Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 72 (2010) 33–41

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Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering

j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s e v i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / p e t r o l

Filtration loss characteristics of aqueous waxy hull-less barley (WHB) solutions

T. Hamida a,1, E. Kuru a,⁎, M. Pickard b
a
University of Alberta, Canada
b
Infraready Products Limited, Canada

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper offers a comprehensive, comparative study of filtration loss properties of aqueous solutions of
Received 14 September 2009 waxy hull-less barley (WHB). Filtration loss properties of aqueous WHB solutions were compared to
Accepted 16 February 2010 hydrocolloid systems prepared by using sodium bentonite, Xanthan Gum, and cellulosic biopolymer (CMC),
which are some of the most common additives used for formulating drilling fluids in the oil and gas industry.
Keywords: Samples were prepared at various concentrations in freshwater and saline solutions, and temperature aged
water-based drilling fluids
at 90 °C. Low pressure-low temperature (LPLT) and high pressure-high temperature (HPHT) filtration tests,
waxy hull-less barley
β-glucan
and Permeability Plugging Tests (PPT) were performed on each sample. WHB displayed excellent filtration
filtration loss control properties, especially in saline, high temperature environments.
Xanthan gum © 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
carboxymethylcellulose

1. Introduction performed to evaluate the feasibility of using WHB as a drilling mud

Invasion of reservoir rock by drilling fluid filtrate is known to be
one of the major causes of productivity reduction. The productive
capacity of wells is impaired by complex rock/fluid interactions,
which reduce the permeability and/or the relative permeability to oil
and gas. Therefore, drilling fluids must be carefully formulated to
reduce the adverse effects on formation productivity and standard
formation evaluation techniques.
Filtration loss is one of the most important properties of drilling
fluids that should be controlled in order to minimize formation
damage. Sodium bentonite, synthetic and bio polymers are commonly
used as filtration control agents. The performance of drilling fluids and
additives are tested via the American Petroleum Institute (API)
standard procedures which are compiled in the ANSI/API 13B-1, 13B-2
and SPEC 13A (American Petroleum Institute, 2003; American
Petroleum Institute, 2005; American Petroleum Institute, 2006).
These tests, as well as the required equipment and individual purpose,
are summarized in Table 1.
Due to its high β-glucan content, Waxy hull-less barley (WHB)
yields unique viscosity properties when mixed with water in high
temperature, high pH environments. Rheological properties of
aqueous drilling fluids containing WHB have been discussed in a
previous paper (Hamida et al., 2009). The study presented in this
paper deals with filtration loss characteristics of aqueous drilling
fluids containing WHB. Several standardized tests have been
⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: ekuru@ualberta.ca (E. Kuru).
1
Now with the Alberta Research Council, 250 Karl Clark Rd., Edmonton, AB, Canada.
additive.
This paper will first provide a brief description of the additives
used during the tests, and explain the standard testing procedures.
This will be followed by a thorough discussion of the results. This
paper will close with some concluding remarks and suggestions for
further research.
2. Experimental program
2.1. Materials used as drilling fluid additives
2.1.1. Bentonite
Bentonite is a water absorbent aluminium phyllosilicate primarily
consisting of montmorillonite clay, (Na,Ca) 0.33 (Al,Mg) 2 Si 4 O 10
(OH)2·nH2O. Montmorillonite clay is characterized by a mica-type
crystal structure made up of silica and alumina, and is loosely bound
with a cation such as sodium or calcium. Sodium montmorillonite is
capable of swelling to approximately ten-fold its original volume
when mixed in fresh water, while calcium montmorillonite only
swells to 2–4 times its original volume.
Bentonite is the most commonly used additive to drilling fluids
due to its unique rheological properties. Small concentrations of
bentonite in water form a viscous, thixotropic fluid, which exhibits
low filtration, excellent cuttings suspension, and thin filter cakes. It is
easy to mix, reacts quickly to fresh water, and is widely available.
Applications of bentonite are limited to non-saline formations, and
often require expensive additives for improved viscosity and filtration
control (Baroid Industrial Drilling Products, 2005b; Bennab et al.,
1999).

