding
W
J not used Symbol Edge Joint
E
Other Side of Joint
L
Flare-V not used
D
S Flare Bevel not used

Scarf for
Brazed Joint not used Location of Elements of a Welding Symbol

Supplementary Symbols
Weld Field Melt- Consumable Backing
Around Weld thru Insert Spacer

Contour
Flush or
Flat Convex Concave
Process abbreviations
Where process abbreviations are to be included in the
tail of the welding symbol, reference is made to table
1, Designation of Welding and Allied Processes by
Letters of ANSI/AWS A2.4:2007
American Welding Society
550 N.W. LeJeune Road, Miami, Florida 33126

Illustration 8-9 – Welding Symbols

– 51 –
Illustration 8-9 – Welding Symbols (continued)

– 52 –
1) Square-groove weld 1) Square-groove weld

2) Partial penetration – welded one side 2) Complete penetration – welded both sides

3) Maximum T = 1/4" 3) Maximum T = 5/16"

4) Gouge or chip root of first weld before

welding the other side

1) Open square-groove weld 1) Open square-groove weld with backing

2) Complete penetration – welded one side

2) Complete penetration – welded one side on
backing
3) Maximum T = 1/4"
3) Maximum T = 1/4"

Illustration 8-10 – Weld Joint Designs

– 53 –
1) Square-groove weld with consumable insert
2) Complete penetration – welded one side
3) T = 1/16" to 3/32"
1) Single-V-groove weld
2) Complete penetration – welded one or both
sides
3) Minimum T = 3/16"
4) If welded both sides, gouge or chip root of
first weld before welding the other side

A RO Positions
60º 3/32" Flat & Overhead
75º 1/16" Flat & Overhead
90º 1/16" All

1) Single -V-groove weld with consumable insert 1) Single -V-groove weld

2) Partial penetration – welded one side 2) Partial penetration – welded one side

3) Minimum T = 1/8" 3) Minimum T = 1/2"

4) S = Minimum effective throat thickness

Illustration 8-10 – Weld Joint Designs

– 54 –
1) Single-V-groove weld with consumable insert 1) Single-V-groove weld with backing
2) Complete penetration – welded one side
2) Complete penetration – welded one side
3) Maximum T = 3/16"
3) Maximum T = 1/2"
A RO Positions
60º 1/4" Flat & Overhead
75º 1/8" Flat & Overhead
90º 3/32" All

1) Single-U-groove weld 1) Single-U-groove weld with consumable insert

2) Complete penetration – welded one side 2) Complete penetration – welded one side

3) Minimum T = 3/8" 3) Minimum T = 3/8”

Illustration 8-10 – Weld Joint Designs

– 55 –
1) Double Fillet weld 1) Edge weld in a flanged butt joint

2) Partial penetration – welded both sides 2) Partial penetration – welded one side

3) T unlimited 3) Maximum T = 1/8"

4) Maximum S = 5/8"

1) Double Fillet weld 1) Double-V-groove weld

2) Partial penetration – welded both sides 2) Complete penetration – welded both sides

3) T unlimited 3) Minimum T = 3/8”

4) Maximum S = 5/8” 4) Gouge or chip root of first weld before

welding the other side

Illustration 8-10 – Weld Joint Designs

– 56 –
1) Single-bevel-groove weld 1) Double-bevel-groove weld

2) Complete penetration – welded one or both 2) Complete penetration – welded both sides
sides
3) Minimum T = 3/8"
3) Minimum T = 3/16"
4) Gouge or chip root of first weld before
welding the other side

1) Single-V-groove weld with backing 1) Single -V-groove weld

2) Complete penetration – welded one side 2) Complete penetration – welded one or both
sides
3) Minimum T = 3/16"
3) Minimum T = 3/16”
4) Horizontal position only
4) Horizontal position only

Illustration 8-10 – Weld Joint Designs

– 57 –
1) Square-groove weld 1) Square-groove weld

2) Complete penetration – welded both sides 2) Partial penetration – welded one side

3) Maximum T = 1/4" 3) T unlimited

4) Gouge or chip root of first weld before

welding the other side

1) Single fillet weld T RO 1) Double fillet weld T RO

2) Complete penetra- 1/4" or less 0" 2) Complete penetra- 1/4" or less 0"
tion – welded one 1/2" or less 1/16" tion – welded both 1/2" or less 1/16"
side 5/8" or greater 1/8" sides 5/8" or greater 1/8"
3) Minimum T = 1/16" 3) T unlimited
4) Gouge or chip root of first weld before
welding the other side

Illustration 8-10 – Weld Joint Designs

– 58 –
1) Single-bevel-groove weld 1) Single-V-groove weld

2) Complete penetration – welded one or both 2) Complete penetration – welded one or both
sides sides

3) Minimum T = 3/16" 3) Minimum T = 3/16”

4) If welded on both sides, gouge or chip root of 4) If welded on both sides, gouge or chip root of
first weld before welding the other side. first weld before welding the other side.

5) May be used in the horizontal position

Illustration 8-10 – Weld Joint Designs

– 59 –
 CHAPTER 9
WELDING PROCEDURE VARIABLES
Welding procedure variables control the welding process
and the quality of the welds that are produced. The selec-
tion of the welding variables is done after the base metal,
filler metal, and joint design are selected. The selection
of the filler metal and joint design has been discussed in
previous chapters.
A proper selection of welding variables will make the
welding easier for the welder, increasing the chance of
producing the weld properties required. The three major
types of welding variables are the fixed or preselected,
the primary adjustable, and the secondary adjustable.
The fixed or preselected variables are set before the ac-
tual welding takes place. These are items such as the
electrode type and size, the type of current, the type of
shielding gas, and the electrode taper angle. These are
variables that cannot be easily changed once the welding
starts.
The primary adjustable variables are used to control the
welding process after the fixed variables have been se-
lected. They control the formation of the weld bead by
affecting the bead width and height, joint penetration, arc
stability, and weld soundness. The primary adjustable
variables for gas tungsten arc welding are the welding
current, arc length, and travel speed.
The secondary adjustable variables are used to control
the welding process. These are usually more difficult to
measure and their effects may not be as obvious. In gas
tungsten arc welding, secondary adjustable variables are
things such as the work and travel angles of the electrode
and the electrode extension.
The different variables affect the characteristics of the
weld including the joint penetration of the weld, the bead
height and width, and the deposition rate. The joint pen-
etration is the distance the weld metal extends from its
face into a joint, exclusive of weld reinforcement. The
bead height is the height of the weld metal above the sur-
face of the base metal. The bead width is the width of the
weld bead. The deposition rate is the weight of material
deposited in a unit of time. The welding variables are dis-
cussed in this chapter with particular attention to the joint
penetration, bead shape, and how they each affect the
other welding variables. The deposition rate is discussed
to a lesser extent because, in gas tungsten arc welding,
the deposition rate will vary widely because the filler metal
does not cross the arc and is not as dependent on vari-
ables such as the type and amount of welding current
used. There is no deposition rate when filler metal is not
used.
– 60 –
Bead Width
Bead Height
Penetration
Illustration 9-1 – Bead Height, Width and Penetration
FIXED VARIABLES
Type of Electrode
The type of tungsten electrode used in gas tungsten arc
welding depends on the type of metal being welded and
the specific application. The type of electrode used for
welding various base metals is shown in Chapter 4, Il-
lustration 4-2.
The pure tungsten electrodes are used on less critical ap-
plications than the thoriated or zirconium tungsten elec-
trodes. Pure tungsten electrodes have a lower current
carrying capacity and a lower resistance to contamina-
tion. These electrodes tend to leave more tungsten inclu-
sions in the weld metal. Tungsten electrodes are widely
used for AC welding of aluminum and magnesium be-
cause they do not disintegrate as fast with alternating
current. Another advantage of pure tungsten electrodes
is that they are the least expensive.
The thoriated tungsten electrodes are more expensive
but are preferred for many applications because of the
higher current carrying capacity, longer life, easier start-
ing, more stable arc, and greater resistance to contami-
nation. (See also page 17)
Zirconium tungsten electrodes generally have properties
that fall somewhere in the middle. Zirconium electrodes
often give the best characteristics with alternating cur-
rent and are used to give x-ray quality welds in aluminum
and magnesium.
Electrode Size
The size of the electrode employed will depend on the
welding current range to be used. In Chapter 4, Illustra-
tion 4-3 shows the current ranges used for various types
and sizes of tungsten electrodes. This is not the only de-
termining factor because the current carrying capacity of
all types of tungsten electrodes are affected by the elec-
trode diameter, as well as by the type of electrode holder,
electrode extension, type of shielding gas, and type of
welding current. Larger electrodes will allow higher weld-
ing currents to be used. For a given welding current set-
ting, a larger electrode will be needed when using direct
current electrode positive because of the high heat build-
up that occurs in the electrode. Also, for a given size of
electrode, direct current electrode negative will be able
to carry the largest amount of current. Although larger
electrodes are generally used for welding thicker metal,
very small electrodes may be used for welding very thin
sheet metal.
Current Type
electrode positive is limited to welding thin materials at
low current levels.
Direct current electrode negative is used to obtain deep
penetrating welds and is the most common type of cur-
rent used for welding metals other than aluminum and
magnesium. For the welding of aluminum and magne-
sium, alternating current with a superimposed high fre-
quency current is most commonly used. This type of
current provides good oxide cleaning when the electrode
is positive and good penetration when the electrode is
negative. Overall, alternating current gives moderate
penetration and is the second choice of current type on
most other metals.

The type of welding current used depends primarily on
the type of metal to be welded, the current levels required
and the availability of a machine that produces that type
of welding current. In Chapter 4, Illustration 4-2 shows
the type of current recommended for welding different
base metals.
Direct current electrode positive is often used for weld-
ing thin aluminum and magnesium parts. It is popular for
these applications because the cathodic cleaning action
that is created at the surface of the workpiece removes
the refractory oxide surface that inhibits wetting of the
weldment by the weld metal. It also provides shallow
penetration. Direct current electrode positive has a low
current carrying capacity because of the high amount of
heat that builds up on the electrode. Since this heat build
up can cause electrode melting, the use of direct current
Types of Shielding Gas
Shielding gas is directed by the torch to the arc and weld
pool to protect the electrode and the molten weld metal
from atmospheric contamination. The inert shielding gas
used will affect the penetration of the weld, the heat in-
put, and the cost of the welding operation.
Argon is the most common type of shielding gas used in
gas tungsten arc welding and can be used for most ap-
plications. Argon will give less penetration and heat input
than helium and is less expensive to use because lower
flow rates are required and the cost of the gas is less.
It provides a smoother, quieter arc action, better cross-
draft resistance, and an easier starting arc. Argon is used
exclusively on thin metals, because the high heat input of
helium causes melt through.

Current Type DCEN DCEP AC (balanced)

Electrode Polarity Negative Positive –

+ - + - + -
Ele
Ele

Ele

Electron and Ion Flow

s
s

+ - + - + -
Ion
Ion

Ion
ctr
ctr

c
tro

+ - + - + -
o
ons

ns

ns

Penetration Characteristics

Oxide Cleaning Action NO YES YES, once every half cycle

Heat Balance in the Arc 70% at work end 30% at work end 50% at work end
(approx.) 30% at electrode end 70% at electrode end 50% at electrode end

Penetration Deep, Narrow Shallow, Wide Medium

Excellent Poor Good

Electrode Capacity
e.g. 1/8" (3.2 mm) 400A e.g. 1/4" (6.4 mm) 120A e.g. 1/8" (3.2 mm) 225A

Illustration 9-2 – Characteristics of Current Types for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

