S1 : Stadium Roof Design – Design Decisions

Top 6 biggest stadiums in the UK? W1 P2-8

Using worksheet W1, each student should guess what they think the top 6 biggest stadiums in
the UK are.

Using the overheads P2-8 as a guide, discuss, as a group, some of the following;
 Use of the stadium,
 How the stadium has evolved,
 Structure of the roof,
 Individual features that sets it apart.

The following information is a snap-shot of the most interesting features about the stadiums.
Students could also research this information online either during the class or as a homework
activity.

Wembley – P3

Recently completed the new Wembley stadium will be one of the largest football stadiums in the
world with all 90,000 seats seat under cover. It will also be the most expensive stadium ever built
costing at least £798 million. The stadium contains 2,618 toilets estimated by WNSL to be more
than any other building in the world and will have a circumference of 1km.
The most striking feature of the deisgn is the roof which will be 11 acres, four acres of which will
move, allowing sunlight onto the pitch between matches to aid grass growth. The roof rises to 52
metres above the pitch, with an arch that spans of 315 metres, the longest single span roof
structure in the world and is 133 metres high. The arch is 7 metres wide which will allow a
maintaince cart to be driven inside it to do routine check-ups.

Twickenham – P4

Twickenham, the second largest stadium in the UK, has the capacity to accommodate 82,000
spectators. A Double Decker bus can take around 80 people when it’s full, so the stadium can fit
1025 full Double Decker bus loads.
It is the home for the English Rugby Football Union team but has been known to host a Rolling
Stone or U2 concert and the rugby league’s Challenge Cup.
The first game was played in 1909 and the stadium has gone through a number of
redevelopments to increase the capacity and provide offices for the RFU. The most recent
development will add a four-star Marriott hotel with 156 rooms and six VIP suites with views over
the field, a performing arts complex, a health and leisure club, a new rugby shop and also
increase the current function space. This will enable the stadium to bring in money during the off
season as well as when matches are played.
The structure of the roof is a free hanging cantilever which hangs dramactically over the
speactators as if unsupported. The weight of the roof is balanced by a “tie-down” force outside
the stadium, see P10 or the cantilever roof design excersise, S3.
Old Trafford – P5

Home to Manchester United Football Club and built in 1910 it is also know as “The Theatre of
Dreams”. Old Tafford, like so many other famous stadiums, creates a sense of “community” which
makes the physical and emotional experience of being part of a crowd completely unique and
one that cannot be broadcast through a television screen. No matter how much better the close-
ups, replays, commentary and interviews get, people will always want to be able to say “we were
there” and players will always rely on the atmostphere to enchace their performance, so the need
for stadiums will never die out.
The original design of the stands has enabled the stadium to be steadily built onto to increase
capacity to 76,000. The most recent work was to fill in the corners of the the north-west and
north-east quadrants of the ground, increasing capactiy by 8,000.

Millennium Stadium – P6

The first retractable a roof stadium in the UK built in 1999 has made the Millennium Stadium in
Cardiff a very versatile venue. It is home to the Welsh Rugby Union, The Football Association, The
Football League, The Football Association of Wales and the British Speedway Association and can
accommodate 74,500 people.
The multi-purpose nature of the stadium means that it can be used in all weathers and can host
a range of activities from conventions to opera and major cultural festivals bringing new life into
part of the Cardiff city centre.
The retractable roof consists of 27000m2 of fixed roof with 8960m2 of moveable roof that can
open/close in 20 minutes. The design provides complete shelter to all spectators, good acoustic
conditions for concerts and allows sunlight and air to circulate over the pitch in order to enhance
the growth of the grass.