0920-4105/$ – see front matter © 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.petrol.2010.02.006
34 T. Hamida et al. / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 72 (2010) 33–41
Table 1
Standard API tests for drilling muds, as recommended in API RP 13B (2003).
API test Test equipment
Viscosity and gel strength Marsh funnel
Direct indicating viscometer, rotational viscometer
LP/LT Filtration LP/LT Filter Press
HP/HT Filtration HP/HT Filter Press
Sand screening Sand screen
Cation exchange capacity Methylene blue solution
pH Glass electrode pH meter
Chemical analysis
Alkalinity and lime content Titration equipment
Total hardness (mg Calcium) Titration equipment
Mud weight Mud balance
The bentonite used in this study is premium grade Wyoming
sodium bentonite. This bentonite adheres to the API Spec. 13A Sect. 4
standards, and was ANSI/NSF Standard 60 Certified.
2.1.2. Xanthan Gum (XG)
Xanthan gum is an anionic desiccation-resistant polymer, which is
made up of a polysaccharide string with a cellulose backbone,
trisaccharide side chains and repeating pentasaccharide units. Each
molecule consists of over 5000 pentamers, and exhibits low poly-
dispersivity compared to other hydrocolloids. Although relatively
expensive by weight, XG is widely used in the oil & gas industry as an
effective viscosifier. Xanthan gum remains stable at high tempera-
tures and in the presence of acids, alkalis, salts and enzymes. Because
of its very high low-shear pseudo plastic viscosity and shear-thinning
character, Xanthan gum is often used for viscosity control. XG is
biodegradable and thus, extremely environmentally friendly (García-
Ochoa et al., 2000; Rochefort and Middleman, 1987).
2.1.3. Carboxymethylcellulose (CMC)
Carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) is a derivative of cellulose formed by
its reaction with alkali and chloroacetic acid. The Carboxymethylcellu-
lose structure is based on the β-(1→4)-D-glucopyranose polymer of
cellulose. CMC dissolves rapidly in cold water and is mainly used for
controlling viscosity without gelling (CMC, at typical concentrations,
does not gel even in the presence of calcium ions). Its control of viscosity
allows for its use as thickener, emulsion stabilizer and suspending agent.
CMC can also be used for its water-holding capacity, which is high even
at a low viscosity and a high degree of Ca2+ contamination. Thus, CMC is
widely used as a filtration control agent. Hydrophobic lower substituted
CMCs are thixotropic, while extended higher substituted CMCs are
pseudoplastic (Hughes et al., 1993; Käistner et al., 1997). CMC provides
filtration control in fresh or brackish water-based drilling fluids, reduces
fluid loss without significantly increasing fluid viscosity, and promotes
borehole stability in water sensitive formations (Baroid Industrial
Drilling Products, 2005a). It is non-toxic, non-fermenting, and only
requires low quantities to be effective.
Two types of CMC have been used in this study. The first type, CMC
(norm) is lab grade carboxymethyl-cellulose. The second is the type
commercially available from an oil-field service company.
2.1.4. Waxy hull-less barley (WHB)
WHB, like many other cereals, is rich in soluble fiber components,
most notably β-glucan (3–7%). These non-starch polysaccharides are
composed of (1→3), (1→44) mixed linked glucose polymers (Wood
et al., 1991; Wood et al., 1994). β-glucan is normally contained in cell
walls of cereals, especially within the endosperm cell wall (Miller and
Fulcher, 1994). There are various methods to extract β-glucan from
barley. Dry milling and sieving (up to 31%), and acid extraction and
Purpose
Fast viscosity determination, drilling fluid consistency
Mechanical measurement of viscosity at various shear rates, gel strength