– 61 –
Helium gives a hotter arc and more heat input into the
base metal, which produces deeper penetration and al-
lows faster travel speeds. It is used especially for welding
thick sections and on metals that have high heat conduc-
tivity. It is also used for high-speed mechanized applica-
tions.
Mixtures of argon are used to obtain a balance between
the characteristics of these two gases. Using helium in-
stead of argon allows lower welding currents to be used
and produces higher arc voltages for a given arc length.
Electrode Taper Angle
The electrode taper angle is the angle that is ground on
the end of the tungsten electrode as shown in Illustra-
tion 9-3. This variable applies to thoriated, ceriated and
lanthanated tungsten electrodes. These are ground to a
tip to give better arc starting with high frequency igni-
tion and a more stable arc. The grinding wheel should
be reserved for grinding only tungsten to eliminate pos-
sible contamination of the tungsten tip with foreign mat-
ter during the grinding operation. Exhaust hoods should
be used when grinding these electrodes to remove the
grinding dust from the work area.
Thoriated, ceriated, and lanthanated tungsten electrodes
can be tapered because of their higher current carrying
capacity. The most common taper angle used is about
2-1/2 electrode diameters. The degree of taper also af-
fects the bead shape and penetration. Increasing the ta-
per angle tends to reduce the bead width and increase
the weld penetration.
The disadvantage of the smaller taper angles is that they
tend to wear away quicker, especially on starts where the
tip of the electrode is touched to the work. To reduce the
erosion and the number of times the electrode tip must
be reground, a larger taper angle is used because it does
not wear away as quickly.
Regardless of the electrode tip geometry selected, it is
important that a consistent taper angle be used once a
welding procedure is established. Changes in the elec-
trode angle can significantly influence the weld bead
shape and size. Therefore, the electrode tip configuration
is a variable that should be studied during the welding
procedure development.
PRIMARY VARIABLES
Welding Current
Once the fixed or preselected variables have been cho-
sen, the amount of welding current used will have the
greatest effect on the characteristics of the weld bead.
The welding current is controlled by a knob or handle
– 62 –
Taper
Angle
2-1/2 times
electrode diameter
Illustration 9-3 – Electrode Taper Angle
on the front of the welding machine, or by a foot pedal
rheostat. On some automatic applications, the welding
current may be controlled by weld programmers.
The amount of welding current is determined by the type
of electrode, the size of the electrode, the type of welding
current, position, joint design, metal thickness, and the
current range of the machine. The welding current is the
best variable for controlling the depth of penetration and
the volume of weld metal.
When the welding current is increased as the other fac-
tors remain constant, the penetration and size of the weld
bead increases. An excessive weld current can produce
undercutting, excessive penetration, and an irregular
weld deposit.
Lowering the welding current while the other factors re-
main constant will reduce the penetration and size of the
weld bead. An extremely low weld current can cause pil-
ing up of the weld metal, poor penetration, and overlap-
ping at the edges of the weld bead. The current ranges
used for different sizes and types of tungsten electrodes
are shown in Chapter 4, Illustration 4-3. The effects of the
welding current are shown in Illustration 9-4.
Welding Voltage (Arc Length)
The welding or arc voltage is dependent on the shielding
gas and the distance between the tip of the electrode
and the work. In the case of manual gas tungsten arc
welding, the distance from the tip of the electrode to the
adjacent surface of the weld pool, called arc length, is
controlled by the welder.
In mechanized and automatic welding, the arc length is
pre-set by the distance from the electrode tip to the work.
In automatic welding, arc voltage controllers may be used
to move the electrode tip up and down to maintain the
desired arc length. The arc voltage controller compares
the measured and desired arc voltages to determine
which direction and at what speed the welding electrode
should be moved. This determination, expressed as a
voltage error signal, is amplified to drive motors in a slide
that supports the torch. The changing voltage that results
from the motion of the welding electrode is detected and
the cycle repeats to maintain the desired arc voltage.
The shielding gas has an effect on the arc voltage. He-
lium will give higher arc voltages for a given arc length
than argon, which accounts for the greater penetrating
ability of helium.
The arc length has a direct effect on the welding voltage.
Increasing the arc length will increase the arc voltage and
decreasing the arc length will decrease the arc voltage. A
welding voltage that is too high indicates that the arc is
too long. An excessive arc length will produce an irregu-
lar welding bead that has poor penetration. When the arc
length is extremely long, the shielding gas may not pro-
vide enough protection, which could cause porosity and
a discolored weld bead. The effects of an excessive arc
length are shown in Illustration 9-4.
An arc length that is too short can also cause problems.
It increases the danger of electrode contamination be-
cause the welder is more likely to dip the end of the elec-
trode in the weld puddle. Another problem is that higher
heat builds up on the tungsten electrode and the torch
cup because they are closer to the weld puddle. This re-
duces the service life of the electrode.
Good Weld Current too Low Current too Low
Travel too Fast
Illustration 9-4 –The effects of different primary variables
– 63 –
Travel Speed
The travel speed is the rate that the arc travels along the
workpiece. For a given welding current and voltage, the
travel speed determines the amount of heat that is de-
livered for a given length of weld. Changes in the travel
speed have a strong effect on the shape of the weld bead
and the amount of penetration. In manual gas tungsten
arc welding, the welder controls the rate that the arc trav-
els along the work. In mechanized and automatic welding
operations, the travel speed is controlled by the equip-
ment.
Increasing the travel speed while the other variables
remain constant will reduce the size of the weld bead
and decrease the amount of penetration. Decreasing the
travel speed will increase the size of the weld bead and
increase the penetration.
If the welding current and travel speed are increased or
decreased proportionally together, the weld will maintain
the same penetration and width.
An excessive travel speed will produce a weld bead
that is too small, has poor penetration, and is irregular
in shape. A travel speed that is too slow will give a weld
bead with excessive penetration, size and piling up of the
weld metal when filler metal is added.
Current too High Arc too Long Low Gas Flow
Travel too Slow Damp Gas
Dirty Base Metal
Contaminated Electrode
Illustration 9-5 – Travel Angle and Work Angle

– 64 –
SECONDARY VARIABLES
Angles of the Electrode
The angular position of the electrode in relation to the
work may have an effect on the quality of the weld de-
posit. The position of the electrode may determine the
ease at which the filler metal is added, the quality of the
weld bead, and the uniformity of the bead.
The electrode angles are called the travel angle and
the work angle. The travel angle of the electrode is the
angle between the joint and the electrode in the longi-
tudinal plane. The work angle is the angle between the
electrode and the perpendicular plane to the direction of
travel. These are shown in Illustration 9-5. The electrode
angles are manually controlled by the welder in manual
gas tungsten arc welding and the angles used may vary
slightly from welder to welder.
An incorrect work angle can cause undercutting and an
inadequate weld bead. An example of this is in the case
of making a fillet weld. If the welder favors or directs the
arc more toward one plate, undercutting or lack of fusion
may result on the other plate. The bead may have an ir-
regular shape also. The travel angle used will have an
effect on the penetration and the bead height. Increasing
the travel angle in the direction of welding will generally
build up the height of the bead. Increasing the travel an-
gle in the opposite direction of welding will decrease the
amount of penetration and give a wider bead.
Electrode Extension
The distance that the tip of the electrode extends beyond
the end of the gas cup is known as the electrode exten-
sion. Usually, the amount of extension is equal to one
or two electrode diameters as shown in Illustration 9-6.
There are cases where the electrode extension used will
be greater or less. The longer the electrode extension, the
– 65 –
greater the chance of contamination by striking the base
metal or the filler rod to the tip of the electrode, or by
inadequate gas coverage. The further that the electrode
tip is withdrawn into the gas cup, the less current that
the electrode will be able to withstand, because some of
the heat is reflected back to the electrode from the gas
cup. Longer electrode extensions are often used on fillet
welds so that the electrode may approach the root of the
joint and the arc will be visible to the welder.
In some cases, the end of the electrode is withdrawn into
the gas cup, making it very difficult to contaminate the
electrode. This hinders visibility and requires a high de-
gree of welder skill. For welds that require a very short
arc length, a longer than normal extension is employed
so that the welder has better vision. Longer electrode ex-
tensions will require higher gas flow rates and will not
be cooled as efficiently. The electrode extension should
not be longer than absolutely necessary because of the
added gas flow rates needed and the added danger of
electrode contamination.
Cup
Electrode
Electrode
Extension
Illustration 9-6
Electrode Extension
 CHAPTER 10
WELDING PROCEDURE SCHEDULES
The welding procedure schedules in this chapter give
typical welding conditions that can be used to obtain high
quality welds under normal welding conditions. The gas
tungsten arc welding process can use a wide variety of
operating conditions for welding various base metals. The
schedules presented here provide only a few examples of
the many different welding procedures that can be used.
The tables given here are not the only conditions that
could be used because factors such as weld appearanc-
es, welder skill, method of application, and the specific
application, often require variations from the schedules.
For example, when automatic gas tungsten arc welding is
used, the travel speeds are often higher than if the welding
was performed manually. As the particular requirements of
the application become known, the settings may be ad-
justed to obtain the optimum welding conditions. Quali-
fying tests, or trials, should be made in the shop or field
prior to actual use.
When adjusting or changing the variables for welding, the
effect of the variables on each other must be considered.
One variable cannot usually be changed very much with-
out adjusting or changing the other variables, in order to
obtain a stable arc and good overall welding conditions.
The following schedules are based on welding specific
metals and their alloys such as aluminum, magnesium,
copper, nickel, and titanium as well as steel. The tables
have the type of weld, base metal thickness, number of
passes, tungsten electrode size, gas cup size, filler rod
– 66 –
size, gas flow rate, welding current, and travel speed as
the variables that can be changed.
The arc voltage is not included because it is the result of
the arc length held by the welder, which will vary depend-
ing on the welder. Gas tungsten arc welding is done using
constant current types of power sources, which allow the
welding voltage to vary, while keeping the welding current
at approximately the same level. In automatic gas tung-
sten arc welding, the voltage is easily measured because
the machine can hold a constant arc length.
The tables presented in this chapter are the conditions
for manual gas tungsten arc welding. The main empha-
sis of these schedules is on the welding conditions used
for the welding of thin materials be cause these are the
applications for which gas tungsten arc welding is most
widely used. This is especially true for nonferrous metals.
The type of current, shielding gas, and tungsten electrode
used are the types recommended for welding these differ-
ent metals and will not be considered as variables here.
The procedure schedules presented here are in no way a
complete guide to the procedures used for gas tungsten
arc welding and are not the only conditions which may be
used to obtain a specific weld because of the wide variety
of applications that gas tungsten arc welding is capable
of performing. Qualifying tests should be made under the
actual conditions before using this process for production
welding.
 60º 60º

Butt Corner

Thickness Gas Travel

Base Metal – of Base Number Tungsten Cup Filler Flow Welding Speed
current, shielding gas, Metal of Size Size Size ft3/hr Current in./min.
electrode type in/ga (mm) Passes in. (mm) in. (mm) in. (mm) (l/min) Amperes (mm/s)
240-300Aluminum & 3/16 (4.8) 2 5/32 (4.0) 7/16 (11.1) 5/32 (4.0) 25 (11.8) 160-180 11 (4.7)
Aluminum Alloys –
AC, argon gas, pure 1/4 (6.4) 2 5/32 (4.0) 1/2 (12.7) 3/16 (4.8) 30 (14.2) 200-220 9 (3.8)
or zirconium tungsten
electrode
3/8 (9.5) 2 3/16 (4.8) 1/2 (12.7) 3/16 (4.8) 30 (14.2) 240-300 8 (3.4)

1/2 (12.7) 2-3 3/16 (4.8) 1/2 (12.7) 3/16 (4.8) 35 (16.5) 300-350 8 (3.4)

Copper & Copper 1/4 (6.4) 2 1/8 (3.2) 3/8 (9.5) 1/8 (3.2) 36 (17.0) 220-275 7 (3.0)
alloys (except silicon
bronze) – DCEN, helium 3/8 (9.5) 2 3/16 (4.8) 1/2 (12.7) 3/16 (4.8) 45 (21.2) 275-325 7 (3.0)
gas, thoriated tungsten
electrode
1/2 (12.7) 2 1/4 (6.4) 5/8 (15.9) 1/4 (6.4) 45 (21.2) 370-500 6 (2.5)

Silicon Bronze– 3/8 (9.5) 3 1/8 (3.2) 3/8 (9.5) 3/16 (4.8) 25 (11.8) 295-355 8 (3.4)
DCEN, argon gas,
thoriated tungsten
1/2 (12.7) 4 1/8 (3.2) 3/8 (9.5) 1/8 (3.2) 25 (11.8) 245-295 8 (3.4)
electrode

3/4 (19.1) 9 1/8 (3.2) 3/8 (9.5) 3/16 (4.8) 25 (11.8) 295-355 8 (3.4)

Magnesium Alloys – 3/16 (4.8) 1 1/8 (3.2) 3/8 (9.5) 1/8 (3.2) 25 (11.8) 95-115 24 (10.2)
AC, argon gas, pure
or zirconium tungsten
1/4 (6.4) 2 3/16 (4.8) 1/2 (12.7) 5/32 (4.0) 25 (11.8) 110-130 20 (8.5)
electrode

3/8 (9.5) 2 3/16 (4.8) 1/2 (12.7) 3/16 (4.8) 30 (14.2) 135-165 18 (7.6)

1/2 (12.7) 2-3 1/4 (6.4) 5/8 (15.9) 3/16 (4.8) 35 (16.5) 280-320 10 (4.2)

3/4 (19.1) 3 1/4 (6.4) 3/4 (19.1) 3/16 (4.8) 40 (18.9) 340-380 10 (4.2)

Stainless Steel – 1/4 (6.4) 2 1/8 (3.2) 3/8 (9.5) 3/16 (4.8) 18 (8.5) 175-250 10 (4.2)
DCEN, argon gas,
thoriated tungsten
3/8 (9.5) 2-3 3/16 (4.8) 1/2 (12.7) 3/16 (4.8) 25 (11.8) 250-350 10 (4.2)
electrode

1/2 (12.7) 3 3/16 (4.8) 1/2 (12.7) 1/4 (6.4) 25 (11.8) 250-350 10 (4.2)

Titanium – 1/4 (6.4) 2 1/8 (3.2) 5/8 (15.9) 1/8 (3.2) 30 (14.2) 135-200 8 (3.4)
DCEN, argon gas,
thoriated tungsten
3/8 (9.5) 2 1/8 (3.2) 3/4 (19.1) 1/8 (3.2) 35 (16.5) 140-210 6 (2.5)
electrode

1/2 (12.7) 3 1/8 (3.2) 3/4 (19.1) 3/32 (4.0) 40 (18.9) 160-250 6 (2.5)

Illustration 10-1 – V-Groove Welds on Various Types of Base Metals

– 67 –
 Butt Corner

Edge

Tungsten electrode size, filler wire size, and welding current can vary with travel speed and welder skill.
For overhead welding, use approximately 5 ft3/hr (2.4 l/min.) more argon for overhead welding.

Thickness Gas Travel

Base Metal – of Base Number Tungsten Cup Filler Flow Welding Speed
current, shielding gas, Metal of Size Size Size ft3/hr Current in./min.
electrode type in/ga (mm) Passes in. (mm) in. (mm) in. (mm) (l/min) Amperes (mm/s)
Aluminum & 3/64 (1.2) 1 1/16 (1.6) 1/4 (6.4) 1/16 (1.6) 19 (9.0) 20-60 12 (5.1)
Aluminum Alloys –
AC, argon gas, pure
1/16 (1.6) 1 3/32 (2.4) 5/16 (7.9) 3/32 (2.4) 19 (9.0) 40-90 10 (4.2)
or zirconium tungsten
electrode
3/32 (2.4) 1 3/32 (2.4) 5/16 (7.9) 3/32 (2.4) 19 (9.0) 50-110 10 (4.2)

1/8 (3.2) 1 1/8 (3.2) 3/8 (9.5) 1/8 (3.2) 20 (9.4) 100-150 10 (4.2)

Copper & Copper 1/16 (1.6) 1 1/16 (1.6) 1/4 (6.4) 1/16 (1.6) 18 (8.5) 100-150 12 (5.1)
Alloys (except silicon
bronze) – DCEN, argon 1/8 (3.2) 1 3/32 (2.4) 5/16 (7.9) 3/32 (2.4) 18 (8.5) 150-230 10 (4.2)
for thickness 1/16" and
1/8" – helium for 3/16",
thoriated tungsten 3/16 (4.8) 1 1/8 (3.2) 3/8 (9.5) 1/8 (3.2) 36 (17) 175-250 10 (4.2)
electrode

Silicon Bronze– 1/16 (1.6) 1 1/16 (1.6) 1/4 (6.4) 1/16 (1.6) 15 (7.1) 60-125 12 (5.1)
DCEN, argon gas,
thoriated tungsten
electrode 1/8 (3.2) 1 1/16 (1.6) 1/4 (6.4) 3/32 (2.4) 20 (9.4) 80-150 12 (5.1)

3/16 (4.8) 1 3/32 (2.4) 5/16 (7.9) 3/32 (2.4) 20 (9.4) 100-195 10 (4.2)

1/4 (6.4) 2 3/32 (2.4) 5/16 (7.9) 1/8 (3.2) 25 (11.8) 150-225 10 (4.2)