Murrayfield – P7

Located in Edinburgh, Murrayfield is home to Scottish Rugby and was built in 1925. It used to
hold the record for the largest ever attendance for a rugby union match, with 104,000 watching
Scotland play Wales in 1975. At present, its all-seater capacity is 67,800.
It also play host to music concerts including the final Live 8 concert, Edinburgh 50,000 - The
Final Push, in July 2005.
Wintry conditions posed a constant threat to matches and so an investigation into the possibility
of installing an under soil-heating system was undertaken in the early 1950s. An electric blanket
was installed in 1959 at a cost of £10,000, but this system was upgraded by a new gas-heated
system of hot water pipes. It was £250,000 to install and was ready in time for the 1001 World
Cup. The new system has an estimated 24 miles of plastic piping running about 10 inches below
the surface, from west to east.

Emirates – P8

Arsenal Football Club recently moved into their new Emirates Stadium in London completed in
2006. The lack of opportunity to expand the old stadium, Highbury, lead the club into
developing the 60,400 capacity stadium in the industrial estate Ashburton Grove just 500 metres
away.
The roof slopes inwards to reduce its impact on the surrounding area and create an exhilarating
atmosphere. The large open gaps encourage as much sunlight and airflow to the pitch as
possible in order to maintain Arsenals’ reputation of having a superb playing pitch.
The construction of the stadium was also a great success being completed ahead of schedule and
on budget, a feat that will not be emulated by Wembley.

What groups of people would you need to consider when W1

designing a stadium

As a group try to identify the three different client groups that will influence the design of a
stadium;
 Spectators,
 Owners/Operators,
 Participants.

Client Brief Exercise W2 P9

For this class discussion divide the class into the three groups representing the Spectators, the
Owners/Operators and the Participants. Each group should think about the needs, what is
absolutely essential for them to have, and the wants, what would be nice to have as an extra.
They should then tie these needs and wants into how the design of the roof might affect them.
Finally each group should formulate a short design brief, based on the needs and wants, and
then present it to the rest of the class.

Some basic points that they should identify are shown in Table 1.

Spectators Owners/Operators Participants

Need  Safety  Cost Effective  Floodlighting

 Unobstructed  Durable  Good quality of
viewing playing surface

Want  Shading from the  Flexible  Good atmosphere

sun  Easy to maintain  Ventilation
 Shelter from the  Good broadcasting
wind and rain facilities
 Sense of Identity  Energy Efficient
 Aesthetically
pleasing
 Cool and well
ventilated
Table 1
Roof Types P10-11

The form of structure selected for a stadium roof will have the largest impact on the cost, time to
construction and obstruction to viewing.
Using the overheads p10-11, introduce the basic principles of the different types of roof
structure.

Goal Post Structures – P10

The simplest of structures are Goal Post structures, which comprise of a post at either end of the
stand and a single girder spanning the entire length between them. This girder supports the
weight of the entire roof and so needs regular maintenance to prevent failure. It is cheap and
used widely in the UK, but is only suitable for rectangular stadia as it cannot form a curve.

Cantilever Structures – P10

Cantilever structures are held down by securely fixing one end, leaving the other end to hang
unsupported over the stands. This provides unobstructed viewing and can form circles or
ellipses, such as the North Stand at Twickenham. However cantilevers have a tall back, which
mean that they can appear intimidating from the outside, imposing on the surrounding area.

Space Frame Structures – P11

A space frame is constructed from interlocking struts in a geometrical pattern using steel tubes.
It draws its strength from the triangular frames that make up the truss-like rigid structure. It is
lightweight, capable of spanning large distances with few supports, and can create curves to
increase the visual impact. They are an expensive option but can be prefabricated in small
chunks off site, ensuring the quality of workmanship and reducing the construction time.

Tension Structures- P11

All the primary forces in a tension structure are taken by members acting in tension alone, such
as cables. The roof covering is often a polyester or glass fibre fabric which gives an airy, festive
appearance to a stadium. They can be adapted to any stadium layout, however require very
sophisticated design as rain and snow can collect in ponds, overloading a concentrated area of
fabric and can lead to failure. The 1972 Olympic Stadium for the Munich Olympics is a nice
example of this type of structure.

