Adolescent Development in Underserviced Communities 17 creates a new language for all those interested in improving conditions for human development (Guerra, Graham, & Tolan, 2011) A common framework can highlight the complex nature of human development and offers a way to organize and provide focus for furher investigation and develop ment of programs. Researchers often reduce complexities as a means to systematically investigate variables and hypotheses. However, this can result in losing th approach to understanding the individual within multiple, interacting contexts ‘Theory grounds rescarchers and practitioners and keeps the focus on the complexities of environment. holistic archers/ Frameworks create meaning, organize existing knowledge, and help re: practitioners find opportunities to intervene. In designing mterven to choese a level of intervention with a mind on the whole context. Suecessfill pro ons, one needs grams support the whole peson, and stuengthen funilies, institutions and communities while at the same time they are able to report specific outcomes of intellectual and academic growth (Lerner & Castelline, 2002). Grotevant’s Framework of Adolescent Development In the Handbook of Adolescence, Gratevant (1998) developmental theories and relevant research on adolescenee, focusing on adolescence nthesized the history of major asa developmental period rather than a single context or outcome. He captures the dynamic processes that contribute to normal development and suggests a conceptual framework to structure cross-discipline communication and identify gaps in the research literature. Grotevant's framework is the basis for the organization of this hook and the remaining chapters of the book will illustrate how the concepts relate to academic success and urban context. We will first briefly present the concepts of Grotevant’s framework which inchide: (1) Developmental continuities from childhood, (2) Primary changes, (3) Contexts of development and (4) Adolescent outcomes. Developmental Continuities from Childhood Youth do not arrive into adolescence as blank slates waiting to be transformed. They have accumulated a sct of experiences, relationships, identities and skills that shape the opportunities and relationships in the next stage of adolescence. The changes in adole: clopment that has already taken plac development as unfolding over time and carlicr development sets the stage for subsequent changes, For example, by middle school, youth have had contact with school systems that have already passed judgment on their academic capabilities through grades, test scores and a history of behavior met with acceptance or dis ciplinary action. These experiences are carried with the young, person into the next phase of development and shape their fature possibilities. ence alter the dev Grotevant describesPrimary Changes Adolescence is a cultural concept, yet the years around physical maturity are uni~ ally recognized as a distinct time period (Rogoff, 2003), Grote adolescence as characterized by three prim: ve ne defines changes in the individual: the biological changes associated with puberty, the potential for cognitive change, and a redefinition of social roles, Although adolescence és based in biological changes, the accompanying changes and meaning are dependent on cultural community. For example, a 15 -year- old is physically able to reproduce, but in mainstream American culture, teen-aged child bearing is nat accepted as the norm. Contexts of Development Bronfenbrenner (1979) suggested that co better understand human development we have to go beyond direct observations of one person/one place to look to larger multi-person systems and interactions. Ecological theories describe development as unfolding within multiple contexts (biolegy, family, neighborhoods, time and culture). In his framework, Grotevant discusses three levels of contexts that influence adole cnt development: the individual, interpersonal, and macrosystems. Individual The first level of ecological context begins with the personal characteristics of the adolescent. This includes factors such as the young person's gender, race, ethnicity, and sexual orientation. As with Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model, individuals are in the center of their own development. Personal characteristics influence other contexts of development, such as family dynamics, friendships, and opportunities within society. Research literature suggests that individual characteristics (c.g. pubertal ming or personality traits) predict risk or resilience within the contest of under- serviced neighborhoods (see Leventhal et al., 2009). For example, being an African American male may influence his decision or likelihood to speak up to give an answer aloud in a classroom envirenment, His individual confidence can contribute te his comfort in speaking up. His size, voice, and mannerisms may influence how others respond to him in return: Interpersonal lhe second level includes the nverpersonal relationships and settings of which the individual adolescent isa part. This level includes both the direct relationships within the adolescent's life (wicresystens), and the settings in which these other individuals do or do not interact with each other (wesosystens). An individual is part ofa fumi or peer network; family and peers are part of greater interpersonal contexts such as schools, neighborhoods, and leisure activities settings where family and peers, or seachers and parents interact with the young persan and with each other. Building on the prior cxample, the response that the Aftican American student receives from his teacher will contribute to his school engagement. School engagement, along with other factors contributes to his academic