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Analytic Geometry PDF
Vector Algebra
Rn = R × . . . × R.
11
and (y1 , . . . , yn ) are equal if and only if their components are respectively
equal:
(x1 , . . . , xn ) = (y1 , . . . , yn ) ⇐⇒ x1 = y1 , . . . , xn = yn .
Figure 1.1:
One obtains an orientation on the line d (from O to A) and one can intro-
duce the function
f1 : E1 → R, f1 (P ) = xP ,
xP ≥ 0 if P ∈ [OA
where |xP | = OP and . Hence, f is bijective and one
xP < 0 if P ∈ / [OA
can associate to any point P ∈ E1 a unique real number xP . One says that
Ox is a Cartesian system of coordinates on E1 , having the origin O and the
axis Ox, while xP is said to be the coordinate of P . We shall use the notation
P (xP ).
12
Figure 1.2:
The axes d and d0 divide the plane E2 into four domains which are named
quadrants and are denoted by I, II, III, IV. One can characterize to which
quadrant of the plane a point P belongs, by looking at the signs of coordinates
(xP , yP ) of the point P (which is not situated on the coordinates lines Ox,
Oy).
Quadrant I II III IV
xP + − − +
yp + + − −
A simple replacement in Pythagora’s Theorem shows that the length of
the segment [P1 P2 ], where P1 (x1 , y1 ), P2 (x2 , y2 ), is given by the formula
p
P1 P2 = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 . (1.1)
P P1
If the point P divides the segment [P1 P2 ] into the ratio k, i.e. = k,
P P2
then the coordinates of P are
!
x1 + kx2 y1 + ky2
P , . (1.2)
1+k 1+k
13
For an arbitrary point in P ∈ E3 , denote by xP , yP and zP the coordinates
of its orthogonal projections Px , Py and Pz on d, d0 respectively d00 . One can
define the bijection
f3 : E3 → R3 , f3 (P ) = (xP , yP , zP ).
Figure 1.3:
• the origin O;
Examples.
1) The origin O has the coordinates (0, 0, 0).
2) The points situated on Ox, Oy and Oz are of coordinates (x, 0, 0),
(0, y, 0), respectively (0, 0, z).
3) The points situated on Oxy, Oyz and Ozx have the coordinates (x, y, 0),
(0, y, z) respectively (x, 0, z).
The three coordinate planes divide the space E3 into eight domains, de-
noted by I, II, ..., VIII. These domains are defined by the signs of the coordi-
nates of the points they contain, as in the following table:
14
Domain I II III IV V VI VII VIII
xP + − − + + − − +
yP + + − − + + − −
zP + + + + − − − −
Theorem 1.1.4.1. (the distance formula) The distance between the points
P1 (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and P2 (x2 , y2 , z2 ) is given by
p
P1 P2 = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 + (z2 − z1 )2 . (1.3)
Figure 1.4:
has
P1 A = |y2 − y1 |,
AB = |x2 − x1 |,
BP2 = |z2 − z1 |.
Since
P1 B 2 = P1 A2 + AB 2 = (y2 − y1 )2 + (x2 − x1 )2 ,
then
15
Theorem 1.1.4.2. If the point P divides the segment [P1 P2 ], P1 (x1 , y1 , z1 ),
P P1
P2 (x2 , y2 , z2 ), into the ratio k (i.e. = k), then the coordinates of P are
P P2
!
x1 + kx2 y1 + ky2 z1 + kz2
, , . (1.4)
1+k 1+k 1+k
PP0 P P2 1
= = ,
P1 A P1 P2 k + 1
which is equivalent to
|y2 − yP | k
= .
|y2 − y1 | k+1
Supposing that y2 > y1 and yP > y1 (otherwise, the calculations are analo-
y1 + ky2
gous), one obtains yP = .
1+k
x1 + kx2 z1 + kz2
Similarly, xP = and zP = .
1+k 1+k
Remark. If M is the midpoint of the segment [P1 P2 ], determined by
P1 (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and P2 (x2 , y2 , z2 ), then k = 1 and the coordinates of M are
!
x1 + x2 y1 + y2 z1 + z2
M , , . (1.5)
2 2 2
1.1.5 Exercises
1. Give the coordinates of the vertices of the rectangular parallelepiped
whose sides are the coordinate planes and the planes x = 1, y = 3,
z = 6.
a) xyz = 0;
b) x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 0;
c) (x + 1)2 + (y − 2)2 + (z + 3)2 = 0;
d) (x − 2)(z − 8) = 0;
e) z 2 − 25 = 0;
16
3. Show that the given points are collinear:
4. Find x if:
√
a) P1 (x, 2, 3), P2 (2, 1, 1) and P1 P2 = 21;
b) Q1 (x, x, 1), Q2 (0, 3, 5) and Q1 Q2 = 5.
a) joining P1 and P3 ;
b) joining P3 and P2 .