Flexibility and cost

The type of roof chosen for a stadium has a massive impact of the flexibility of that venue. To
achieve financial viability a stadium needs to bring in revenue during off-season periods and on
the days when matches aren’t played during the season. Most stadiums achieve this with a
generous provision of conference facilities, Health Clubs and even hotels, such as the new
development at Twickenham. However some stadiums, such as the Millennium stadium in Cardiff,
have retractable roofs allowing it to function in all seasons and weathers, hosting a range of
activities from conventions to opera and major cultural festivals.
Stadium Australia, the Olympic stadium for the 2000 games, was designed to have different
phases. During the Olympics the stadium could accommodate 110,000 spectators by means of
temporary upper tiers to the Northern and Southern stands. This was then removed after the
Olympics, with the roof extended in modular fashion to cover the spectator areas at each end.
The roof was also designed to allow for a 3 rd phase incorporating two retractable sections
creating a complete cover to the event arena should it be desired in later years. This type of
approach to stadium roof design means that costs are incurred only as and when new sections of
roofing are required. The venue can then response to future demands, extending its design life.

Grass Pitches P12

A modern stadium turf must not only provide a flawless surface for the participants but it must
also appear to be flawless, both to the live and the remote audience. In addition to this the turf
must be able to withstand intense usage, particularly if the stadium is used regularly for different
sports.
Using the overhead P12 discuss the following factors that can affect the quality of the grass.

Sun exposure

It is important to model the shadow cast from the roof onto the pitch and stands at different
times of the day and year. The main stand of a stadium usually faces east, so that, for afternoon
matches, the minimum amount of spectators will have to look into the sun.
Any sport played on a natural grass surfaces, e.g. Football and Rugby, will try to reduce the
shading from sunlight on the pitch as this will have a detrimental effect on the grass quality.
Completely enclosed stadia cannot, at present, have natural grass pitches but the following
experiments have been undertaken;
o Roll-in/Roll-out pitch at Toronto’s Skydome. The grass is maintained in the open
air then slid into the stadium when needed.
o Grass pitch which can be raised to roof level through the use of jacks, named
“Turfdome” and invented in New York by Geiger Engineers, presently un-built.
o Permanent translucent roof fitted with artificial light.
o Retractable roofs, allowing sunlight in whilst being able to enclose the entire space
if needed.

Wind and Air flow

Circular or elliptical shapes of roofs normally have a claming effect on the air inside the stadium.
The comfortable air conditions inside the Don Valley Stadium in the UK are even suggested to
enhance the performance of the athletes. However, roofs that are designed to have open gaps at
the corners can be beneficial, particularly for grass pitches, as it aids drying out after rain and
increases air movement over the grass, enhancing its quality.

Environmental Factors P13

Considering the Environment during the design of sport venues is becoming a requirement. The
London Olympics 2012 bid was secured due its strong commitments to be environmentally
responsible. Funding and planning is difficult to acquire if the design of a stadium does not
consider sustainability.
Using the overhead P13, discuss the following environmental issues related to stadium design.

Visual Impact

The visual impact that the stadium has on the surrounding area is extremely important to
consider at the design stage. Stadiums are inward looking and often have tall, imposing “backs”
that can be an eyesore at street level outside. Some stadium pitches are actually reduced below
ground level to lower the height of the roof structure in order to blend in better. However, a
stadium that is designed to stand out and make a statement will have an elaborate extravagant
roof structure that is hard to miss, such as Wembley.

Energy Consumption

The energy consumed by a stadium is one of the most important aspects to consider at the
design stage. A stadium roof should aim to allow as much daylight as possible into the building,
reducing the need for artificial lighting. However, especially during winter, flood lighting is
essential to ensure that not only players and spectators have visibility but also so that TV
cameras can still transmit the pictures to millions of additional spectators. To minimise the
energy required, floodlights can be mounted on the roof structure which will evenly distribute the
light around the stadium, this will also reduce the light pollution nearby houses may experience.
In the Australia Stadium 2000 a daylight scoop was employed using the roof to reflect sun rays
down into atriums reducing the amount of artificial light needed.

