Anatomy

Cranial nerves are the 12 nerves of the peripheral nervous system that emerge from the
foramina and fissures of the cranium. Their numerical order (1-12) is determined by
their skull exit location (rostral to caudal). All cranial nerves originate from nuclei in
the brain. Two originate from the forebrain (Olfactory and Optic), one has a nucleus in
the spinal cord (Accessory) while the remainder originate from the brainstem.

There's a LOT to learn about the cranial nerves. You might like to ease yourself into this
topic with our cranial nerves quizzes and labeling exercises.

Cranial nerves supply sensory and motor to the head and neck, controlling the activity of
this region. Only the vagus nerve extends beyond the neck, to innervate thoracic and
abdominal viscera.

The function of a nerve is to carry sensory and/or motor information between the body
and the brain. If the information goes from the brain to the periphery, then it is
an efferent (motor) nerve. If it travels from the periphery to the brain, then it is
an afferent (sensory) nerve. Nerves that do both are mixed nerves. Unlike spinal
nerves which are always mixed, cranial nerves can be purely motor, purely sensory or
mixed.

Now let’s understand the terms special, general, somatic and visceral. The information is
classified as special if it travels from our special senses (vision, smell, taste, hearing and
balance), while general describes information to/from everywhere else. The information
carried by a nerve is called somatic if it goes to/from the skin and skeletal muscles,
or visceral if it travels to/from our internal organs.

Combining these categories allows us to define the functional components of a nerve. For
example, if the nerve fibers exclusively carry special sensory information, it is called
a special afferent nerve. If it carries other types of sensory information, like touch,
pressure, pain, temperature, then it is a general afferent nerve.

If the nerve carries information to smooth muscle, cardiac muscle or glands, then it is
a visceral efferent nerve. If it carries information to skin or skeletal muscle, then it is
a somatic efferent nerve. As the term visceral is often a synonym for autonomic (nervous
system), note that general visceral nerves carry autonomic nerve fibers to/from the target
organs. The exception to this are the special visceral efferent nerves, sometime described
as branchial efferent (BE). These are motor nerves, named for the embryological origin of
the fibres. Information of movement and position (proprioception) from somatic structures
like muscles, tendons, and joints is carried by general somatic afferent nerves. Lastly, be
aware that there is no special somatic efferent classification.

So to conclude, considering the possible directions and modalities, cranial nerves can be:

1. General somatic afferent (GSA)

2. General somatic efferent (GSE)
3. General visceral afferent (GVA)
4. General visceral efferent (GVE)
5. Special somatic afferent (SSA)
6. Special visceral afferent (SVA)
7. Special visceral efferent (SVE)

The Olfactory Pathway and Nerve

Olfactory cilia (Fila olfactoria)

Sensations perceived by the body are organized into two major groups: general
sensations such as touch, pressure, pain, and temperature, and special sensations such
as vision, hearing, taste, smell, and the sense of body position and movement.
The olfactory nerve is the first of the 12 cranial nerves and one of the few cranial nerves
that carries special sensory information only. In this case, the olfactory nerve is
responsible for our sense of smell.

The odor information originates in the epithelium of the nasal cavity and is transported to
the brain via components of the olfactory nerve (cranial nerve 1 - CNI) and the olfactory
pathway. A decreased sense of smell has been associated with Parkinson’s disease and
thus, can be an important clinical marker in this and other states of disease or injury.

To understand the olfactory nerve and its clinical implications, this article will trace the
olfactory nerve from its receptor cells, located in the nasal epithelium, to the olfactory
cortex and beyond. It will highlight some of the unique characteristics of certain cells
within the olfactory pathway, and the connection of the pathway to memory
(and behavior ) related brain regions.

Key facts about the olfactory nerve & pathway

Function Special sense of smell

Olfactory cells Olfactory receptor cells (sense odor and contain cilia), supporting cells, basal (stem) cells
(replacing old and damaged olfactory receptor cells).

Olfactory nerve CN I formed out of a collection of olfactory receptor cell axons, which pass through the
cribriform plate and into the roof of the nasal cavity.

Olfactory bulb It is the relay station of the olfactory pathway and contains olfactory glomeruli.

Olfactory tract It is made up of the axons of mitral relay neurons.

Olfactory striae They are the medial and lateral divisions of the olfactory tract.

Olfactory cortex Piriform cortex, amygdala, entorhinal cortex

Output destination Orbitofrontal cortex,

Contents
1. Olfactory Nerve Pathway
1. Olfactory Receptor Cells
2. Olfactory Nerve
3. Olfactory Bulb
4. Olfactory Tract
5. Olfactory Striae
6. Olfactory Cortex
7. Olfactory Cortex Output Structures
2. Clinical Implications
1. Anosmia
2. Dysosmia
3. Olfactory Testing
3. Related diagrams and images

+ Show all

Olfactory Nerve Pathway

It is important to note that the olfactory nerve is only one component of the overall
pathway and is, in fact, made up of multiple nerve fibers/rootlets coming from the
receptors cells. The pathway can be summarized as follows:

 olfactory receptor cells

 olfactory nerves

 olfactory bulb

 olfactory tract

 olfactory striae

 olfactory cortex

 output targets of the olfactory cortex

The olfactory nerve is only one of the 12 cranial nerves. Learn about all 12 of them with
our time-saving cranial nerves quizzes and labeling exercises.

Olfactory Receptor Cells

These cells are located in the olfactory epithelium, a mucosal membrane that lines the
roof and sides of the nasal cavity. In humans, the olfactory epithelium is small;
approximately 5 cm² in area. There are three cell types contained within the epithelium:
the olfactory receptor cells, supporting cells, and basal (stem) cells.