performance: ¢.g., whether he has a parent actively invelved in his school; whether he is invelved in extra- curricular activities in the community; or the peer group to which he belongs. His answer to the question in the rst example, along with his history of interactions with his teacher, impacts the teacher's assesment of his academic ability, The teacher's perception ar interpretation of that stu enc’s skill is also intluenced by the teacher's own background and experience of the capability of similar students. Macrosystems Lastly, Grotevant includes macrosystems as the third level of context of development The macrosystems in his framework incorporate culture, societal norms, and the period of history in which the individuals and the systems are situated. The macrosystems and exchanges beeween them are contained within formal and informal structures, such as government, media, the economy, and political environment. In the continuing example of the teen, his teacher, and his school performance, all exist within a particular community, political environment and period of history. Whether a parent is available to monitor homework would depend on whether someone is home during the after-school hours. Parent availability after school is, in turn, influenced by several factors, for example whether the family is headed by a single parent or the parents’ work schedules, His participation in an alter-school program depends on whether one is available at the school (which may depend on funding or political support for such programs in the area), whether he has trans portation home, or the safety of his neighborhood. How his teacher praises or corrects students is dependent on his/her culture of origin, prior schooling, or the accepted professional norms, to name only a few factors. As this example illustrate: the effect of ecological contexts on development is not unidirectional. Each of the contexts is shaped by and shapes the other contexts of development. Relatedly, more than one context contributes to development at the same time and unfolds over time. That is, the interaction of these contexts results im developmental outcomes and further transformed contexts, which, in turn, shapes future development. Adolescent Outcomes Along with the challenge of understanding the multiple, interacting contexts of development, defining adolescent outcomes is equally significant. Grate framework provides a means of organi ant’s 1g the large body of literature that exists this area, Fach of these concepts will be discussed in depth in the following chapters of this book, For the purpose of introducing the concepts, we will bricft the outcomes defined by Grotevant, that include transformations in relationships; describe devclopment of identity; emotional health; and competence. P: Yr 5 ip Transformation in relationships. Adolescent relationships change in response to the growth and development of adoles cents themselves and to the varying contexts of which they are a-part. Important transformations are occurring in.an adolescent's fe,including emerging friendships, intimate relationships, and connections to the larger community. In turn, parents and children change their relationships in response to new romantic relationships, increased time spent with peers, school and work obligations, etc Development of identity. Identity is the subjective description of one’s own per~ sonality as well as the social persona chat defines self in relation to others. Identity development is a social process that emerges across ecological systems expressed differently 3 (e.g. class and race), and historical meaning (e.g, immigration patterns). Adolescents face multiple choices of identity, such as what career to pursue, and the values or religious belicfs they hold. They also need to understand the worth of one’s assigned identities such as gender, class, race, ethnicity, adoptive status, and sexual o1 al ross levels, and complica ced by biology (e.g. timing of puberty), soc ntation The successful development of identity, as defined by Grotevant, is the sense of continuity from one’s identity in past and prospects for the future and reconciling identities of choice with assigned characteristics. Ewotional health. Described as a continuum, Grotevant defines emotional health outcome as a measure of “adjustment.” On one end there is the development of self esteem and self-worth; on the opposite end there is the development of internalizing disorders, such as depression and suicide ideation. Health is more than the absence of mework in 1998, Grotevant disorders, yet at the time of the publication of his fi pointed to a need for more research on the positive the spectrum. Competence. Competence is the development of desired behavior, and the skills that can be used during the hours of school, work, or daily life, Grotevant includes a broad set of outcomes, such as culturally appropriate behavior and preparation to enter notional development end of the world of work. As with emotional health, he conceptualizes competence on a continuum fem prosocial behavior on one end to delinquent behavior or exter anced for further differentiation of positive behavior as distinct from merely the absence of neyative behaviors. Grotevant’s framework is compatible with a positive youth development approach. With a shared foundation in ecological theory, the positive youth development appreach to human development defines development as a process of growth and increasing competence (Larson, 2000). The study of youth development focuses on nalizing behavior on the other, There is the development and enhancement of social and personal assets to create pathways jonate, and for youth to become motivated, directed, socially competent, compass “psychologically vigorous.”