Material Selection

The materials selected for different parts of the roof will be measured against criteria based on
required design life, technical aspects and aesthetics.
o Roof Coverings
The requirements for a satisfactory roof covering include the need for the material to be
lightweight, tough, water-tight, incombustible, aesthetically acceptable, cost-effective and
durable. Opaque coverings such as steel or aluminium sheets are commonly used and are cheap
and easy to fix. In some instances, where the roof structure is also the covering, lightweight
concrete is used but it will become weathered and stained if not treated or finished. Translucent
coverings are often rigid plastics, such as PVC or acrylic, which are waterproof, strong and can
withstand large deformations without damage. Plastic fabrics can also be used as a non-rigid,
transparent roof coverings used for the roofing of the Olympic stadium refurbishment in Rome
for the 1990 World Cup and can create dramatic shapes if used correctly.
The main problem faced with the roof covering is the collection of rain or snow in ponds on the
roof which can overload the covering material and lead to failure.
o Concrete
Concrete is a very versatile building material and is commonly-used for stadiums as it is cheap,
fire-proof and can be cast in any shape. This makes it the only material capable of creating the
seating profiles for a stadium, but is rarely used for the roofs as it is heavy and unattractive once
weathered.
 o Steel
Steel offers a slender and graceful solution for roofs as it is lighter and more aesthetically
pleasing than concrete, so is the obvious choice for roof structures. Also, as the roof sits above
the spectators, the required fire-proofing for safety is less, as long as the stadium can be
evacuated within a defined time before structural failure or smoke suffocation occurs. This,
coupled with the ability to be prefabricated off-site, makes steel a cost effective and sensible
choice for the load bearing structure of a roof.

Design Life/Maintenance

The design life of different elements of the roof will vary from around 50 years for the load
bearing structure to perhaps only a year for some of the finishes, depending on the type and
quality. The elements, such as the roof covering and cladding, must be designed for easy
replacement and an in depth maintenance strategy will need to be considered during the design
stage.

Design Decisions Exercise W3-4 P10-14

In groups of three containing one spectator, one participant and one owner/operator, try to
design the most cost effective stadium.
Each group will need to choose a Roof Type, a Degree of Enclosure, a System for Good Quality
Grass and a Roof Covering Material from Table 2.
They should add up the amount of value their selection will give to the stadium and then subtract
the cost incurred by their choices. The bigger this number is the more cost effect their stadium
will be, so the more money it will earn for the owner/operator whilst fulfilling as many of the
requirements from the spectators and participants.

Cost Effectiveness = Value Added – Cost

Note

 If No Roof is chosen for a degree of enclosure then this will not require a choice for Roof
Type or Roof Covering.

 If a Completely enclosed stadium is chosen then a pitch that can be raised to roof level is
not a viable option. Also an in-situ pitch would not survive, so this option is also not
possible.

 The most cost effective design is a Fixed Covering Cantilever Roof with a Roll-In Roll-Out
pitch and translucent covering. This adds £92million

 The least cost effective design is a stadium with No roof and a pitch that can be raised to
roof level. This would cause a loss to the owner of £48million.
 Cost Value Added (£million)
(£million) Ability to save Ability to blend Ease of Ease of
Roof Type Individuality energy on lighting into surrounds Maintenance construction
Goal post structures 40 10 2 15 2 25
Cantilever Roof 60 40 5 4 15 23
Space frame structure 75 50 8 8 10 8
Tension Structure 80 45 10 20 8 7

Degree of Enclosure Flexibility Construction Time Atmosphere Comfort

No roof 30 5 15 2 1
Fixed covering for spectators 75 40 10 35 15
Retractable Roof 150 100 2 40 25
Completely enclosed stadium 130 50 8 50 30

System for good quality grass Quality of grass Flexibility

Roll-In, Roll-out pitch 50 40 40
Pitch that can be raised to roof level 75 35 0
Permanent in situ pitch 10 15 0

Roof covering material Quality of grass

Opaque 10 5
Translucent 15 25
Combination 20 20
Table 2