Magnesium Alloys – 20 ga. (.9) 1 1/16 (1.6) 1/4 (6.4) 3/32 (2.4) 15 (7.1) 25-40 15 (6.3)
AC, argon gas, pure
or zirconium tungsten
electrode
16 ga. (1.5) 1 1/16 (1.6) 1/4 (6.4) 3/32 (2.4) 15 (7.1) 35-70 15 (6.3)

14 ga. (1.9) 1 1/16 (1.6) 1/4 (6.4) 3/32 (2.4) 15 (7.1) 40-75 13 (5.5)

12 ga. (2.7) 1 3/32 (2.4) 5/16 (7.9) 1/8 (3.2) 15 (7.1) 50-100 13 (5.5)

11 ga. (3.0) 1 3/32 (2.4) 5/16 (7.9) 1/8 (3.2) 25 (11.8) 65-125 13 (5.5)

Nickel & 24 ga. (.6) 1 1/16 (1.6) 3/8 (9.5) None 15 (7.1) 8-10 8 (3.4)
Nickel Alloys –
DCEN, argon gas,
16 ga. (1.5) 1 3/32 (2.4) 1/2 (12.7) 1/16 (1.6) 18 (8.5) 40-70 8 (3.4)
thoriated tungsten
electrode
1/8 (3.2) 1 1/8 (3.2) 1/2 (12.7) 3/32 (2.4) 25 (11.8) 75-140 11 (4.7)

1/4 (6.4) 2 1/8 (3.2) 1/2 (12.7) 1/8 (3.2) 30 (914.2) 100-175 8 (3.4)
Continued on next page.
Illustration 10-2 – Square-Groove Welds on Various Types of Base Metals

– 68 –
 Butt Corner

Edge

Thickness Gas Travel

Base Metal – of Base Number Tungsten Cup Filler Flow Welding Speed
current, shielding gas, Metal of Size Size Size ft3/hr Current in./min.
electrode type in/ga (mm) Passes in. (mm) in. (mm) in. (mm) (l/min) Amperes (mm/s)
Carbon & Low 24 ga. (.6) 1 1/16 (1.6) 1/4 (6.4) 1/16 (1.6) 10 (4.7) 15-35 13 (5.5)
Alloy Steel –
DCEN, argon gas,
thoriated tungsten 20 ga. (.9) 1 1/16 (1.6) 1/4 (6.4) 1/16 (1.6) 10 (4.7) 20-45 13 (5.5)
electrode
18 ga. (1.2) 1 1/16 (1.6) 1/4 (6.4) 1/16 (1.6) 10 (4.7) 25-55 12 (5.1)

16 ga. (1.5) 1 1/16 (1.6) 1/4 (6.4) 1/16 (1.6) 10 (4.7) 35-65 12 (5.1)

14 ga. (1.9) 1 1/16 (1.6) 1/4 (6.4) 1/16 (1.6) 10 (4.7) 35-70 12 (5.1)

3/32 (2.4)) 1 3/32 (2.4) 5/16 (7.9) 3/32 (2.4) 10 (4.7) 35-80 12 (5.1)

1/8 (3.2) 1 3/32 (2.4) 5/16 (7.9) 3/32 (2.4) 12 (5.7) 45-100 11 (4.7)

3/16 (4.8) 1 1/8 (3.2) 3/8 (9.5) 1/8 (3.2) 15 (7.1) 65-140 10 (4.2)

1/4 (6.4) 1 1/8 (3.2) 3/8 (9.5) 1/8 (3.2) 18 (8.5) 85-175 10 (4.2)

Stainless Steel – 1/16 (1.6) 1 1/16 (1.6) 1/4 (6.4) 1/16 (1.6) 12 (5.7) 35-60 12 (5.1)
DCEN, argon gas,
thoriated tungsten
electrode 3/32 (2.4) 1 1/16 (1.6) 1/4 (6.4) 3/32 (2.4) 12 (5.7) 45-85 12 (5.1)

1/8 (3.2) 1 1/16 (1.6) 5/16 (7.9) 3/32 (2.4) 12 (5.7) 55-100 12 (5.1)

3/16 (4.8) 1 3/32 (2.4) 5/16 (7.9) 1/8 (3.2) 15 (7.1) 65-130 10 (4.2)

Titanium – 24 ga. (.6) 1 1/16 (1.6) 3/8 (9.5) None 18 (8.5) 20-35 6 (2.5)
DCEN, argon gas,
thoriated tungsten
electrode 16 ga. (1.5) 1 1/16 (1.6) 5/8 (15.9) None 25 (11.8) 35-60 6 (2.5)

3/32 (2.4) 1 3/32 (2.4) 5/8 (15.9) 1/16 (1.6) 25 (11.8) 40-70 8 (23.4)

1/8 (3.2) 1 3/32 (2.4) 5/8 (15.9) 1/16 (1.6) 25 (11.8) 50-80 8 (23.4)

3/16 (4.8) 1 3/32 (2.4) 5/8 (15.9) 1/8 (3.2) 25 (11.8) 70-100 8 (23.4)

Illustration 10-2 – Square-Groove Welds on Various Types of Base Metals

– 69 –
 S
Corner S

Lap

Tee

Thickness Gas Travel

Base Metal – of Base Number Tungsten Cup Filler Flow Welding Speed
current, shielding gas, Metal of Size Size Size ft3/hr Current in./min.
electrode type in/ga (mm) Passes in. (mm) in. (mm) in. (mm) (l/min) Amperes (mm/s)
Aluminum & 1/16 (1.6) 1 3/32 (2.4) 5/16 (7.9) 3/32 (2.4) 15 (7.1) 50-90 9 (3.8)
Aluminum Alloys – 3/32 (2.4) 1 3/32 (2.4) 5/16 (7.9) 3/32 (2.4) 16 (7.6) 60-115 9 (3.8)
AC, argon gas, pure
or zirconium tungsten 1/8 (3.2) 1 1/8 (3.2) 3/8 (9.5) 1/8 (3.2) 19 (9.0) 70-140 10 (4.2)
electrode 3/16 (4.8) 1 5/32 (4.0) 7/16 (11.1) 5/32 (4.0) 25 (11.8) 110-200 10 (4.2)
1/4 (6.4) 1 3/16 (4.8) 1/2 (12.7) 3/16 (4.8) 30 (14.2) 130-250 10 (4.2)
3/8 (9.5) 2 3/16 (4.8) 1/2 (12.7) 3/16 (4.8) 35 (16.5) 175-310 8 (3.4)
1/2 (12.7) 3 3/16 (4.8) 1/2 (12.7) 3/16 (4.8) 35 (16.5) 250-350 8 (3.4)
Copper & Copper 1/16 (1.6) 1 1/16 (1.6) 1/4 (6.4) 1/16 (1.6) 18 (8.5) 90-155 10 (4.2)
Alloys (except silicon 1/8 (3.2) 1 3/32 (2.4) 5/16 (7.9) 3/32 (2.4) 18 (8.5) 150-245 8 (3.4)
bronze) – DCEN, helium
gas, thoriated tungsten 3/16 (4.8) 1 1/8 (3.2) 3/8 (9.5) 1/8 (3.2) 36 (17.0) 175-255 8 (3.4)
electrode 1/4 (6.4) 1 1/8 (3.2) 3/8 (9.5) 1/8 (3.2) 36 (17.0) 200-285 7 (3.0)
3/8 (9.5) 2 3/16 (4.8) 1/2 (12.7) 3/16 (4.8) 36 (17.0) 220-350 6 (2.5)
1/2 (12.7) 3 3/16 (4.8) 5/8 (15.9) 1/4 (6.4) 45 (21.2) 300-500 6 (2.5)
Silicon Bronze– 1/16 (1.6) 1 1/16 (1.6) 1/4 (6.4) 1/16 (1.6) 15 (7.1) 75-120 10 (4.2)
DCEN, argon gas, 1/8 (3.2) 1 1/16 (1.6) 1/4 (6.4) 3/32 (2.4) 15 (7.1) 95-150 10 (4.2)
thoriated tungsten
electrode 3/16 (4.8) 1 3/32 (2.4) 5/16 (7.9) 3/32 (2.4) 20 (9.4) 125-220 10 (4.2)
1/4 (6.4) 2 3/32 (2.4) 5/16 (7.9) 1/8 (3.2) 25 (11.8) 140-275 8 (3.4)
3/8 (9.5) 3 1/8 (3.2) 3/8 (9.5) 1/8 (3.2) 25 (11.8) 200-285 8 (3.4)
1/2 (12.7) 7 5/32 (4.0) 3/8 (9.5) 1/8 (3.2) 25 (11.8) 240-300 8 (3.4)
3/4 (19.1) 14 5/32 (4.0) 3/8 (9.5) 3/16 (4.8) 25 (11.8) 275-350 8 (3.4)
1 (25.4) 20 3/16 (4.8) 7/16 (11.1) 1/4 (6.4) 25 (11.8) 300-365 8 (3.4)
Magnesium Alloys – 20 ga. (.9) 1 1/16 (1.6) 3/8 (9.5) 3/32 (2.4) 15 (7.1) 25-45 20 (8.5)
AC, argon gas, pure 16 ga. (1.5) 1 1/16 (1.6) 3/8 (9.5) 3/32 (2.4) 15 (7.1) 35-60 20 (8.5)
or zirconium tungsten
electrode 14 ga. (1.9) 1 3/32 (2.4) 3/8 (9.5) 1/8 (3.2) 15 (7.1) 50-80 17 (7.2)
12 ga. (2.7) 1 3/32 (2.4) 1/2 (12.7) 1/8 (3.2) 20 (9.4) 75-100 17 (7.2)
11 ga. (3.0) 1 3/32 (2.4) 1/2 (12.7) 1/8 (3.2) 20 (9.4) 95-120 17 (7.2)
Continued on next page.
Illustration 10-3 – Fillet Welds on Various Types of Base Metals

– 70 –
 S
Corner S

Lap

Tee

Thickness Gas Travel

Base Metal – of Base Number Tungsten Cup Filler Flow Welding Speed
current, shielding gas, Metal of Size Size Size ft3/hr Current in./min.
electrode type in/ga (mm) Passes in. (mm) in. (mm) in. (mm) (l/min) Amperes (mm/s)
Nickel & 24 ga. (.6) 1 1/16 (1.6) 3/8 (9.5) None 15 (7.1) 8-10 8 (3.4)
Nickel alloys – 16 ga. (1.5) 1 3/32 (2.4) 1/2 (12.7) 1/16 (1.6) 18 (8.5) 25-45 8 (3.4)
DCEN, argon gas,
thoriated tungsten 1/8 (3.2) 1 1/8 (3.2) 1/2 (12.7) 3/32 (2.4) 25 (11.8) 90-175 11 (4.7)
electrode 1/4 (6.4) 2 1/8 (3.2) 1/2 (12.7) 1/8 (3.2) 30 (14.2) 100-175 8 (3.4)
Carbon & Low 24 ga. (.6) 1 1/16 (1.6) 1/4 (6.4) 1/16 (1.6) 10 (4.7) 15-20 13 (5.5)
Alloy Steel – 20 ga. (.9) 1 1/16 (1.6) 1/4 (6.4) 1/16 (1.6) 10 (4.7) 25-50 15 (6.3)
DCEN, argon gas,
thoriated tungsten 18 ga. (1.2) 1 1/16 (1.6) 1/4 (6.4) 1/16 (1.6) 10 (4.7) 35-70 15 (6.3)
electrode 16 ga. (1.5) 1 1/16 (1.6) 1/4 (6.4) 1/16 (1.6) 10 (4.7) 50-80 15 (6.3)
14 ga. (1.9) 1 1/16 (1.6) 1/4 (6.4) 1/16 (1.6) 10 (4.7) 65-90 15 (6.3)
1/8 (3.2) 1 3/32 (2.4) 5/16 (7.9) 3/32 (2.4) 12 (5.7) 75-120 11 (4.7)
3/16 (4.8) 1 1/8 (3.2) 3/8 (9.5) 1/8 (3.2) 15 (7.1) 150-200 10 (4.2)
1/4 (6.4) 2 1/8 (3.2) 3/8 (9.5) 1/8 (3.2) 18 (8.5) 160-250 10 (4.2)
Stainless Steel – 1/16 (1.6) 1 1/16 (1.6) 1/4 (6.4) 1/16 (1.6) 10 (4.7) 45-75 10 (4.2)
DCEN, argon gas, 3/32 (2.4) 1 1/16 (1.6) 1/4 (6.4) 3/32 (2.4) 10 (4.7) 65-85 10 (4.2)
thoriated tungsten
electrode 1/8 (3.2) 1 1/16 (1.6) 5/16 (7.9) 3/32 (2.4) 10 (4.7) 75-125 10 (4.2)
3/16 (4.8) 1 1/8 (3.2) 3/8 (9.5) 1/8 (3.2) 15 (7.1) 100-175 8 (3.4)
1/4 (6.4) 2 1/8 (3.2) 3/8 (9.5) 3/16 (4.8) 18 (8.5) 125-225 10 (4.2)
3/8 (9.5) 2-3 3/16 (4.8) 1/2 (12.7) 3/16 (4.8) 25 (11.8) 175-300 10 (4.2)
1/2 (12.7) 3 3/16 (4.8) 1/2 (12.7) 1/4 (6.4) 25 (11.8) 200-325 10 (4.2)
Titanium – 24 ga. (.6) 1 1/16 (1.6) 3/8 (9.5) None 18 (8.5) 20-35 6 (2.5)
DCEN, argon gas, 16 ga. (1.5) 1 1/16 (1.6) 5/8 (15.9) None 18 (8.5) 45-85 6 (2.5)
thoriated tungsten
electrode 3/32 (2.4) 1 3/32 (2.4) 5/8 (15.9) 1/16 (1.6) 25 (11.8) 60-90 8 (3.4)
1/8 (3.2) 1 3/32 (2.4) 5/8 (15.9) 1/16 (1.6) 25 (11.8) 80-125 8 (3.4)
3/16 (4.8) 2 3/32 (2.4) 5/8 (15.9) 1/8 (3.2) 25 (11.8) 90-140 8 (3.4)
1/4 (6.4) 2 1/8 (3.2) 5/8 (15.9) 1/8 (3.2) 30 (14.2) 125-175 8 (3.4)
3/8 (9.5) 2 1/8 (3.2) 3/4 (19.1) 1/8 (3.2) 35 (16.5) 175-225 6 (2.5)
1/2 (12.7) 3 3/32 (2.4) 3/4 (19.1) 5/32 (4.0) 40 (18.9) 225-300 6 (2.5)