Measurement of filtration and wall-cake building characteristics of a mud
Measurement of filtration and wall-cake building characteristics at
elevated temperature and pressure
Determine sand content
Indicator of the amount of reactive clays present in the drilling fluid
pH measurement; Clay interactions, solubility of various components and
contaminants and effectiveness of additives are dependent on pH, as is the
control of acidic and sulfide corrosion processes.
Acid neutralizing abilities of a substance. Used to estimate concentrations
of hydroxyl (OH−), carbonate (CO− 2 −
3 ) and bicarbonate (HCO3 ) ions in the mud
Calcium and magnesium content
Density determination
solvent extraction (up to 89%) are most commonly used (Bhatty,
1999). Wood et al. (1978) investigated the influence of particle size,
temperature, pH and ionic strength on β-glucan extraction using
sodium carbonate extraction at pH 10 and achieved extractions of up
to 78% β-glucan. NaOH has also been found to yield high percentages
of β-glucan in cereals. Dawkins and Nnanna (1993) studied the effects
of pH and temperature on β-glucan extraction of oat gum. They found
that β-glucan concentration moderately rises with increasing pH and
dramatically rises with increased temperature. This finding was
confirmed by Temelli (1997), who showed that β-glucan may be
effectively extracted from barley at elevated temperatures.
Traditionally, WHB extract viscosities were determined in acidic
solutions to avoid interferences associated with endogenous β-
glucanases (Aastrup, 1979; Bhatty et al., 1991; Perez-Vendrell et al.,
1996). Autio et al. (1987) studied oat β-glucan solutions at 0.20–
1.56 wt.% over a shear rate between 0.734–1500 s− 1 and applied a
power law rheological model to quantify the flow behavior. They
found that β-glucan solutions at 1% concentration have a low flow
behavior index and a high consistency index. Dawkins and Nnanna
(1995) studied the effects of pH, temperature and the presence of salt
and sucrose on the viscosity of oat gum, and concluded that viscosity
remained stable over a wide range of pH (2–10) and decreased with
increasing temperature. Dongowski et al. (2005) studied the
rheological behavior of β-glucan concentrations (2% and 4%) isolated
from extruded autoclaved oat meal and oat bran using oscillatory and
rheological measurement techniques. They found that the elastic
properties improved at increased frequency and that the complex
viscosities decreased with frequency. For an excellent review, please
refer Bhatty(1999). Due to its high β-glucan content, WHB may act as
an effective viscosifier and filtration control agent when added to
conventional water based mud. The possibility of using WHB as an
alternative to clay additives such as bentonite has been investigated at
22 °C and 90 °C for both freshwater and saline solutions. Since WHB is
biodegradable, such an additive is considered environmentally
friendly and therefore, economical as it would not require additional
facilities and procedures to meet stringent pollution controls.
2.2. Mixing method and drilling fluid preparation
Each sample is mixed using a standard Hamilton Beach Commercial
high-speed mixer (Model 550) and a 180 mm deep, 97 mm ID top,
70 mm ID bottom mixer cup (Hamilton Beach mixer cup No. M110-D).
Solid additive is weighed to the nearest 0.01 g, and gently introduced
into 350 ml of fresh water (or 150,000 ppm NaCl solution) while the
impeller is mixing. Each sample is mixed for 10–15 min at a low speed to
prevent the loss of fluid. In some mixes, where samples yield a high
viscosity, high speed mixing was applied. Once mixed, the sample was
cooled to 21 °C under cold, flowing water. The maximum mixing
 T. Hamida et al. / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 72 (2010) 33–41 35