The olfactory receptor cells are bipolar, meaning that they have two projections from
their cell body. One projection, the dendrite, extends to the surface of the olfactory
epithelium. This dendrite expands at the epithelial surface to become knob-like. Located
on the dendrite’s surface are 10-20 non motile cilia that extend into the fluid layer
covering the epithelium in the nose. The cilia contain receptors for odor molecules that
pass into the nasal cavity and are captured in the fluid covering the olfactory epithelium.
The other projection from the receptor cell body is an unmyelinated axon; these will be
described in the next step of the pathway.
Olfactory nerve and receptor cells - sagittal view

Of note, other cell types present in the epithelium are the basal stem cells. Typically, an
olfactory receptor cell lifespan is 30-60 days. The basal stem cells differentiate into, and replace,
damaged receptor cells. This means that unlike receptive cells associated with other special
senses (vision and hearing for example), cells associated with receiving olfactory information
can regenerate throughout life. However, across a lifespan, not all receptors are replaced,
meaning that the sense of smell can diminish with age.
Olfactory Nerve

Each receptor cell has an axon extending from its basal surface. The basal surface of
olfactory receptor cells is located directly inferior to the cribriform plate of the ethmoid
bone which makes up the bony roof of the nasal cavity. As the axons project from the
cell body, they combine with other receptor cell axons, making up bundles of nerve
fibers/rootlets. All of these axonal bundles can collectively be thought of as the olfactory
nerve (CNI). These bundles of nerve fibers, surrounded by dura and arachnoid mater,
then move superiorly by passing through the foramina (holes) in the cribriform plate of
the ethmoid bone.

Speed: 0.8x | 0.9x | 1x | 1.25x | 1.5x

Olfactory Bulb

The axons projecting from the olfactory receptor cells via the olfactory nerve terminate
within the olfactory bulb. The olfactory bulb is the main relay station within the olfactory
pathway. Information from the receptor cells is passed to cells whose projections make
up the subsequent olfactory tract. Each olfactory bulb (right and left) lies lateral to the
crista galli and superior to the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone, inside the cranial
cavity. Therefore, it lies on the underside of medial aspect of the frontal lobe. Within the
olfactory bulb are bundles of nerve fibers known as glomeruli; where incoming receptor
cell axons make connections with the dendrites of mitral relay neurons.

Olfactory bulb (Bulbus olfactorius)

Olfactory Tract
 This bundle of nerve fibers is made up of the axons of mitral relay neurons bound for
the regions of the brain associated with the olfactory cortex. The tract passes posteriorly
on the underside of the medial frontal lobe in a sulcus known as the olfactory groove.

Olfactory Striae

Posterior and anterior to the optic chiasm, the olfactory tract on both sides divides
into medial and lateral olfactory striae. The medial stria projects to the anterior
commissure, and subsequently, to contralateral olfactory structures. The lateral stria
continues on to structures associated with the olfactory cortex.

Optic chiasm (Chiasma opticum)

Olfactory Cortex

This cortex is not a single structure, rather, it is defined as the combined areas of the
cerebral cortex (generally within the temporal lobe) that receive input directly from the
olfactory bulb. These regions include the:

 Piriform cortex: which is located below the lateral olfactory stria.

 Amygdala: which is located anterior to the temporal/inferior horn of the lateral ventricle, and is
associated with the emotion of fear.

 Entorhinal cortex: which is the anterior part of the parahippocampal gyrus, and is involved in
the formation of memory.

Amygdaloid body (Corpus amygdaloideum)

Olfactory Cortex Output Structures

From the olfactory cortex, information about smell is sent to the orbitofrontal cortex via
the dorsal medial nucleus of the thalamus. The orbitofrontal cortex is a portion of the
prefrontal cortex that is located on the underside of the frontal lobe and situated over
the eye orbit. Lesions of this cortical region can result in an inability to distinguish
different odors. Odor information is also sent to portions of
 the hypothalamus and brainstem that trigger autonomic responses involved in appetite,
salivation, and gastric contraction.

Clinical Implications

A complete lack of smell (anosmia), or distortions in smell (dysosmia), can be indicative

of a number of different clinically important injuries and diseases.

Anosmia

A change in the acuity of smell perception or a complete lack of smell perception can be
a symptom associated with a number of neurological degenerative diseases such as:

 Alzheimer’s disease

 Schizophrenia

 Diabetes

 Huntington’s disease

 Multiple sclerosis

 Pick’s disease (a form of dementia)

 Parkinson’s disease - anosmia in Parkinson’s patients may precede the motor symptoms by years
and may be a useful screening test for the early detection of the disease.

 Congenital

Anosmia may also arise due to other forms of brain injury:

 Brain tumors or aneurysms that press on a part of the olfactory pathway.

 Head trauma with a fracture of the superior orbit, or anterior cranial fossa.

Dysosmia
Dysosmias can fall under different categories: a distortion in the quality of the
perception of an odor (parosmia/troposmia/cacosmia) or, the perception of an odor
when no odor is actually present (phantosmia/olfactory hallucinations). Damage to
olfactory nerve fibers can occur as a complication of upper respiratory tract infections. A
decrease in the number of nerve fibers from these infections mean that there are not
enough different fibers to accurately differentiate odors resulting in parosmia.
Phantosmia can occur as the initial event, or aura, associated with temporal lobe
epilepsy and may indicate a partial seizure that then spreads further into temporal lobe
structures.
Olfactory Testing

Changes in the level of odor perception or in the quality of odor perception, in the
absence of any sinus or nasal cavity issues, should be of concern clinically and tested
thoroughly. Initially, the sense of smell can easily be tested by using well known odors
(such as coffee, menthol, peppermint, etc).

Show references

Related diagrams and images

Olfactory nerve

Olfactory nerve

Nerves of the nasal cavity

Nerves of the nasal cavity