Illustration 10-3 – Fillet Welds on Various Types of Base Metals

– 71 –
 Butt Corner

Edge

Thickness Argon Travel

of Base Welding % High Pulse Low Pulse Gas Flow Speed
Metal Joint Current Welding TIme TIme ft3/hr in./min.
in/ga (mm) Type Amperes Current Seconds Seconds (l/min) (mm/s)

24 ga. (.6) 35-45 20 0.05 0.3 12 (5.7) 4 (1.69)

18 ga. (1.2) 45-55 20 0.1 0.3 12 (5.7) 4 (1.69)

Butt,
16 ga. (1.5) Edge, 55-70 20 0.2 0.4 12 (5.7) 4 (1.69)
Corner
3/32 (2.4) 65-85 20 0.3 0.6 12 (5.7) 3 (1.27)

1/8 (3.2) 75-95 20 0.4 0.8 12 (5.7) 3 (1.27)

Illustration 10-4 – Pulsed Current Procedures for Welding Thin Gauge Stainless Steel

75º 75º 75º

1/16” 1/16” 1/64”

Root Opening
0 to suit Insert 1/8”
V-/Butt Consumable Insert Open Root

Thickness Argon Travel

of Base Welding % High Pulse Low Pulse Gas Flow Speed
Metal Joint Current Welding TIme TIme ft3/hr in./min.
in/ga (mm) Type Amperes Current Seconds Seconds (l/min) (mm/s)

V-/Butt 170-190 20 0.6 0.6 18 (8.5) 3 (1.27)

Consumable Insert 170-190 20 0.6 0.6 18 (8.5) 3 (1.27)

Unlimited
Open Root 110-130 40 0.6 0.6 18 (8.5) 4 (1.69)

Fill Pass 110-130 40 0.6 0.6 25 (11.8) 4 (1.69)

Illustration 10-5 – Pulsed Current Procedures for Welding Stainless Steel Plate

– 72 –
 Arc Length
Electrode to
1/8” Electrode
Work 1/16”
Diameter

Thickness Welding Condition Amperes Arc Argon

of Base Metal Time Gas Flow
Base Metal in/ga (mm) DCEN AC Seconds2 ft3/hr (l/min)

Stainless Steel 125 175 1.0 10 (4.7)

24 ga. (.6) 110 175 1.25 10 (4.7)

100 150 1.5 10 (4.7)

125 175 1.5 10 (4.7)

22 ga. (.8)
100 175 1.75 10 (4.7)

140 200 1.5 12 (5.7)

18 ga. (1.2)
110 150 2.5 12 (5.7)

170 250 3.0 12 (5.7)

16 ga. (1.5) 140 – 3.25 12 (5.7)

115 – 5.25 12 (5.7)

.064 (1.6) 160 250 2.25 12 (5.7)

Low Alloy & 170 250 1.5 8 (3.8)

Mild Steel
22 ga. (.8) 140 200 2.0 8 (3.8)

120 175 2.25 8 (3.8)

170 250 1.75 10 (4.7)

18 ga. (1.2) 140 200 2.0 10 (4.7)

135 200 2.5 10 (4.7)

170 250 3.0 12 (5.7)

16 ga. (1.5)
155 225 3.5 12 (5.7)

Aluminum .022 (0.56) – 170 1.1 8 (3.8)

.032 (0.81) – 200 1.5 8 (3.8)

.048 (1.22) – 220 1.7 8 (3.8)

.064 (1.62) – 250 2.2 8 (3.8)

Illustration 10-6 – Gas Tungsten Arc Spot Welding – Flat or Vertical Position

– 73 –
 CHAPTER 11
PREWELD PREPARATIONS
Several steps must be taken before making a weld with
the gas tungsten arc welding process. These include pre-
paring the weld joint, preparing the electrode tip, fixturing
the weldment, setting the variables, and in some cases,
preheating. The amount of preweld preparation depends
upon the size of the weld and weldment, type of base
metal, ease of fit-up, the quality requirements, the gov-
erning code or specification, and the welder.
PREPARING THE WELD JOINT
There are different ways of preparing the edge of the joint
for welding. For fillet or square-groove welds, the joints
are prepared simply by squaring the edges of the mem-
bers to be welded if the as-received edge is not suit-
able. In gas tungsten arc welding, a large percentage of
the joints are prepared this way because this process is
widely used for welding thin materials.
The methods most often used for edge preparation are
oxygen fuel cutting, plasma arc cutting, shearing, ma-
chining, air carbon arc gouging, grinding, and chipping.
When they are available, the thermal cutting methods,
oxyfuel cutting, plasma arc cutting, or air carbon arc cut-
ting are faster than the mechanical cutting methods, with
the exception of shearing.
Oxygen fuel cutting is used on carbon and low alloy
steels. Plasma arc cutting is used on ferrous and nonfer-
rous metals and is best for applications where high pro-
duction rates are required. Air carbon arc cutting is used
for most steels, including stainless steels. This process
should not be used on stainless steels for critical corro-
sion applications because of the carbon deposited. The
surfaces cut by these thermal methods often have to be
ground lightly to remove the scale or contamination.
Common types of prepared joints are the V-, U-, J-, bev-
el-, and combination grooves. The more complex types
of bevels require longer joint preparation time which
makes the joint preparation more expensive. Next to the
square edge preparation, the V-groove and single-bevel
grooves are most often used and can be easily prepared
by oxygen fuel cutting or plasma arc cutting. These two
methods leave a smooth surface if properly done. The
edges of U- and J-grooves can be prepared by using
special oxyfuel tips and techniques, air carbon arc cut-
ting, or by machining, which will produce a more uniform
groove. These joint preparations are not as commonly
used in gas tungsten arc welding because they are joint
preparations for thicker materials.
– 74 –
CLEANING THE WORK METAL
The welds made by gas tungsten arc welding are very
susceptible to contamination during the welding process.
The surface of the base metal must be free of grease, oil,
paint, plating, dirt, oxides, or any other foreign material.
This is especially critical when welding aluminum and
nonferrous metals. Extremely dirty workpieces, except ti-
tanium, are usually cleaned by using solvent cleaners fol-
lowed by vapor degreasing. Simple degreasing is often
used for cleaning metals that have oxide-free surfaces.
Acid pickling is generally used for cleaning metals that
have a light oxide coating. The heavier oxide coatings are
usually removed mechanically by grinding and abrasive
blasting.
The type of cleaning operation required will vary depend-
ing on the metal. Aluminum has a thick, refractory oxide
coating which has a high electrical resistance. This coat-
ing is removed by deoxidation with a hot alkaline clean-
ing solution, followed by rinsing in distilled water. Car-
bon and low alloy steels may be cleaned chemically in
a hydrochloric acid solution. Nickel alloys and stainless
steels may be cleaned by pickling, which removes iron,
sand blast residue, and other contaminants. Titanium
and titanium alloys may be cleaned in molten salt baths
or by abrasive blasting. Chlorinated solvents, which are
used for degreasing operations, should not be used on
titanium because they will cause corrosion cracking.
Chemical cleaning can be done by pickling with hydro-
fluoric acid.
Just before welding, there are several tasks that should
be performed. One is to file the edges of the joint smooth
so no burrs are present. Burrs can cause physical pain
and be a place to trap contaminants in a weld joint. The
surfaces of the joint and surrounding area should be wire
brushed. Mild steel brushes are used for cleaning mild
and low alloy steel. Stainless steel wire brushes are used
for cleaning stainless steel, aluminum, and other non-
ferrous metals to avoid contamination due to rust or car-
bon which would result from the use of mild steel wire
brushes.
Welding should be done soon after cleaning, especially
on metals that form moderate or thick surface oxides
such as stainless steel, aluminum, and magnesium. Wire
brushing does not completely remove the oxide, but it re-
duces its thickness and makes the metals easier to weld.
Gloves should be worn while cleaning to prevent oil or
dirt from the fingers from getting on the joint surfaces,
which can also cause contamination.
Contaminates on the workpiece can lead to arc instability
and result in welds that contain pores, cracks, or inclu-
sions.
ELECTRODE TIP PREPARATION

The shape of the tungsten electrode tip is an impor-

tant process variable in gas tungsten arc welding. The
type of electrode tip preparation depends on the type of
tungsten electrode. The tip of the electrode may have a
pointed, hemispherical, or balled profile. A pointed elec-
trode tip is best for welding in restricted areas, such as
narrow joints, and it permits a high current density to be 2-1/2
maintained. Pointed electrode tips are used on thoriated,
ceriated, and lanthanated electrodes while the hemi-
spherical and balled tips are used for zirconiated and
pure tungsten electrodes.
Pointed
The pure tungsten and zirconiated electrodes form a end should be pointed approximately 2-1/2 times
hemispherical or balled tip and are mainly used for weld- the diameter of the electrode
ing with alternating current. These two types of electrode
tip preparations are shown in Illustration 11-1. A hemi-
Illustration 11-2 – Pointed Tip Preparation
spherical electrode tip is produced by starting an arc be-
tween the electrode and a piece of scrap metal or cop-
per and maintaining it at a moderate current level, until a
nating current, they are normally ground to a sharp point
hemispherical ball is formed on the end of the electrode.
as shown in Illustration 11-2. The length of the ground
A balled tip is produced in the same way, except that
surface of the electrode should be about two and one-
higher current levels are used. As the current is increased
half times the electrode diameter.
beyond the point where a hemispherical tip exists, the
ball will increase in size proportionately. The diameter of
To produce optimum arc stability, grinding of tungsten
the balled end should not exceed one and one-half times
electrodes should be done with the axis of the electrode
the electrode diameter, because the excessive current
perpendicular to the axis of the grinding wheel or along
will consume the electrode too quickly. The surface of the
the length of the electrode and not across the diameter.
hemispherical and balled tips should always be perfectly
This will produce a more stable arc. The tip of the elec-
clean, shiny and highly reflective.
trode should be blunted slightly before welding. When
higher current levels are used, the tip of the electrode will
The pointed type of tip preparation is used on ceriated,
melt back a bit and give a slightly wider tip. The grinding
lanthanated, and thoriated tungsten electrodes which are
wheel should be reserved for grinding only tungsten to
generally used for direct current electrode negative weld-
eliminate possible contamination of the tungsten tip with
ing. Unless the electrodes are used for welding with alter-
foreign matter during the grinding operation. Exhaust
hoods should be used when grinding thoriated elec-
trodes to remove the grinding dust from the work area.

Thoriated, ceriated, lanthanated, and zirconated elec-

trodes will maintain a pointed edge preparation over a
wide current range, but pure tungsten electrodes will
change their tip profile according to the amount of cur-
rent they are carrying. The surface of a pointed electrode
should be kept clean at all times, but it will not be shiny.

Hemispherical Balled
end should not exceed
1-1/2 times the diameter
of the electrode
Illustration 11-1 – Hemispherical and
Balled Tip Preparations
FIXTURING, POSITIONING,
AND WELD BACKING
Fixturing and positioning can affect the shape, size and
uniformity of a weld bead. Fixtures are devices used to
hold the parts to be welded in proper relation to each
other. When fixturing is not used, it usually indicates that
the resulting weld distortion can be tolerated or correct-
ed by straightening operations. The following are primary
functions of fixturing:

– 75 –
1) Locate parts precisely within the assembly
2) Maintain alignment during welding
3) Minimize distortion in the weldment
4) Control heat buildup
5) Increase welding efficiency
When a welding fixture is employed, the components of
a weldment can be assembled and securely held in place
while the weldment is positioned and welded. The use of
those devices is dependent on the specific application.
Fixturing is more often used when large numbers of the
same parts are produced, greatly reducing the produc-
tion time.
Positioners are used to move the workpiece into a more
convenient position. Positioning is sometimes needed
simply to make the weld joint more accessible. Position-
ers are not widely used for gas tungsten arc welding be-
cause many of the parts welded by this process are small
and easily handled. The main objective of positioning is
to put the joint in the flat or other more favorable position,
which increases weld efficiency by allowing higher weld-
ing speeds. Flat position welding usually increases the
quality of the weld because it makes the welding easier.
Weld backings are commonly used in gas tungsten arc
welding to provide support for the weld metal and to con-
trol the heat input. Copper, stainless steel, and consum-
able insert rings are the three most common methods.
Copper is the most popular method of weld backing be-
cause it does not fuse to thin metals. It also provides a
fast cooling rate, because of the high heat conductivity of
copper, which makes this a good method of controlling
the heat input. Stainless steel is good backing material
for argon shielded gas tungsten arc welding. Consum-
able inserts are often used as weld backing for welding
the root pass in pipe welding. The inserts are fit into place
and are available in plain carbon, alloy, and stainless steel
as well as copper and nickel alloys.
– 76 –
PREHEATING
Preheating is sometimes required, depending on the type
of metal being welded, the base metal thickness, and the
amount of joint restraint. These factors were discussed
in Chapter 7. The specific amount of preheat needed for
a given application is obtained from the welding proce-
dure.
The preheat temperature of the metal can be carefully
controlled by either furnace heating, electric induction
coil heating, or electric resistance heating blankets. On
thin materials, hot air blasts or radiant lamps may be
used. With these methods, temperature indicators are
attached to the parts being preheated.
Oxyfuel torches are another method of preheating. This
method gives more localized heating than the previously
mentioned methods. When using oxyfuel torches, it is
important to avoid localized overheating and deposits
of incomplete combustion products from collecting on
the surface of the parts to be welded. There are several
methods of measuring the temperature of preheat such
as colored crayons, pellets, and hand-held temperature
indicators. The crayons and pellets melt at a specific
predetermined temperature. The hand-held temperature
indicators can give meter readings, digital readings, or
recorder readings of the temperature, depending on the
type of temperature indicator.
 CHAPTER 12
WELDING DISCONTINUITIES AND DEFECTS
Gas tungsten arc welding, like the other processes, can
have welding procedure problems that result in weld de-
fects. Some defects are caused by problems with the
materials including the use of improper base metal, filler
metal, or shielding gas. Other welding problems may not
be foreseeable, such as arc blow and electrode contami-
nation, and may require immediate corrective action. A
poor welding technique and an improper choice of weld-
ing parameters are other causes of welding defects. Dis-
continuities that can occur when using gas tungsten arc
welding are tungsten inclusions, porosity, wormhole po-
rosity, undercutting, incomplete fusion, melt-through, arc
strikes, and craters. Problems with the welding technique
or procedure weaken the weld and can cause cracking.
The base metal and filler metal must be clean to avoid
many of these problems. Other problems that can occur
and reduce the quality of the weld are arc blow, lack of
shielding gas, and drafts or air currents. Gas tungsten arc
welding does not have many problems with slag inclu-
sions because the weld puddle is protected by a shielding
gas, instead of by a slag layer. Some filler metals, par-
ticularly those used for mild steel, will sometimes leave a
small amount of slag, which may cause slag inclusions if it
is not cleaned properly. However, this is rarely a problem.
Welding spatter rarely occurs because the tungsten is a
non-consumable electrode and the filler metal is added
directly to the weld puddle and not transferred across the
arc.
DEFECTS CAUSED BY WELDING TECHNIQUE
Tungsten Inclusions
Tungsten inclusions are chunks or
particles from the electrode which are
found in the weld metal.
These inclusions are the result of prob-
lems in the welding procedure such as:
1) Exceeding the maximum current for
a given electrode size or type
2) Letting the tip of the electrode
make contact with the molten
weld puddle
3) Letting the filler metal come in con
Illustration 12-1
Tungsten
tact with the hot tip of the electrode
4) Using an excessive electrode
Inclusions
extension
5) An inadequate gas shielding or excessive wind drafts
which result in oxidation
6) Using improper shielding gases such as argon-oxy-
gen or argon-CO2 mixtures, which are used for gas
metal arc welding.
– 77 –
This problem can be corrected by:
1) Reducing the current.
2) Maintaining a distance between the tungsten elec-
trode and weld puddle and the tungsten electrode
and filler metal.
3) Reducing the electrode extension.
4) Increasing gas flow or shielding arc from wind drafts.
5) Using inert gas only
Oxide Inclusions
Oxide inclusions are particles of surface oxides which
have not melted and are mixed into the weld metal. These
inclusions occur when welding metals that have sur-
face oxides with very high melting points. This problem
is mainly associated with the welding of aluminum and
magnesium. Some problems will also occur when weld-
ing stainless steel. Oxide inclusions weaken the weld and
can serve as initiation points for cracking. The best meth-
od of preventing this problem is to wire brush the joint and
weld area and clean the area thoroughly before welding.
Porosity
Porosity is gas pockets in the weld
metal that may be scattered in small
clusters or along the entire length of
the weld. The voids left in the weld
cause it to be weakened. Porosity is
caused by one or more of the follow-
ing:
1) Inadequate shielding gas flow.
2) Excessive welding current
3) Rust, grease, oil, moisture or dirt
on the surface of the base metal
or filler wire, including moisture
Illustration 12-2
trapped in aluminum oxide Porosity
4) Impurities in the base metal, such
as sulfur and phosphorus
5) An excessive travel speed, which causes freezing of
the weld puddle before gases can escape
6) Contaminated or wet shielding gas
Porosity can be prevented or corrected by:
1) Increasing the shielding gas flow
2) Lowering the welding current
3) Cleaning the surface of the base metal
4) Changing to a different base metal with a different
5) Lowering the travel speed
6) Replacing the shielding gas
Wormhole Porosity Overlapping