temperature due to shear was measured to be 26 °C. Mixing tem- 2.3. Temperature aging
perature is not considered a major contributor to the observed
differences in filtration because samples are cooled to 21 °C after In some experiments, samples are aged at 90 °C to study filtration
mixing. Table 2 summarizes the mud-systems for each test type in this performance changes with temperature aging. This procedure is
study. especially necessary with WHB, because β-glucan is more effectively
All saline mud solutions are derived from a pre-mixed 150,000 ppm extracted at a high temperature. Aging is accomplished using OFITE
NaCl solution, which is stored in a 4 L beaker. This ensures that all saline aging cells and an OFI Roller Oven with an Omron timer and DC Motor
mud solutions share the same concentration of NaCl. control. The mixed mud system is poured into a high pressure aging
cell, and placed inside the roller oven. The roller oven is set to
maintain a constant temperature of 90 °C. The sample is gently mixed
Table 2
Summary of test runs.
with rollers for 16 h, after which it is placed under cold water. Once
cooled to 25 °C, the sample is taken out of the aging cell for filtration
Water Bentonite NaCl WHB XG CMC (norm) CMC (QT) Comments tests.
[ml] [g] [ppm] [g] [g] [g] [g]

LPLT filtration tests 2.4. Filtration tests

1 350 22.5 Base case
2 350 30
3 350 15 The measurements of static filtration and wall-cake thickness of a
4 350 1 mud are essential to drilling fluid control and treatment. These
5 350 2 characteristics are influenced by the nature and quantity of solids in
6 350 22.5 1 the fluid and their physical and chemical interaction with the liquid.
7 350 22.5 2
8 350 22.5 3
Generally, filtration is temperature and pressure dependent. There-
9 350 22.5 4 fore, filtration tests must be performed at both low pressure/low
10 350 22.5 5 temperature (LP/LT) and high pressure/high temperature (HP/HT).
11 350 22.5 15 Each method requires different equipment and methods.
12 350 22.5 1
13 350 22.5 3
14 350 22.5 1 2.4.1. Low pressure/low temperature (LP/LT) tests
15 350 22.5 Aged at 90 °C Fig. 1 shows a schematic of the LP/LT apparatus. A LP/LT filter press
for 16 h consists of a cylindrical mud cell having an inside diameter of
16 350 22.5 5 Aged at 90 °C 76.2 mm and a height of at least 64.0 mm. It is designed so that a
for 16 h
90.0 mm sheet of 2.7 μm filter paper can be placed in the bottom of
17 350 22.5 3 Aged at 90 °C
for 16 h the chamber to remove particles from the fluid. The filtration area is
18 350 22.5 1 Aged at 90 °C 4580 ± 60 mm2. The filter press gasket is the determining factor of the
for 16 h filtration area, and may vary due to its elasticity. The entire mud cell is
19 350 22.5 3 Aged at 90 °C
made of stainless steel to handle strong alkaline solutions. A pressure
for 16 h
20 350 22.5 1 Aged at 90 °C of 100 ± 5 psi is applied (or bled out) through the top cap using a back
for 16 h pressure regulator attached to a Nitrogen tank. Below the support is a
21 350 22.5 3 Aged at 90 °C drain tube for discharging the filtrate into a graduate cylinder (25 ml).
for 16 h The filter paper used in the subsequent filtration tests is especially
22 350 5 Aged at 90 °C
hardened filter paper for low pressure filter presses (31/2 in.
for 16 h
23 350 30 Aged at 90 °C diameter, 2.7 μm, conforming to U.S. Standard Sieve No. 200).
for 16 h The flow of filtrate through a mud cake (an unconsolidated porous
24 350 22.5 150,000 1 medium) is governed by Darcy's law.
25 350 22.5 150,000 3
26 350 150,000 30
27 350 22.5 150,000 2 dVf kAΔP
= ð1Þ
28 350 22.5 150,000 2 Aged at 90 °C dt μhmc
for 16 h
29 350 22.5 150,000 6 Aged at 90 °C
for 16 h
30 350 150,000 30 Aged at 90 °C
for 16 h

HPHT filtration tests

1 350 22.5 ΔP = 500 psi,
121 °C
2 350 22.5 ΔP = 500 psi,
121 °C
3 350 30 ΔP = 500 psi,
121 °C
4 350 22.5 150,000 ΔP = 500 psi,
121 °C
5 350 150,000 30 ΔP = 500 psi,
121 °C

Permeability plugging tests (PPT)