Figure 1.5:
17
By specifying a directed distance ρ from O to a point P and an angle
θ (measured in radians), whose ”initial” side is the polar axis and whose
”terminal” side is the ray OP , the polar coordinates of the point P are (ρ, θ).
One obtains a bijection
which associates to any point P in E2 \ {O} the pair (ρ, θ) (suppose that
O(0, 0)). The positive real number ρ is called the polar ray of P and θ is
called the polar angle of P .
Consider RS to be the rectangular coordinate system in E2 , whose origin
O is the pole and whose positive half-axis Ox is the polar axis (see Figure
1.6). The following transformation formulas give the connection between the
coordinates of an arbitrary point in the two systems of coordinates.
PS→ RS Let P (ρ, θ) be a point in the system PS. It is immediate that
xP = ρ cos θ
. (1.6)
yP = ρ sin θ
Figure 1.6:
18
y
Case 1. If x 6= 0, then using tan θ = , one has
x
y 0 if P ∈ I ∪ (Ox
θ = arctan + kπ, where k = 1 if P ∈ II ∪ III ∪ (Ox0 ;
x
2 if P ∈ IV
π
when P ∈ (Oy
θ= 2 ;
3π when P ∈ (Oy 0
2
Figure 1.7:
19
The triple (r, θ, z) gives the cylindrical coordinates of the point P . There
is the bijection
and one obtains a new coordinate system, named the cylindrical coordinate
system (CS) in E3 .
In the following table, the conversion formulas relative to the cylindrical
coordinate system (CS) and the rectangular coordinate system (RS) are pre-
sented.
Conversion Formulas
CS→RS x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ, z = z
(r, θ, z) → (x, y, z) p
RS→CS r = x2 + y 2 , z = z and θ is given as follows:
(x, y, z) → (r, θ, z) Case 1. If x 6= 0, then
y
θ = arctan + kπ,
x
0, if P ∈ I ∪ (Ox
where k = 1, if P ∈ II ∪ III ∪ (Ox0
2, if P ∈ IV
Case 2. If x = 0 and y 6= 0, then
π
when P ∈ (Oy
θ= 2
3π when P ∈ (Oy 0
2
Case 3. If x = 0 and y = 0, then θ = 0.
Examples
1) In the cylindrical coordinate system, the equation r = r0 represents a
right circular cylinder of radius r0 , centered on the z-axis.
2) The equation θ = θ0 describes a half-plane attached along the z-axis
and making an angle θ0 with the positive x-axis.
3) The equation z = z0 defines a plane which is parallel to the coordinate
plane xOy.
20
Another way to associate to each point P in E3 a triple of real numbers
is illustrated in Figure 1.8. If P (x, y, z) is a point in a rectangular system of
coordinates Oxyz and P 0 its orthogonal projection on Oxy, let ρ be the length
of the segment [OP ], θ be the oriented angle determined by [Ox and [OP 0 and
ϕ be the oriented angle between [Oz and [OP . The triple (ρ, θ, ϕ) gives the
Figure 1.8:
spherical coordinates of the point P . This way, one obtains the bijection
21
Conversion Formulas
SS→RS x = ρ cos θ sin ϕ, y = ρ sin θ sin ϕ, z = ρ cos ϕ
(ρ, θ, ϕ) → (x, y, z)
p z
RS→SS ρ= x2 + y 2 + z 2 , ϕ = arccos p
x2 + y 2 + z 2
(x, y, z) → (ρ, θ, ϕ) θ is given as follows:
Case 1. If x 6= 0, then
y
θ = arctan + kπ,
x
0, P 0 ∈ I ∪ (Ox
Examples
1) In the spherical coordinate system, the equation ρ = ρ0 represents the
set of all points in E3 whose distance ρ to the origin is ρ0 . This is a sphere of
radius ρ0 , centered at the origin.
2) As in the cylindrical coordinates, the equation θ = θ0 defines a half-plane
attached along the z-axis, making an angle θ0 with the positive x-axis.
3) The equation ϕ = ϕ0 describes the points P for which the angle deter-
π
mined by [OP and [Oz is ϕ0 . If ϕ0 6= and ϕ0 6= π, this is a right circular
2
cone, having the vertex at the origin and centered on the z-axis. The equation
π
ϕ = defines the coordinate plane xOy. The equation ϕ = π describes the
2
negative axis (Oz 0 .
1.2.4 Exercises
1. Graph the point P whose polar coordinates are given by:
a)(2, π); b)(3, π/3); c)(4, 3π/2); d)(5, π/6).