Wormhole porosity is the name given to elongated gas
pockets and is usually caused by sulfur or moisture
trapped in the weld joint. The best methods of prevent-
ing this are to clean the surfaces of the joint and preheat
to remove moisture.
Undercutting
Overlapping is the protrusion of the
weld metal over the edge or toe of
the weld bead. This defect can cause
an area of lack of fusion and create a
notch which can lead to crack initia-
tion. Overlapping is produced by one
or more of the following:

Undercutting is a groove melted in the
base metal, next to the toe or root of
a weld, that is not filled by the weld
metal. Undercutting causes a weaker
joint which may result in cracking. This
discontinuity is caused by one or more
of the following:
1) Excessive welding current
2) Too long an arc length
3) Excessive travel speed
Illustration 12-3
4) Not enough filler metal added
Undercutting
5) Excessive weaving speed.
On vertical and horizontal welds,
undercutting may also be caused by
incorrect electrode angles.
1) Too slow a travel speed which per-
mits the weld puddle to get ahead
Illustration 12-5
of the electrode Overlapping
2) A welding current that is too low
3) An addition of too much filler metal
4) An incorrect electrode angle that
allows the force of the arc to push the molten weld
metal over unfused sections of the base metal.
Overlapping can be prevented by or corrected by:
1) Using a higher travel speed
2) Using a higher welding current
3) Reducing the amount of filler metal added
4) Using the correct electrode angles
5) Grinding off excess weld metal

This discontinuity can be prevented by: Burn Through

1) Reducing the welding current Burn-through is when the arc burns through the bottom
2) Holding a short arc length of the weld. This can be caused by:
3) Using a travel speed slow enough so that the weld
metal can completely fill all of the melted out areas of 1) Excessive welding current
the base metal. 2) A travel speed that is too slow
4) Using more filler metal 3) A root opening that is too wide
5) Pausing at each side of the weld bead when a weav-
ing technique is used This can be prevented by:

Incomplete Fusion 1) Reducing the welding current

2) Increasing the travel speed
This can occur between the weld met- 3) Reducing the width of the root opening
al and base metal, or between passes
in a multiple pass weld. Causes of this
Arc Strikes
discontinuity can be:
Many codes prohibit striking the
1) Excessive travel speed
arc on the surface of the work-
2) Welding current too low.
piece. Striking the arc on the base
3) Poor joint preparation
metal outside of the weld joint can
4) Letting the weld metal get ahead of
produce a hard spot on the sur-
the arc
face of the base metal. These arc
strikes might create a small notch
Incomplete fusion can usually be
on the surface of the metal, which
prevented by:
Illustration 12-4 can act as an initiating point for
Incomplete cracks. Illustration 12-6
Fusion 1) Reducing the travel speed
Arc Strikes
2) Increasing the welding current
3) Better joint preparation
4) Using a proper electrode angle

– 78 –
Craters
Weld craters are depressions on the weld surface at the
point where the arc was broken. These are caused by
the solidification of the metal after the arc has been bro-
ken. The weld crater often cracks and can serve as an
origin for linear cracking back into the weld metal or into
the base metal. These craters can usually be removed
by chipping or grinding and the depression can be filled
with a small deposit of filler metal. There are two com-
mon methods of preventing craters. The first is to reverse
the travel of the electrode a little way back into the weld
bead, from the end of the weld bead, before breaking the
arc. A second method is employed when a foot rheo-
stat is used to control the welding current. This is done
by gradually reducing the welding current at the end of
the weld, which gradually reduces the size of the molten
weld puddle. For machine and automatic applications, a
slope control on the machine will automatically reduce
the welding current at the end of the weld, which will also
gradually reduce the size of the molten weld puddle
Distortion and Warpage
Distortion and warpage
are caused by the nonuni-
form expansion and con-
traction of weld and base
metal during the heat-
Illustration 12-7
ing and cooling process
Distortion
of welding. If warpage
changes the required dimensions of the total weldment,
the weldment may not be acceptable. Methods to reduce
distortion and warpage are:
1) Deposit only the required amount of weld metal
2) Alternate sides or sequence welds
3) Preset parts to compensate for distortion
Inadequate Joint Penetration
Inadequate joint penetra-
tion is commonly located
at the root of the weld
and is caused by an in-
sufficient heat input while
welding. Insufficient heat
input can be caused by
Illustration 12-8
too low amperage, too
Inadequate Joint Penetration
much electrode stickout,
or too fast a travel speed. Inadequate joint penetration
can also be caused by improper joint design or incorrect
preparation of the joint edges. A tight root opening or a
small groove angle restricts the weld metal causing lack
of penetration at the root. To prevent this problem, insure
that enough heat is being used on a properly designed
joint and that the welder or operator has the skill neces-
sary to produce the desired weld.
– 79 –
CRACKING
Weldment cracking can be caused by an improper weld-
ing procedure, welder technique, or materials. All types of
cracking can be classified as either hot or cold cracking.
These cracks can be oriented transversely or longitudi-
nally to the weld. Transverse cracks are perpendicular to
the axis of the weld and are often caused by longitudinal
shrinkage strains acting on excessively hard and brittle
weld metal. Longitudinal cracks are often caused by high
joint restraint and high cooling rates. Hot cracking occurs
at elevated temperatures and generally happens just af-
ter the weld metal starts to solidify. This type of cracking
is often caused by excessive sulfur, phosphorous, and
lead contents in the base metal. It can also be caused by
an improper method of breaking the arc or in a root pass
when the cross sectional area of the weld bead is small,
compared to the mass of the base metal. Hot cracking
often occurs in deep penetrating welds and it can con-
tinue through successive layers, if it is not repaired. Hot
cracking may be prevented or minimized by:
1) Preheating on thick sections where the cross section-
al area of the bead is small, compared to the mass of
the base metal
2) Using clean or uncontaminated shielding gas
3) Increasing the cross sectional area of the weld bead
4) Changing the contour of the weld bead
5) Using base metal with very low sulfur, phosphorous,
and lead contents
Crater cracks are shallow hot
cracks that are caused by improp-
erly breaking the arc. Crater cracks
may be prevented the same way
that craters are, by reversing the
travel of the electrode back into the
weld bead a little way or by gradu-
ally reducing the welding current
at the end of the weld. Cold crack-
ing occurs after the weld metal
solidification is complete. Cold
cracking may occur several days
after welding.
It is generally
caused by hy-
drogen embrit- Illustration 12-9
Crater Cracks
tlement, exces-
sive joint restraint, and rapid cooling.
Preheating and using a pure shielding
gas help reduce this problem.
Centerline cracks are cold cracks that
often occur in single pass concave fil-
let welds. A longitudinal crack is a cen-
terline crack that runs down the center
Illustration 12-10 of the weld as shown in Illustration 12-
Longitudinal 10.
Crack
This problem may be caused by one or more of the fol-
lowing:
1) A weld bead that is too small for the thickness of the
base metal
2) Poor fit up
3) High joint restraint
4) Extension of a crater crack
The best methods of preventing centerline cracks are:
1) Increasing the bead size
2) Decreasing the width of the root opening
3) Preheating
4) Preventing weld craters.
Base metal and underbead cracks are cold cracks that
form in the heat affected zone of the base metal. Under-
bead cracks occur underneath the weld bead as shown
in Illustration 12-11. Base metal cracks are cracks that
originate in the heat affected zone of the weld. These
types of cracks are
caused by excessive joint
restraint, hydrogen, and
a brittle microstructure.
A brittle microstructure
is caused by rapid cool-
ing or excessive heat in-
put. Underbead and base
metal cracking can be
reduced or eliminated by Illustration 12-11
using preheat. Underbead Cracks
OTHER PROBLEMS
Arc Blow
The electric current that flows through the electrode,
workpiece, and work cable, sets up magnetic fields in a
circular path perpendicular to the direction of the current.
When the magnetic fields around the arc are unbalanced,
it tends to bend away from the greatest concentration of
the magnetic field. This deflection of the arc is called arc
blow.
Arc blow can result in an irregular weld bead and incom-
plete fusion. Direct current is highly susceptible to arc
blow, especially when welding is being done in corners
and near the end of joint. Arc blow occurs with direct
current because the induced magnetic field is in one di-
rection. Alternating current rarely is subject to arc blow
because the magnetic field is building and collapsing all
the time due to the reversing current. Forward arc blow
is encountered when welding away from the ground con-
nection or at the beginning of the weld joint. Backward
arc blow occurs toward the ground connection, into a
corner, or toward the end of a weld joint. There are sev-
– 80 –
eral corrective methods that can be used to correct the
arc blow problem which are:
1) Changing to alternating current
2) Welding toward an existing weld or tack weld
3) Reducing the welding current and making the arc
length as short as possible
4) Placing the work connection as far as possible from
the weld, at the end of the weld or at the start of the
weld, and weld toward the heavy tack weld
5) Wrapping the work lead cable around the workpiece,
so that the magnetic field caused by the current in
the work cable will neutralize the magnetic field caus-
ing the arc blow.
Inadequate Shielding
Many discontinuities that occur in
gas tungsten arc welding are caused
by an inadequate flow of shielding
gas to the welding area. An inade-
quate gas supply can cause oxida-
tion of both the tungsten electrode
and the weld puddle, as well as po-
rosity in the weld bead. This can be
easily detected because the arc will
change color, the weld bead will be
discolored, and the arc will become
unstable and difficult to control. The Illustration 12-12
most common causes of this prob- Inadequate
lem are: Shielding
1) Blockage of gas flow in the torch or hoses
2) A leak in the gas system
3) A very high travel speed
4) Improper flow rate
5) Wind or drafts
6) Arc length or stickout too long
There are several ways that this problem can be correct-
ed or prevented. The torch and hoses should be checked
before welding to make sure that the shielding gas can
flow freely and is not leaking. A very high travel speed
may leave the weld puddle, or a portion of it, exposed to
the atmosphere. This may be corrected, in some cases,
by inclining the torch in the direction of travel, using a cup
that directs shielding gas back over the heated area, or by
increasing the gas flow rate. Increasing the gas flow rate
will increase the expense of the welding. When welding
some of the reactive metals, an inert atmosphere cham-
ber or trailing cups may have to be used. An improper
flow rate may occasionally be a problem. For example,
when using argon and welding in the overhead position,
higher gas flow rates may have to be used to provide
adequate shielding. This is because argon is heavier than
air and it will fall away from the weld area. When winds
or air drafts are present, several corrective steps may be
taken. Setting up screens around the operation is the
best method of solving this problem. Increasing the gas
flow rate is another method but, again, this will increase
the cost of welding. An excessive arc length or stickout
will also create a problem in providing adequate shielding
because the distance between the end of the cup and
the molten weld puddle is very long. This can be cor-
rected by shortening the arc length or stickout.

Electrode Contamination

Contamination of the tungsten electrode can cause dis-

continuities in the weld, as well as a hard to control arc
and loss of several minutes of welding time to clean the
electrode. The electrode can become contaminated by
several means such as contacting the weld puddle with
the electrode, contacting the electrode with the filler met-
al, inadequate shielding gas flow, or post welding gas
flow time that is too short. Illustration 12-13 shows the
effects of different causes of electrode contamination.
When the electrode becomes contaminated by contact
with the filler or weld metal, it produces an arc that is wild
and unstable. When a lack of shielding gas is the cause
of the contamination, the life of the electrode is greatly
reduced. There are two major methods of correcting this
problem. The first is to break off the contaminated sec-
tion and then prepare the clean section for welding. This
is usually done by using a pair of pliers or by putting the
contaminated section over the end of a workbench and
breaking it off by striking it with a hammer. The second
method is to hold the arc on a section of copper or other
Illustration 12-13 Electrode Contamination
metal until the electrode has been cleared of contami-
nating metal through its vaporization. The first method
is more commonly used when the electrode is very con-
taminated.