1 350 22.5 ΔP = 500 psi,
121 °C
2 350 22.5 1 ΔP = 500 psi,
121 °C
3 350 30 ΔP = 500 psi,
121 °C
Fig. 1. LP/LT filtration test apparatus.
36 T. Hamida et al. / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 72 (2010) 33–41
At the time t during filtration, the volume of solids in the mud that
has been filtered must be equal to the volume of solid depositing on
the cake (assuming that no seeping through the filter). Mathemat-
ically,
fsm Vm = fsc hmc A
where fsm is the volume fraction of solids in the mud, and fsc is the
volume fraction of solids in the cake. Rewriting,


fsm hmc A + Vf = fsc hmc A
which simplifies to
Vf
hmc =

fsc
A fsm
−1
Inserting this expression into Darcy's law, and integrating, one
finds that
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
 ffi
t fsc
Vf = A 2kΔP −1
μ fsm
Therefore, plotting the filtrate volume, Vf, versus the square root of
time, will yield a straight line. The standard API filter loss is reported
as the volume of filtrate after 30 min, when 100 psi is applied. In some
cases, a spurt loss of filtrate is observed before porosity and
permeability of the filter cake is established. Such spurt loss is a
good indicator of solids suspension in the mud.
After inspecting each part of the cell and installing the filter, the
mud sample is poured into the cell to within 13 mm from the top lid
(to minimize N2 contamination of the filtrate). Once a dry graduated
cylinder is placed under the drain tube to collect the filtrate, the relief
valve is closed and the regulator was adjusted so that a pressure of
100 ± 5 psi could be applied in less than 10 s. The test period starts at
the time of pressure application. The filtrate volume (ml) is monitored
at regular time intervals. After 30 min, the LP/LT filter press is shut off
and the pressure was slowly bled off to atmospheric. The final volume
of filtrate after 30 min in cm3 was noted as API filtrate. Using extreme
care to save the filter paper with a minimum of disturbance to the
cake, we disassembled the cell and discarded the mud. The thickness
of the filter cake was measured to the nearest 1/32 in. (0.8 mm) using
a ruler. The step-by-step procedure of this test can be found in API RP
13B-1 (American Petroleum Institute, 2003).
2.4.2. High pressure/high temperature (HP/HT) tests
Fig. 2 shows a schematic of the HP/HT filtration apparatus. The HPHT
filtration tests measure filtration properties under varying dynamic
downhole conditions. The test apparatus consists of a controlled
pressure source (Nitrogen), regulators, a mud cell rated to 1300 psi, a
system for heating the cell, and a back-pressure controlled 100 ml
sampling vessel. The sampling vessel is pressurized to prevent flashing
or evaporation of filtrate at high temperatures. The mud cell has a
thermometer well, oil-resistant gaskets, a support for the filter medium
and a valve on the filtrate delivery tube to control flow from the cell. An
especially hardened Whatman No. 50 filter paper (2.7 μm, 2.5″
diameter) was used to resist temperatures up to 205 °C.
After installing the filter, the prepared mud sample was gently
poured into the mud cell. The mud cell and the sampling vessel were
then tightly sealed and pressurized to 100 psi. The mud cell was heated
for approximately 30 min until it reached 121 °C. A 30 min heating time
was selected to prevent undesired settling of the solids in the mud. It
was necessary to adjust the back pressure regularly to account for
thermal expansion of the liquid. Once the desired temperature was
reached, we increased the pressure of the top pressure unit to 600 psi,
ð2Þ
ð3Þ
ð4Þ
ð5Þ
Fig. 2. HP/HT filtration test apparatus.
and opened the bottom valve to start filtration. The pressure differential
across the filter medium was continuously maintained at 500 psi. The
filtrate was collected for 30 min, maintaining the selected temperature
to within 1 °C, and the pressure differential to within ±10 psi. After
30 min, the sampling cell is shut in and sampled. Additionally, the filter
with the mud cake is retrieved for further analysis. The step-by-step
procedure of this test can be found in API RP 13B-1 (American Petroleum
Institute, 2003).
The measurement of static filtration and wall-cake thickness of a
mud is essential to drilling fluid control and treatment, as are the
characteristics of the filtrate such as oil, water or emulsion content.
These characteristics are influenced by the nature and quantity of
solids in the fluid and their physical and chemical interaction with the
liquid. Generally, filtration is temperature and pressure dependent.
Therefore, filtration tests must be preformed at both low pressure/low
temperature (LP/LT) and high pressure/high temperature (HP/HT).
Each method requires different equipment and methods.
2.5. Permeability Plugging Tests (PPT)
The Permeability Plugging Test is a modification of the standard
HPHT filter press, where the pressure cell is inverted, and the filter
medium and the backpressure collection vessel are located at the top of
the assembly. Such test may be performed in the field or in the
laboratory environment. The instrument is useful in performing
filtration tests on plugging materials without the interference of
particles settling on the filter medium during the heating process. The
cell is pressurized with hydraulic oil and a floating piston separates the
oil from the test fluid within the cell. The PPT is very useful in predicting
how a drilling fluid can form a low permeable filter cake to seal off
depleted, under pressured intervals and help prevent differential
sticking. The apparatus used to perform the PPT is shown in Fig. 3.
The cell is furnished with a threaded cell inlet cap, a floating piston,
and a threaded scribed outlet cap for the hardened filter. An extra
thick end cap with a standard screen backup is furnished to prevent
puncturing of the thin filter paper. The inlet or bottom valve stem is
fitted with a quick-connect for the connection to the hydraulic
pressure manifold. The standard hydraulic pressure manifolds are
equipped with a 4000 psi relief valve. The outlet or upper valve stem
 T. Hamida et al. / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 72 (2010) 33–41
Fig. 3. Permeability plugging test apparatus.
assembly consists of a dual valve stem with a ball valve in the middle,
which facilitates the opening and closing of the outlet flow. The
100 ml back-pressure sampling vessel is mounted upside down on the
top of the heating jacket. It attaches to the cell outlet valve stem and is
secured with a retainer pin.
After installing the filter, the prepared mud sample was gently
poured into the mud cell. The mud cell and the sampling vessel were
then tightly sealed and pressurized to 100 psi. The mud cell was
heated for approximately 30 min until it reached 121 °C. Once the
desired temperature was reached, we increased the pressure of the
bottom pressure unit to 600 psi, and opened the top valve to start
filtration. The pressure differential across the filter medium was
continuously maintained at 500 psi. A manual hydraulic pump was
used to generate the pressure differential within the mud cell to push
the sample through the filter cake into the sampling vessel. This is
done through the hydraulic piston within the mud cell. As the piston
moves upwards, it displaces a volume of sample through the filter. The
Fig. 4. Filtration curves for freshwater (unaged) bentonite muds with different concentrations of mud additive.
37
solid fines within the mud are suspended within the mud, and
therefore do not settle onto the filter. The filtrate was collected for
30 minutes, maintaining the selected temperature to within 1 °C, and
the pressure differential to within ±10 psi. After 30 min, the system is
shut in, and the collected filtrate within the sampling vessel is
collected. Once the mud cell cooled down to 40 °C, the filter is
retrieved for further analysis. The step-by-step procedure of this test
can be found in API RP 13B-1(American Petroleum Institute, 2003).
3. Results and discussions
3.1. LP/LT filtration tests
3.1.1. Unaged freshwater mud systems
Given the excellent viscosifying properties of 30 g WHB in both
freshwater and saline solutions, we proceeded in investigating the
barley's potential as a fluid loss control agent. Fig. 4 presents the
filtration curves for freshwater, unaged bentonite based muds with
different concentrations of mud additive. The addition of low concen-
trations of WHB did not reduce the filtrate loss of bentonite
considerably. XG and CMC out performed WHB added mud by up to
15 g WHB. Once 15 g WHB is added to bentonite, the mud system starts
to show similar behavior as with 1 g XG additive. The relative API
filtration loss after 30 min for freshwater, unaged bentonite mud
systems with different concentration of additive is presented in Fig. 5.
One can clearly observe that WHB fails as a fluid loss control additive
when added in low concentrations. Only when 15 g WHB is added to
freshwater-bentonite mud, we observe a comparable performance to
the alternatives. For completeness, we also add 30 g WHB in 350 ml
freshwater, to reiterate the potential of WHB as a bentonite replace-
ment. 30 g WHB spectacularly outperformed bentonite in filtration and
yielded similar API filtration values as the polymer added mud.
Additionally, the resulting mud cake was less than 1 mm (b1/32 in).
3.1.2. Aged freshwater mud systems
We also investigated the potential of WHB as filtration loss control
additive after aging, and found that concentrations of 5 g/350 ml of
WHB in bentonite-fresh water mud performed comparably to the
alternatives (Fig. 6). The filtration improvement with WHB is only
observed after prolonged heat treatment, while alternate filtration
control agents such as CMC immediately reduce filtration loss. Aging
did not alter the API filtration loss of Xanthan gum and CMC.
38 T. Hamida et al. / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 72 (2010) 33–41