– 81 –
 CHAPTER 13
POSTWELD PROCEDURES

Following welding, there are several operations that may

take place, such as cleaning, inspection of the welds, re-
pairing the welds, straightening and postheating. These
are items which may or may not be part of the procedure.
The operations performed will depend on the governing
code or specification, type of metal, and the quality of the
c)
weld deposit.

CLEANING b)

One of the major advantages of gas tungsten arc welding

a) d)
is that it produces a very smooth, clean weld bead with
very little or no spatter. There is no slag to be chipped off
of the weld bead. Because of this, postweld cleaning may
be omitted. Wire brushing or buffing may be required to
remove the discoloration around the weld bead.

INSPECTION AND TESTING

Inspection and testing of the weld is usually done after
cleaning to determine the quality of the weld joint. There
are many different methods of inspection and testing
which will not be covered in detail in this book. The use of
these methods will often depend on the code or specifi-
cation that governed the welding. Testing of a weldment
may be done nondestructively or destructively.
Nondestructive testing is used to locate discontinuities in
the weld and base metal. There are many different nonde-
structive testing methods. The most widely used methods
are visual, magnetic particle, liquid penetrant, ultrasonic,
Illustration 13-2 – Nondestructive Testing Methods –
a) Radiographic, b) Penetrant, c) Magnetic Particle,
and d) Ultrasonic Testing
and radiographic. Visual, magnetic particle, and liquid
penetrant inspection are used to locate surface discon-
tinuities. Ultrasonic and radiographic inspection are used
to locate internal discontinuities.
Destructive testing is used to determine the mechanical
properties of the weld, such as the strength, ductility and
toughness. Destructive testing may also be done by sev-

c) d)

b)

e)

a)

Illustration 13-1 – Destructive Testing Methods –

a) Etched Cross-Section, b) Tensile Strength, c) Guided Bend, d) Fillet Weld Break, and e) Impact Testing
– 82 –
eral methods, depending on the mechanical properties
which are being tested. Some of the most common types
of destructive testing are tensile bar tests, impact tests,
and bend tests.
REPAIRING OF WELDS
When defects are found during inspec-
tion, it is sometimes necessary to re-
pair the weld. Depending on the type of
material being welded, the defect may
be removed by gouging, grinding, chip-
ping, or machining.
For steels, grinding and carbon arc
gouging are commonly used. Carbon
arc gouging cannot be used on nonfer-
rous metals because it causes contami-
nation.
Illustration 13-3 – Annealing
For stainless steels and nonferrous metals, chipping is a
common method for removing defects. Once the defects
have been removed, the low areas created by grinding
and gouging can be rewelded using the gas tungsten arc
welding process. The welds are then reinspected to make
sure that the defects have been properly repaired.
POSTHEATING
The heat treatment applied to the metal after welding is
postheating. After the weld has been completed, posthe-
ating is often required, depending on the type of metal
being welded, the specific application, and the governing
code or specification.
Many of the low carbon steels and nonferrous metals are
rarely postheated. There are various types of postheating
that are used to obtain specific properties. Some of the
most commonly used postheats are annealing, stress re-
lieving, normalizing, and quenching and tempering.
Postheating is accomplished by most of the same meth-
ods that are used for preheating such as furnaces, induc-
tion coils, and electric resistance heating blankets. One
method that is used for stress relieving that does not in-
volve the reheating of the weldments is called vibratory
stress relief. This method vibrates the weldment during
the welding to relieve the residual stresses during solidi-
fication.
Annealing is a process involving heating and cooling that
is usually applied to induce softening. This process is
widely used on metals that become very hard and brittle
because of welding. There are several different kinds and,
when used on ferrous metals, it is called full annealing.
Annealing is the heating of a material to cause recrystal-
lization of the grain structure which causes softening. Full
annealing is a softening process in which a ferrous alloy is
– 83 –
heated to a temperature above the transformation range
and is slowly cooled to a temperature below this range.
This process is usually done in a furnace.
Normalizing is a heat treatment that is
applied only to ferrous metals. Normal-
izing occurs when the metal is heated
to a temperature above the transforma-
tion range and is cooled in still air to a
temperature below this range. The main
difference between normalizing and an-
nealing is that a normalized weldment
is cooled in still air while an annealed
weldment is slowly cooled in a furnace.
A normalizing heat treatment will yield a
tougher weld, while an annealing heat
treatment will result in a softer weld.
Stress relieving is the uniform heating of
a weldment to a high enough tempera-
ture, below the critical range, to relieve most of the resid-
ual stresses due to welding. This is followed by uniform
cooling. This operation is performed on ferrous and some
of the nonferrous metals. The purpose of this process is
to relieve the residual stresses due to welding.
On parts or metals that have a high cracking potential, the
parts should be stress relieved as soon as possible after
welding, without being allowed to cool to room tempera-
ture. Stress relieving is performed on nonferrous metals
when stress build-up is a problem. In aluminum alloys,
this heat treatment will destroy the properties of the base
metal. When magnesium is alloyed with aluminum, stress
relieving is performed to avoid problems with stress cor-
rosion. The terms normalizing and annealing are misno-
mers for this heat treatment.
Quenching and tempering is another postweld heat treat-
ment that is commonly used. The metal is heated up
and then quenched to form a hard and brittle structure.
The weldment is then tempered by re-heating to a par-
ticular temperature, depending on the degree of ductil-
ity, strength, toughness, and hardness desired. Temper-
ing reduces the hardness of the part as it increases the
strength, toughness, and ductility of the weld.
Illustration 13-4 – Stress Relieving
 CHAPTER 14
WELDER TRAINING AND QUALIFICATION
WELDER TRAINING
Gas tungsten arc welding requires a high degree of weld-
er skill to produce good quality welds. This process re-
quires the use of two hands when filler metal is added.
A welder that is skilled in this process will generally have
less trouble learning to weld with the other arc welding
processes. The exact content of a training program will
vary depending on the specific application of the process.
The program should be flexible enough so that it can be
adapted to changing needs and applications. The com-
plexity of the parts to be welded, the governing codes
and specifications, and the type of metal to be welded
all need to be taken into consideration. A pipe welding
course would take more training than a course on weld-
ing of plate. A course concerning the welding of stainless
steel might cover the use of pulsed current and a different
type of tungsten electrode preparation than a course cov-
ering the welding of aluminum. The welding characteris-
tics of the metals will also be different.
Basic Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
The basic gas tungsten arc welding training program is
used to teach the students the basic skills necessary for
using the process to weld plate. Such a course would pro-
vide training on how to strike the arc, run weld beads, and
make good quality fillet and groove welds. It would also
include the welding of mild steel, stainless steel, and alu-
minum. Because of this, the course shown in the sample
outline has been split into three sections covering each of
the three metals. The proper cleaning techniques are also
covered for the three metals.
The training obtained by the student should give him
enough skill to perform a job welding plate material. This
course should also provide the background skill and
knowledge required to take a course on gas tungsten arc
welding of pipe and tubing. The following outline is for a
course approximately seventy hours long.
1 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding, Course Overview
2) Introduction to Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
3) Safety & Health of Welders
4) Equipment Setup Adjustment and Shut Down
5) Stringer Bead, Flat Position (Carbon Steel)
6)The Essentials of GTAW
The next part of the course covers welding fillet and
square groove welds in the flat, horizontal, and vertical
positions on mild steel using direct current. This includes
techniques used with and without filler metal.
– 84 –
7) Fillet Weld, Lap Joint, Horizontal and Flat Positions
(Carbon Steel)
8) The Metallurgy & Weldability of Carbon Steel
9) Fillet Weld, Outside Corner Joint, Flat Position
(Carbon Steel)
10) Fillet Weld, T-Joint, Horizontal, Vertical Up & Flat
Positions (Carbon Steel)
11) Fillet Weld, T-Joint, Overhead Position
(Carbon Steel)
12) Square-Groove Weld, Butt Joint, Flat Position
(Carbon Steel)
13) Square-Groove Weld 1G Destructive Test
(Carbon Steel)
14) Square-Groove Weld, Butt Joint, Horizontal &
Vertical Up Positions (Carbon Steel)
15) Square-Groove Weld, Butt Joint, Overhead Position
(Carbon Steel)
The next part of the course covers the welding of stain-
less steel and the use of pulsed direct current. Groove
and fillet welds are made in the flat, horizontal, and verti-
cal positions with and without the used of pulsed current
and filler metal.
16) Introduction to GTAW Using Pulsed Current
17 Square-Groove Weld, Butt Joint, Flat Position
(Stainless Steel)
18) The Welding Characteristics of Stainless Steel
19) Square-Groove Weld, Butt Joint, Horizontal Position
(Stainless Steel)
20) Fillet Weld, Lap Joint, Horizontal & Flat Positions
(Stainless Steel)
21) Fillet Weld, Outside Corner Joint, Flat Position
(Stainless Steel)
22) Fillet Weld, T-Joint, Horizontal, Vertical Up & Flat
Positions (Stainless Steel)
23) Visual Inspection Test, Stainless Steel
The last part of the course covers welding of fillet and
square-groove welds in the flat, horizontal, and vertical
positions on aluminum using alternating current
24) The Welding Characteristics of Aluminum
25) Stringer Bead, Flat Position (Aluminum)
26) The Effect of Process Variables on the Welding Arc
 Illustration 14-1 – Gas Tungsten Arc Welding 2 Inch Pipe
27) Fillet Weld, Outside Corner Joint, Flat Position (Alu-
minum)
28) Fillet Weld, Outside Corner Joint, Vertical Position,
Up (Aluminum)
29) Fillet Weld, Lap Joint, Horizontal & Flat Positions
(Aluminum)
30) Square-Groove Weld, Butt Joint, Flat Position
(Aluminum)
31) Fillet Weld, T-Joint, Horizontal & Flat Positions
(Aluminum)
32) Fillet Weld, T-Joint, Vertical Position, Up (Aluminum)
33) Visual Inspection Test, Aluminum
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding 2 Inch Pipe
The training program for gas tungsten arc welding of
2 inch pipe is used to teach students basic skills and
– 85 –
provides additional training to students who previously
learned to weld plate material. This course covers the
welding of mild steel, small diameter pipe. It is divided
into two sections.
1 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding 2 Inch Pipe Course
Overview
2) Introduction to Gas Tungsten Arc Welding Pipe
3) Safety & Health of Welders
4) Equipment Setup, Adjustment and Shutdown
5) Preparation and Assembly of an Open Root
Pipe Joint
6 Single V-Groove Weld, Butt Joint (2G) Pipe
7) Pipe Weld Quality8) Single V-Groove Weld, Butt
Joint (2G) Pipe Destructive Test
9) Single V-Groove Weld, Butt Joint (5G) Pipe
10) Single V-Groove Weld, Butt Joint (6G) Pipe
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding – Shielded Metal
Arc Welding 6 Inch Pipe
The training program for gas tungsten arc welding of 6
inch diameter piping in the 2G, 5G, and 6G positions.
The root and hot passes are welded using gas tungsten
arc welding.
The fill and cocer passes are welded using shielded metal
arc welding and E7018 electrodes.This part of the course
also includes the use of consumable inserts put in the
root of the joint, and the welding of stainless steel pipe.
1) Gas Tungsten Arc Welding - Shielded Metal Arc Weld-
ing 6 Inch Pipe, Course Overview
2) Introduction to Gas Tungsten Arc Welding Pipe
3) Safety & Health of Welders
4) Preparation and Assembly of an Open Root
Pipe Joint
5) Single V-Groove Weld, Butt Joint (5G) Pipe
6) Single V-Groove Weld, Butt Joint (5G) Pipe
Destructive Test
7) Single V-Groove Weld, Butt Joint (2G) Pipe
8) Single V-Groove Weld, Butt Joint (6G) Pipe
9) Stainless Steel Pipe Welding
WELDER QUALIFICATION
Before a welder can begin work on any job covered by a
welding code or specification, the welder must become
certified under the code that applies. Many different
codes are in use today and it is extremely important that
the specific code is referred to when taking qualification
tests.
In general, the following types of work are covered by
codes: pressure vessels and piping, bridges, public build-
ings, storage tanks and containers that will hold flam-
mable or explosive materials, cross-country pipe lines,
aircraft, ordnance material, ships and boats, and nuclear
power facilities.
Certification is obtained differently under the various
codes. Certification under one code will not necessarily
qualify a welder to work under a different code. In most
cases, certification for one employer will not allow the
welder to work for another employer.
Also, if the welder uses a different process or if the weld-
ing procedure is altered drastically, recertification is re-
quired. In most codes, if the welder is continually em-
ployed, welding recertification is not required, providing
– 86 –
Illustration 14-3 – Typical Qualification Standards
the work performed meets the quality requirements. An
exception is the military aircraft code, which requires
requalification every six months.
Qualification tests may be given by responsible manu-
facturers or contractors. On pressure vessel work, the
welding procedure must also be qualified and this must
be done before the welders can be qualified. Under other
codes, this is not necessary.
To become qualified, the welder must make specified
welds using the required process, base metal, thickness,
electrode type, position, and joint design. Test speci-
mens must be made according to standardized sizes
and under the observation of a qualified person. In most
government specifications, a government inspector must
witness the making of weld specimens. Specimens must
be properly identified and prepared for testing.
The most common test is the guided bend test. How-
ever, in some cases, x-ray examinations, fracture tests,
or other tests are employed. Satisfactory completion of
test specimens, providing that they meet acceptability
standards, will qualify the welder for specific types of
welding. The welding that will be allowed depends on the
particular code. In general, the code indicates the range
of thicknesses which may be welded, the positions which
may be employed, and the alloys which may be welded.
The qualification of welders is a highly technical subject
and cannot be fully covered here. It is recommended that
the actual code be obtained and studied prior to taking
any tests. Some frequently used codes for welder quali-
fication are:
• “Structural Welding Code”, AWS D1.1
• “ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code”, Section IX,
Welding Qualifications
• Military Specifications and Standards
 CHAPTER 15
WELDING SAFETY

Safety is an important consideration when welding.
Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDSs)
OSHA requires that employers must have a comprehen-
sive hazard communication program to inform employees
about hazardous substances that might be used in the
workplace. The purpose of the MSDSs is to explain the
hazards involved in handling/using products such as weld-
ing consumables and the precautionary measures which
must be put in place for safe welding. The employer must
maintain continuous training concerning such materials,
and safety in general. Provisions to safeguard employees
are included in Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDSs) as
prescribed by the Hazard Communications Standard of
the U.S. Department of Labor. Information must be pro-
vided for all substances taken into the workplace except
food, drugs, cosmetics or tobacco products used for
personal consumption. The use of these data sheets in
all manufacturing workplaces has been mandated since
1985. Employees must be trained on the information in
Material Safety Data Sheets and labels.
AWS/ANSI Z49.1
A set of safety rules which should be followed is pre-
sented in the American National Standard Institute Z49.1,
“Safety in Welding and Cutting”, published by the Ameri-
can Welding Society. There are a number of hazards as-
sociated with shielded metal arc welding. These do not
necessarily result in serious injuries. They can also be of
a minor nature which can cause discomforts that irritate
and reduce the efficiency of the welders. These hazards
are:
1) Electrical shock
2) Arc radiation
3) Air contamination
4) Fire and explosion
5) Weld cleaning and other hazards
electrical short circuits and shocks. An improperly insu-
lated welding cable is both an electrical shock hazard and
a fire hazard. The welding area should be dry and free
of any standing water. When it is necessary to weld in a
damp or wet area, the welder should wear rubber boots
and stand on a dry insulated platform. ARC RADIATION
The gas tungsten arc emits invisible ultraviolet and infra-
red rays. Skin that is exposed to the arc for a short time
can suffer serious ultraviolet and infrared burns which are
essentially the same as sunburn, but the burn caused by
welding can take place in a much shorter time and can be
very painful. Prolonged and repeated exposure to ultra-
violet rays may cause skin cancer in some skin types. The
welder should always wear protective clothing suitable for
the welding to be done. Since there is no spatter in this
process, long sleeve shirts or cloth lab coats are generally
used to protect the arms, shoulders, chest, and stomach
from the arc radiation. Leather gloves should be worn, but
the gloves are lighter than those worn for shielded metal
arc welding. Cloth gloves are worn for light duty work.
The eyes must be protected from the radiation emitted
by the welding arc. Arc burn can result if the eyes are not
protected. Arc burn to the eye is similar to sunburn to the
skin and it is extremely painful for about 24 to 48 hours.
Usually, arc burn does not permanently injure the eyes but
it can cause intense pain. There are several commercial
solutions that are available to soothe the skin and eyes
during the period of suffering. Infrared arc rays can cause
fatigue of the retina of the eye. Ultraviolet radiation is the
only known cause of cataracts at this time. Impaired vi-
sion can be the result. Gas tungsten arc welding produc-
es a brighter arc than shielded metal arc welding because
there is no smoke and it is often used on bright and shiny
metals such as aluminum and stainless steel. Protection
for the eyes and face is provided by a head shield that has
a window, with a filter lens, set in it. Helmets with large
windows are popular for welding with this process. Head
shields are generally made of fiberglass or pressed fiber
material and are lightweight. The filter lens is made of a
dark glass that is capable of absorbing infrared rays, ul-

ELECTRICAL SHOCK

There are several precautions that should be taken to

prevent an electrical shock. First, make sure that the arc
welding equipment is properly installed, grounded, and
in good working condition. The electrical equipment
should be maintained and installed in accordance with
the National Electrical Code and any state or local codes
that apply. The metal case or frame of the power supply
should be connected to an adequate electrical ground,
such as an approved building ground, cold water pipe,
or ground rod. Welding cables with frayed or cracked in-
Illustration 15-1 – Welding Helmets
sulation and faulty or badly worn connections can cause Photos courtesy of Miller Electric Manufacturing Co.

– 87 –
 Arc Current Minimum Suggested
(A) Shade Shade

Less than 50 8 10

50-150 8 12

150-500 10 14

500-1000 11 14

NOTE: As a rule of thumb, start with a shade that is too dark to see the weld
zone. Then go to a lighter shade which gives sufficient view of the weld zone
without going below the minimum.

Illustration 15-2 – Recommended Filter Lens Shades

Used in Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (ANSI/AWS Z49.1)

traviolet rays, and most visible light coming from the arc.
The lens shade used varies for different welders, different
metals, and different current levels, but it should be dark
enough so that the arc can be viewed without discom-
fort and not so dark that the welder cannot see the arc
clearly. A number 12 filter lens is recommended for use
in gas tungsten arc welding. The higher the lens number,
the darker the lens. A clear glass should be put on the
outside of the welding lens to protect it from scratching
and breaking.

AIR CONTAMINATION
Welding fumes are generated by the arc. The welding
area should be adequately ventilated because the vapor-
ized metals are potentially hazardous for the welder to be
breathing. When welding is done in confined areas, ade-
quate mechanical ventilation or protection fa the welder is
required. This may be furnished by the use of a gas mask
or on a special helmet. A second person should stand just
outside the confined area to lend assistance to the welder
if necessary.
Illustration 15-3 – A Well-Dressed GTAW Welder
Thoria is a very low-level radioactive oxide. However, if
welding is to be performed in confined spaces for pro-
longed periods of time or if electrode grinding dust might
be ingested, special precautions relative to ventilation
should be considered. The user should consult appropri-
ate safety personnel.

Another method to use is a mechanical exhaust system
to remove the welding fumes. The argon or helium shield-
ing gas may displace the air that the welder needs for
breathing. Welding should never be done near degreas-
ing and other similar operations. The fumes from chlori-
nated solvents used for cleaning form a very toxic gas,
called phosgene, when exposed to an arc. Because of
this, welding should not be done near cleaning chemi-
cals. A mechanical exhaust should be used when welding
metals such as lead, copper, beryllium, cadmium, zinc,
brass, bronze, chromium, cobalt, manganese, nickel, and
vanadium.
When grinding tungsten electrodes, which are mildly ra-
dioactive, it is advisable to use a dust collector on the
grinder to prevent inhalation of the dust.
The level of contamination/radiation has not been found
to represent a health hazard during welding, but rather
the grinding dust from the electrodes may be a concern.
However, in other nations, especially European coun-
tries, tungsten electrodes containing greater than 2%
thoria are used less now because of concerns with radia-
tion exposure to the welder. Alternative rare earth doped
(alloyed) tungsten electrodes are available.
COMPRESSED GASES
The shielding gas used for gas tungsten arc welding is
compressed and stored in cylinders. Improper handling
of compressed gas cylinders can create a safety hazard.
When in use, gas cylinders should be secured to a wall or
other structural support. The welding arc should never be

– 88 –
struck on a compressed gas cylinder. When not in use,
gas cylinders should be stored with their caps on. Caps
should also be on when the gas cylinders are moved. If
the valve would get knocked off, the cylinder would act
like a missile because of the escaping gas, and could
cause injury and damage. When compressed gas cylin-
ders are empty, the valve should be closed and the cylin-
ders should be marked “empty”.
PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
Because the gas tungsten arc welding process produces
fewer sparks and is considered cleaner than many weld-
ing processes, lighter clothing is often worn. However,
clothing should be made of tightly woven flame-retardant
material. Coverage of all exposed skin not protected by
a welding hood is required to prevent radiation burning.
Welding out of position or on thin material prone to pro-
ducing sparks may require leather chaps, sleeves, and
aprons worn tightly over light clothes for additional pro-
tection. Clothing and shoes must be kept free of oil and
grease or other flammable materials. Protective, heat re-
sistant, nonflammable gloves (typically leather) should be
worn to protect the hands and wrists.
FIRES AND EXPLOSIONS
Fires and explosions are hazards that can exist in a weld-
ing area if the proper precautions are not taken. The gas
tungsten arc welding process produces fewer sparks
than many other welding processes. Keep the area free of
flammable, volatile, or explosive materials.
Fires can also be started by an electrical short or by over-
heated, worn cables. In case of a fire that is started by a
flammable liquid or an electrical fire, a carbon dioxide or
dry chemical type of fire extinguisher is used. Fire extin-
guishers should be kept at handy spots around the shop
and the welders should make a mental note of where they
are located.
Other precautions that relate to explosions are also im-
portant. A welder should not weld on containers that have
held combustibles, unless it is absolutely certain that
there are no fumes or residue left. Welding should not be
performed on sealed containers without providing vents
and taking special precautions. When the welding torch
is not in use, it should never be allowed to touch a com-
pressed gas cylinder.
WELD CLEANING AND OTHER HAZARDS
Hazards can also be encountered during the weld clean-
ing process. Heavy clothing and safety glasses should be
worn during grinding and chipping operations. Screens
should be set up if there are other people in the area.
– 89 –
SUMMARY OF SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
1) Make sure your arc welding equipment is installed
properly and grounded and is in good working con-
dition.
2) Always wear protective clothing suitable for the
welding to be done.
3) Always wear proper eye protection, when welding,
grinding or cutting.
4) Keep your work area clean and free of hazards.
Make sure that no flammable, volatile or explosive
materials are in or near the work area
5) Handle all compressed gas cylinders with extreme
care. Keep caps on when not in use.
6) Make sure that compressed gas cylinders are se-
cured to the wall or to structural supports.
7) When compressed gas cylinders are empty, close
the valve and mark the cylinder “EMPTY”.
8)
Do not weld in a confined space without extra
special precautions.
9)
Do not weld on containers that have held combus-
tibles without taking extra special precaution.
10) Do not weld on sealed containers or compartments
without providing vents and taking special
precautions.
11) Use mechanical exhaust at the point of welding
when welding lead, cadmium, chromium,
manganese, brass, bronze, zinc or galvanized steel.
12) When it is necessary to weld in a damp or wet
area, wear rubber boots and stand on a dry
insulated platform.
13) Follow guidelines and standards set forth by the
American Welding Society, the Occupational Safety
and Health Administration, the National Standards
Institute, the National Electrical Manufacturers As-
sociation, the Compressed Gas Association, and
the Material Safety Data Sheets provided by U.S.
manufacturers
REFERENCES FOR WELDING SAFETY
The primary reference for this book is Modern Welding
Technology, by Howard B. Cary and Scott C. Helzer, pub-
lished by Pearson Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ.
Other references cited include:
1)
“Report on a Danish Investigation into the Health
and Working Environment of Arc Welders”, Welding
in the World, Vol. 10, Nos. 3 and 4, 1972.
 2) “Occupational Safety and Health Standards” Code
of Federal Regulations Title 29 - Part 1910, U.S.
Dept. of Labor. Available from the Superintendent of
Documents, U.S. Printing Office, Washington, DC.
3) “Safety in Welding, Cutting, and Allied Processes,”
ANSI Z49.1 American Welding Society, Miami, FL.
4) “Effects of Welding on Health,” EWH series,
American Welding Society, Miami, FL.
5) “Hazard Communication Standard,” 29 CFR
1910.1200, U.S. Department of Labor, Washington,
DC.
6)
“Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances
and Physical Agents and Biological Exposure
Indices,” American Conference of Governmental
Industrial Hygienists, Cincinnati, OH.
7) “Welding Workplace Safety,” by Hallock Campbell.
Data Sheet No. 79A, Sept., 1986, Welding Journal.
8)
“Safety Signs and Colors,” standards series ANSI
Z535 America National Standards Institute, New
York, NY.
9)
“Electric Arc Welding Power Sources”, EW-1, Na-
tional Electrical Manufacturers Association, Rosslyn,
VA.
10) “Arc Welding Equipment,” E-60974 Series, Cana-
dian Standards Association.
11) “Safety Standards for Arc Welding Equipment,” se-
ries 60974, Underwriters Laboratories, Northbrook,
IL.
12) “National Electric Code”, NFPA 70, National Fire
Protection Association, Quincy, MA.
13) “Thoriated Tungsten Electrodes,” Safety and
Health Fact Sheet No. 27, American Welding Soci-
ety, Miami, FL.
14) “Lens Shade Selector,” F2.2. American Welding
Society, Miami, FL.
15) “Transparent Welding Curtains” by Sliney, Moss,
Miller & Stephens, May 1982, Welding Journal, Mi-
ami, FL.
16) “The Welding Environment,” American Welding
Society Miami, FL.
17) “Fumes and Gases in the Welding Environment”,
American Welding Society, Miami, FL.
– 90 –
18) “Characterization of Arc Welding Fume”, CAWF,
American Welding Society, Miami, FL.
19) “Method for Sampling Airborne Particles Generated
by Welding and Allied Processes,” F1.1, American
Welding Society, Miami, FL.
20) “Industrial Ventilation - A Manual of Recommended
Practice”, American Conference of Governmental
Industrial Hygienists, Cincinnati, OH.
21) “A Sampling Strategy Guide for Evaluating
Contaminants in the Welding Environment,” F1.3,
American Welding Society, Miami, FL.
22) “Laboratory Method for Measuring Fume Genera-
tion Rates and Total Fume Emission of Welding and
Allied Processes,” F1.2, American Welding Society,
Miami, FL.
23) “Handling Acetylene Cylinders in Fire Situations”,
Safety Bulletin No. SB-4, Compressed Gas
Association, York, NY.
24) Hot Work Permits (Flame or Sparks) Data Sheet
522, National Safety Council, Chicago, Illinois.
25) “Standard for Fire Prevention During Welding,
Cutting and Other Hotwork,” NFPA 51B, National
Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA.
26) “Safe Practices for the Preparation of Containers
and Piping for Welding and Cutting.” F4.1, American
Welding Society, Miami, FL.
27) “Safe Hot Tapping Practices in the Petroleum and
Petrochemical Industries,” RP 2201, American
Petroleum Institute, Washington, DC.
28) “Cylinders: Safe Storage, Handling, and Use,” Safe-
ty and Health Fact Sheet No. 30. American Welding
Society, Miami, FL.
29) “Arc Welding and Cutting Noise,” AWN, American
Welding Society, Miami, FL.
30) “Safety and Health Fact Sheets,” SHF, American
Welding Society, Miami, FL.
31) “Using Transparent Welding Curtains” by Dean R.
Wilson, Welding Journal, September 2005, Ameri-
can Welding Society, Miami, FL.
32) “Methods for Sampling and Analyzing Gases from
Welding and Allied Processes,” F1.5, American
Welding Society, Miami, FL.
 33) “Guide for Estimating Welding Emissions for EPA
and Ventilation Permit Reporting,” F1.6, American
Welding Society, Miami, FL.
34) “Lens Shade Selector,” F2.2, American Welding
Society, Miami, FL.
35) “Specification for Use and Performance of
Transparent Welding Curtains and Screens,” F2.3,
American Welding Society, Miami, FL.
36) “Ventilation Guide for Weld Fume,” F3.2, American
Welding Society, Miami, FL.
37) “Lockout/Tagout,” Safety and Health Fact Sheet No.
18, American Welding Society, Miami, FL.
38) “Underwater Cutting and Welding,” NAVSEA
S0300-BB-MAN-010, U.S. Dept. of the Navy, Naval
Sea Systems Command, Washington, DC.
39) “Occupational and Educational Personal Eye and
Face Protection Devices,” ANSI Z87.1 American
National Standards Institute, New York, NY.
40) “Chromium, Nickel, and Welding,” International
Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), Volume 49,
1990.
41) “Specification for Underwater Welding,” D3.6M,
American Welding Society, Miami, FL.
42) “Specification for Robotic Arc Welding Safety,”
D16.1, American Welding Society, Miami, FL.
43) “Risk Assessment Guide for Robotic Arc Welding.”
D16.3, American Welding Society, Miami, FL.
44) “Braze Safely” BRS, American Welding Society,
Miami, FL.
45) “Brazing Handbook,” BRH, American Welding
Society, Miami, FL.
46) “Soldering Handbook,” SHB, American Welding
Society, Miami, FL.
47) “Resistance Welding Manual,” RWM, American
Welding Society, Miami, FL.
48) “Recommended Practices for Resistance Welding,”
C1.1, American Welding Society, Miami, FL.
49) “Recommended Practices for Air Carbon Arc
Gouging and Cutting,” C5.3, American Welding
Society, Miami, FL.
– 91 –
50) “Recommended Practices for Plasma Arc Cutting
and Gouging,” C5.2, American Welding Society,
Miami, FL.
51) “Recommended Practices for Electron Beam
Welding,” C7.1, American Welding Society, Miami,
FL.
52) “Thermal Spray Manual,” TSM, American Welding
Society, Miami, FL.
53) “Thermal Spraying Practice, Theory and
Application,” TSS, American Welding Society,
Miami, FL.
54) “Recommended Practices for Laser Beam
Welding, Cutting, and Drilling,” C7.2, American
Welding Society, Miami, FL.
Web Sites
1) American Welding Society, http://www.aws.org
2) Occupational Safety and Health Administration,
http://www.osha.gov
3) National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health,
http://www.cdc.gov/niosh
4) National Fire Protection Association,
http://www.nfpa.org
5) U.S. Government Printing Office,
http://www.gpo.gov
6) American Conference of Governmental Industrial
Hygienists, http://www.acgih.org
7) Canadian Standards Association,
http://www.csa.ca
8) American National Standards Association,
http://www.ansi.org
9) Compressed Gas Association,
http://www.cganet.com
10) American Petroleum Institute, http://www.api.org
11) Underwriters Laboratories, http://www.ul.com
12) National Electrical Manufacturers Association,
http://www. www.nema.org
13) Global Engineering Documents,
http://www.global.ihs.com
14) World Engineering Xchange, Ltd.,
http://pubs.aws.org
 APPENDIX
Sources for Standards
Organizations that originate or contribute to code preparation and updating