Fig. 5. API Filtration loss after 30 min for freshwater (unaged) bentonite muds with different concentrations of mud additive.

3.1.3. Saline mud systems (150,000 ppm NaCl)
Fig. 7 shows API filtration loss of aged and unaged saline
(150,000 ppm NaCl) bentonite muds with different filtration control
additive concentrations. 30 g WHB in 350 ml of freshwater and saline
water clearly out performed XG and CMC before and after aging. In
fact, the observed filtration loss is less than half of what is observed
with 3 g CMC. Additionally 30 g WHB produced an extremely thin
mud cake, bb1 mm. This is an extremely important asset to have for a
drilling fluid since thin mud cake eliminates many problems
associated with drilling fluid applications (i.e., differential pipe
stuck, log interpretation difficulties, etc.)
3.2. HP/HT filtration tests
3.2.1. Freshwater mud systems
Fig. 8 summarizes the results of all HPHT tests for various mud
systems. As a reference, we also include previously obtained filtrate
loss volumes from the LPLT results for both unaged and aged mud
systems (presented in earlier sections). One can clearly observe the
excellent performance of WHB both as an additive to bentonite-fresh
water mud (at a high concentration) and as a main ingredient of a
drilling fluid alternative to bentonite. In the case of the 22.5 g
bentonite base mixture, the 30 minute API filtration loss is 63.5 cc,
resulting in a mud cake of 5/32″. After adding 1 g CMC, the filtrate
volume was reduced to 23.2 cc and a mud cake thickness of 6/32″. On
the other hand, adding 15 g WHB to the bentonite base mud reduced
the filtrate loss to 12.8 cc (mud cake 3/32″), which is almost half of the
filtrate loss obtained with CMC. Interestingly, 30 g WHB only yielded
excellent filtrate volumes of 13.2 cc and a mud cake height of 2/32″.
There may be two reasons why WHB reduced filtration. First, fine
particles may block the pores of the filter paper, reducing the
permeability of the filter paper, therefore, reducing the filtration rate.
Second, because WHB has a weaker colloidal suspension than
bentonite, it is possible that suspended solids accumulate close to
the filter, generating a viscous layer. The viscous layer may act as a
pseudo-mud cake, preventing mud loss. This may explain the very

Fig. 6. Histogram showing filtration loss for aged and unaged freshwater bentonite muds with different additive concentrations. Muds were aged at 90 °C for 16 h.
 T. Hamida et al. / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 72 (2010) 33–41 39

Fig. 7. API Filtration loss after 30 min of aged and unaged saline (150,000 ppm NaCl) bentonite muds with different filtration control additive concentrations. Aged muds were
subjected to a temperature of 90 °C for 16 h.