Association of American Railroads (AAH) American Welding Society (AWS)

425 Third Street, SW 550 NW LeJeune Road
Washington, DC 20024 Miami, FL 33126
(202) 639-2100 (800) 443-9353
http://www.aar.org http://www.aws.org

American Association of State Highway and Transporta- Compressed Gas Association (CGA)
tion Officials (AASHTO) 14501 George Carter Way, Suite 103
444 N Capitol Street NW, Suite 249 Chantilly, VA 20151
Washington, DC 20001 (703) 788-2700
(202) 624-5800 http://www.cganet.com
http://www.transportation.org
Global Engineering Documents
American Bureau of Shipping and Affiliated Companies 15 Inverness Way East
(ABS) Englewood, CO 80112
16855 Northchase Drive (800) 854-7179
Houston TX 77060 USA http://global.ihs.com
(281) 877-5800
http://www.eagle.org Hobart Institute of Welding Technology (HIWT)
400 Trade Square East
American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) Troy, OH 45373
One East Wacker Drive, Suite 700 (800) 332-9448 or (937) 332-5433
Chicago, IL 60601-1802 http://www.welding.org
(312) 670-2400
http://www.aisc.org MIL-STDS & NAVSHIP Specifications & Standards Docu-
ment Automation and Production Service
American National Standards Institute (ANSI) 700 Robbins Avenue
1899 L Street, NW Bldg 4/D
11th Floor Philadelphia, PA 19111
Washington, DC 20036 (215) 697-6257
(202) 293-8020 https://assist.daps.dla.mil
http://www.ansi.org
National Board of Boiler & Pressure Vessel Inspectors
American Petroleum Institute (API) (NBBPVI)
1220 L Street, NW 1055 Crupper Avenue
Washington, DC 20005-4070 Columbus, OH 43229-1183
(202) 682-8000 (614) 888-8320
http://www.api.org http://www.nationalboard.org

American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) National Certified Pipe Welding Bureau (NCPWB)
P.O. Box 2300, 22 Law Drive 1385 Piccard Drive
Fairfield, NJ 07007-2300 Rockville, MD 20850
(800) 843-2763 (U.S/Canada) (301) 869-5800
http://www.asme.org http://www.mcaa.org

American Society for Nondestructive Testing (ASNT) National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA)
P.O. Box 28518 , 1711 Arlingate Lane 1300 North 17th Street, Suite 1752
Columbus, OH 43228-0518 Rosslyn, VA 22209
(800) 222-2768 or (614) 274-6003 (703) 841-3200
http://www.asnt.org http://www.nema.org

American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM) National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
P.O. Box C700, 100 Barr Harbor Drive 1 Batterymarch Park
West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959 Quincy, MA, 02169-7471
(610) 832-9500 (617) 770-3000
http://www.astm.org http://www.nfpa.org

– 102 –
INDEX

Index Terms Links

Accessibility 50
Advantages of GTAW 1
Aerospace 27
Air Contamination 88
Alternating Current 7
Alternator Welding Machines 7
Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys 37
Filler Metal Classification 18
Filler Metal Selection 38-39
Inches Per Pound of Wire 32
Preheat Temperatures 34
Aluminum Bronze 20 38
Annealing 43-44 83
Arc Blow 80
Arc Length 3 6 17
60 62-63 65-66
78 80-81
Arc Radiation 87
Arc Strikes 78
Arc Systems 3
Argon 17
Argon-Helium Mixtures 17
Argon-Hydrogen Mixtures 17
AWS/ANSI Z49.1 87

Backing Strips 48 50
Base Metal Cracking 80
Bead Height 60 65
Boilers 28
Burn-Through 78

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Index Terms Links

Cables 13
Recommended Lengths 13
Cadmium 88-89
Carbon Equivalent 34-35
Carbon Steel 37
Carriages 14
Cast Iron 34
Centerline Crack 79-80
Ceriated Tungsten 15 17 62
75
Certification 86
Charpy V-Notch Test 35-36
Chemical Properties 34
Chipping 74 79 83
89
Chromium 18 42-43 45
88-89
Cleaning 82
Cleaning the Work Metal 74
Cost of Gas Tungsten Arc Welding 30
Comparison Table 33
Cold Cracking 42 79
Columbium 43-44
Complete Penetration 6 50 53-59
Compressed Gases 88
Conformances 21
Constant Current 3 7 9
66
Controls 10
Copper and Copper Alloys 38
Filler Metal Classification 20
Inches Per Pound of Wire 32
Preheat Temperatures 34
Weldability 38
Corrosion 18 21-23 27-28
35 37-38 43-44
74 83
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Index Terms Links

Cracking 74
Craters 79
Crater Cracks 79

Defects Caused By Welding Technique 77

Degreasing 74 88
Dendrites 36
Deoxidizers 18 26 36
Deposition Efficiency 30-33
Deposition Rate 2 13 30
33 48 60
Destructive Testing 82-83
Direct Current 1 5-9 16
37-38 40 42-44
47 61 76
80 84
Distortion 79
Drag Angle 64
Duty Cycle 4-5 12

Effective Throat 47 54
Electric Power Cost 33
Electrical Shock 87
Electrodes 15
Classification 15
Selection 16
Electrode Angles 65
Electrode Contamination 81
Electrode Holder 61
Electrode Lead 4 13
Electrode Size 60
Electrode Selection
Electrode Taper Angle 62
Electrode Tip Preparation 75
Elongation 35
Equipment for Welding 4
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Index Terms Links

Explosions 89

Filler Metal Cost 30

Filler Metals 18
Filler Wire Feeders 13
Fires 89
Fixed variables 60
Fixturing 75
Free Machining Steels 43
Fusion Line 36

Gas Cup 11-12 65-66

Gas Shielding System 12
Gas Tungsten Arc Spot Welding 29
Generator Welding Machines 7
Grain Size 36 40
Grinding 15 17 26
62 74-75 78-79
83 88-89
Groove Angle 47-48 79

Hardenability 34 43
Hardness 15 34 83
Heat Zone 17 36-37 80
Heat Exchangers 28
Helium 17
Helmet 87-88
High Carbon Steel 34 42
High Frequency Current 7
Hot Cracking 40 42-43 79

Impact Strength 35-36

Inadequate Joint Penetration 79

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Index Terms Links

Inadequate Shielding 80
Inclusions 12 37 60
74 77
Industries 26
Incomplete Fusion 78
Industrial Piping 26
Inspection and Testing 82
Introduction to the process 1
Inverter Welding Machines 8

Joint Preparation 78
Joint Restraint 35 42 76
79-80

Kilowatt 32

Labor Cost 30
Lanthanated Tungsten 15 62 75
Lead (element) 37 42-43 79
88-89
Limitations of GTAW 2
Longitudinal Crack 79
Low Alloy Steels 13 16 18
42-43 47 74
Inches Per Pound of Wire 32
Preheat Temperatures 34
Low Carbon Steel 42

Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys 40

Filler Metal Classification 20
Filler Metal Selection 41
Weldability 40
Maintenance and Repair Welding 28

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Martensite 34
Martensitic Stainless Steels 34 43
Material Safety Data Sheets 87
Mechanical Properties 35
Medium Carbon Steel 34 43
Melting Point 15 34-35 37-38
42-44 77
Methods of Application 1
Microstructure 36
Mild Steel 20 29 37
42 44 73-74
77 84-85
Inches Per Pound of Wire 32
Preheat Temperatures 34
Minimum Effective Throat 54
Moisture 44 77-78
Molybdenum 27 34 42-44
Motion Devices 14

Nickel and Nickel Alloys 42

Filler Metal Classification 24-25
Inches Per Pound of Wire 32
Preheat Temperatures 34
Nitrogen 18
Nondestructive Testing 82
Normalizing 83
Nuclear Power Facilities 27

Operator Factor 30 33
Other Equipment 13
Other Problems 78 80
Overlapping 78
Oxidation 10 43 74
80
Oxide Inclusions 77

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Partial Penetration Weld 48

Phosphor Bronze 20 38
Phosphorous 38 42-43 79
Physical and Chemical Properties 34
Plasma Arc Cutting 74
Porosity 77
Position 48
Positioning 75
Postheating 83
Postweld Procedure 86
Power Source Duty Cycle 4
Power Sources 4
Preheating 76
Preparing the Weld Joint 74
Preselected Variables 60 62
Pressure Vessels 28
Preweld Preparations 74
Primary Variables 62
Principles of Operation 3
Procedure Schedules 66
Procedure Variables 60
Production Line Welder
Properties of the Weld 34
Pulsed Current 6
Protective Clothing 89
Push Angle 64

Qualification 84 86
Quenching and Tempering 83

Railroad 27
Rare Earth 17 40 88
Reduction of Area 35-36
References for Welding Safety 89-91

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Repairing of Welds 83
Reverse Polarity 5 7 9
Root 3 6 17-18
26-28 44 47-48
50 53–56 65
72 76 78-80
85-86
Root Opening 47-48 50 78-80

Safety 87
Scavengers 36
Secondary Variables 65
Selection of Filler Metal 21
Ships 27
Shielding Gas Cost 33
Shielding Gas Flow 18
Shielding Gases 17
Silicon Bronze 20 38 50
67-68 70
Slag 1-2 43-44 77
82
Solidification 7 34 36
79 83
Spatter 1-3 30 77
82 87
Stainless Steels 43
Classification 45
Filler Metal Classification 22-23
Inches Per Pound of Wire 32
Preheat Temperatures 34
Steels 42
Steels, Other 44
Straight Polarity 5 9
Stress Relieving 83
Sulfur 20 42-43 77-79
Summary of Safety Precautions 89
Square Wave Power 9

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Tensile Strength 18 21 35
43 82
Thermal Conductivity 18 34-35 38
40 44 47
Thermal Cutting 74
Thoriated Tungsten 15-18 37-38 40
43-44 60 62
67-69 70-71 75
Titanium and Titanium Alloys 44
Training 84
Transformer Welding Machines 8
Transformer-Rectifier Welding Machines 8
Transportation 27
Travel Angle 60 64-65
Travel Speed 63
Tungsten Inclusion 77
Types of Current 5 61
Types of Power Sources 7
Type of Shielding Gas 61

Ultimate Tensile Strength 35

Undercutting 78

Ventilation 15 17 88
Volt-Ampere Curves 3
Voltage 1 3-4 7
9 13 18
32-33 62-63 66

Warpage 79
Water Circulator 3
Weldable Metals 37

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Weld and Joint Design 46

Position 48
Strength 48
Thickness 48
Types of Metal 47
Weld Joint Designs 50
Weld Backing 75
Weld Cleaning and Other Hazards 89
Welds, Common Types 46
Welder Training and Qualification 84
Welder Training 84
Basic Gas Tungsten Arc Welding 84
GTAW 2 Inch Pipe 85
GTAW-SMAW 6 Inch Pipe 86
Welder Qualification 86
Welding Applications 26
Welding Cables 13
Welding Current 62
Welding Discontinuities and Defects 77
Welding Lens 88
Welding Metallurgy 34
Welding Symbols 51-52 60
Welding Voltage (Arc Length) 62
Work Angle 64-65
Wormhole Porosity 78

Yield Strength 36

Zinc 37-38 40 88-89

Zirconiated Tungsten 15 75

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