thin mud cakes that were observed with all WHB experiments. This
effect is eliminated in the permeability plugging tests (PPT).
3.2.2. Aged freshwater mud systems
We also investigated the potential of WHB as filtration loss control
additive after aging, and found that concentrations of 5 g/350 ml of
WHB in bentonite-fresh water mud performed comparably to the
alternatives (Fig. 8). The filtration improvement with WHB is only
observed after prolonged heat treatment, while alternate filtration
control agents such as CMC immediately reduce filtration loss. Aging
did not alter the API filtration loss of Xanthan gum and CMC.
3.2.3. Saline mud systems
From the results above, it is clear that WHB can be used as an
effective filtration control agent. The next step was to test WHB's
performance in saline solutions. Fig. 9 summarizes the test results for
150,000 ppm NaCl mud systems. Due to the high salinity of the
solution, it was necessary to increase the CMC concentration to 3 g/
350 ml of bentonite base mud (the recommended quantity by the
manufacturer). Despite the high concentration of CMC, 30 g WHB still
performed better, yielding 30% of the filtrate measured with 3 g CMC.
The resulting mud cakes were 6/32″ for 3 g CMC and 2/32″ for 30 g
WHB. This result reinforces the previous observation that 30 g WHB is
an excellent alternative to bentonite mud when drilling in salty
formations. WHB may be used in scenarios where bentonite would
usually fail, necessitating the addition of very expensive additives.
3.3. Permeability plugging tests (PPT)
The PPT tests reconfirmed the results from the HPHT tests, yielding
comparable results. Fig. 10 shows the results of various PPT test runs
using 22.5 g bentonite base mud, 22.5 g bentonite + 1 g CMC and 30 g
WHB in freshwater. In all cases, PPT yielded slightly lower filtration
values than the HPHT. 30 g WHB clearly out performed both the 22.5 g
bentonite and 1 g CMC additives, yielding 10.6 cc as compared to
23.2 cc with 1 g CMC, and 60 cc with bentonite as the base fluid. WHB
also generated a considerably thinner mud cake (1/32″) as compared

Fig. 8. HPHT Filtration results for various mud systems mixed in fresh water.
40 T. Hamida et al. / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 72 (2010) 33–41

Fig. 9. HPHT Filtration results for various mud systems mixed in 150,000 ppm NaCl solution.

Fig. 10. Results of HPHT Filtration Tests and Permeability Plugging Tests for various mud systems in freshwater.

to 1 g CMC and bentonite, which resulted in mud cake heights of 3/32″
and 10/32″, respectively.
4. Summary of results
1. Using WHB as an additive (1–5 g/350 ml) to prevent filtration loss
of freshwater–bentonite mud is not effective. Some fluid loss
reduction was possible only at relatively high concentrations (15 g/
350 ml). Even then, both XG and CMC out-performed WHB at
much lower concentrations. The filtrate volume is considerably
reduced after aging, however, making 5 g WHB a competitive
alternative to XG and CMC.
2. Application of WHB as an alternative to Bentonite at high
concentrations (i.e. 30 g WHB–350 ml fresh water) yields ex-
tremely low filtrate volumes and a very thin mud cake. More
surprisingly, 30 g WHB in both fresh water and saline solutions out
performed bentonite + CMC complexes, resulting in filtrate losses
as low as 3.2 ml (as compared to 8.2 ml with Bentonite + 3 g CMC).
Moreover, 30 g WHB produced a very thin mud cake, which is an
extremely important asset for a drilling fluid to have, as thin mud
cake eliminates many problems associated with drilling fluids
application (i.e. differential pipe stuck, log interpretation difficul-
ties, etc.)
3. WHB serves very well as a filtration control agent, provided that
concentrations are high. Adding 15 g WHB to bentonite–fresh
water mud resulted in better filtration control than when adding
1 g CMC.
4. When using WHB–fresh water mixture as a drilling mud
alternative to bentonite–fresh water mud, 30 g WHB–fresh water
mixture displayed excellent filtration properties without the need
for additional additives. In that respect, WHB clearly outperformed
the 22.5 g bentonite base mud, as well as when 1 g CMC is added to
the base mud.
5. Permeability plugging tests yielded comparable filtration results as
HPHT tests. 30 g WHB still outperformed the bentonite base mud,
as well as when 1 g CMC is added to the base mud.
 T. Hamida et al. / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 72 (2010) 33–41 41

5. Conclusions Acknowledgment

WHB has excellent filtration control properties. When used This project was supported with funds provided by Alberta
alone, WHB performed extremely well in saline, high temperature Agriculture and Food and also by Infraready Products Ltd. We would
environments. also wish to thank Mr. Sean Watt for assisting us in running the testing
WHB is a promising alternative to bentonite, which is the most equipment.
commonly used additive in conventional water-based drilling fluid
systems, and the results of this study justify further investigation in References
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1 in. 2.54 cm
TF (°F) (TF (°C) × 9/5) + 32