22
2. Find the rectangular coordinates of the points whose polar coordinates
are given by: √
a)(1, 2π/3); b)(1/2, 7π/4); c)(7, π/3); d)( 3, 11π/6).
a) y = 5
b) x + 1 = 0
c) y = 7x
d) 3x + 8y + 6 = 0
e) y 2 = −4x + 4
f) x2 − 12y − 36 = 0
g) x2 + y 2 = 36
h) x2 − y 2 = 25.
z = x2 + y 2 − 2x + y.
z = x2 + y 2 .
a) r2 + z 2 = 1;
π
b) θ = ;
4
c) r2 cos 2θ = z.
23
9. The equations below are given in spherical coordinates. Express them
in rectangular coordinates:
a) ρ sin ϕ = 2 cos θ;
b) ρ − 2 sin ϕ cos θ = 0.
10. Express, in cylindrical and spherical coordinates, the following equations
given in rectangular coordinates:
a) z = 3x2 + 3y 2 ;
b) x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 2z.
1.3 Vectors
Let E denote the Euclidean plane E2 or the Euclidean 3-space E3 . A pair
(A, B) ∈ E × E is called an ordered pair of points or a vector at the point A.
−−→
Such a pair is, shortly, denoted by AB. The point A is the original point, while
−−→
B is the terminal point and the line AB (if A 6= B) gives the direction of AB.
−−→
A vector AB at A has the orientation from A to B, i.e. from its original to
its terminal point. The length of the segment [AB] represents the length of
−−→ −−→ −−→ −−→
the vector AB and is denoted by ||AB|| or by |AB|. Usually, the vector AB
at A is represented as in Figure 1.9. For A = B, one obtains the zero vector
Figure 1.9:
at the point A.
Define the following relation on E × E : (A, B) ∼ (C, D) if and only if the
segments [AD] and [BC] have the same midpoint. When the points A, B, C
and D are not collinear, this means that (A, B) ∼ (C, D) if and only if ABCD
is a parallelogram.
It is not difficult to check that ” ∼ ” is an equivalence relation. Let us
denote by V3 the set (E3 × E3 )/∼ of equivalence classes and by V2 the set
(E2 × E2 )/∼ .
24
−−→
If AB ∈ E × E, its equivalence class is denoted by AB and is called a vector
−−→
in E (E2 or E3 ). In this case, AB is a representer of AB.
Suppose that A 6= B. The line AB defines the direction of the vector AB.
The length of AB is given by
−−→
||AB|| = ||AB|| = AB,
the length of the segment [AB]. The orientation of AB, from A to B, is given
−−→
by the orientation of AB.
−→
If A = B, denote by 0 the zero vector represented by AA.
Generally, we shall denote the vectors in V2 or V3 by small letters: a,
b,. . . u, v, w.
Proposition 1.3.1. Given a vector a in V2 (or V3 ) and a fixed point A, there
exists a unique representer of a, having the original point at A.
−−→
Proof: Choose an arbitrary representer CD ∈ a and consider the line
d||CD, passing through A. Taking into account the orientation, there exists a
Figure 1.10:
−−→ −−→
unique point B such that AB ∼ CD (see Figure 1.10).
25
Figure 1.11:
Figure 1.12:
26
Figure 1.13:
Figure 1.14:
27
Theorem 1.3.1.2. Let a(a1 , a2 , a3 ) and b(b1 , b2 , b3 ) be two vectors in V3 and
k ∈ R. Then:
P1 P2 (x2 − x1 , y2 − y1 ).
Q1 Q2 (x2 − x1 , y2 − y2 , z2 − z1 ).
Q1 Q2 (x2 − x1 , y2 − y1 , z2 − z1 ).
1) a + b = b + a (commutativity);
2) (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) (associativity);
5) α(βa) = (αβ)a;
8) 1 · a = a.
28
Proof: All the equalities can be proved simply by expressing the compo-
nents of the vectors on the left and right sides. For instance,
2) If a(a1 , a2 , a3 ), b(b1 , b2 , b3 ) and c(c1 , c2 , c3 ), then the components of the
vectors (a + b) + c and a + (b + c) are ((a1 + b1 ) + c1 , (a2 + b2 ) + c2 , (a3 + b3 ) + c3 )
respectively (a1 + (b1 + c1 ), a2 + (b2 + c2 ), a3 + (b3 + c3 )) and the conclusion
follows.
−→
Proof: 2) If OA is the representer of a having the original point at the
origin of the rectangular coordinate system, then O(0, 0, 0), A(a1 , a2 , a3 ) and
−→ p q
||a|| = ||OA|| = (a1 − 0) + (a2 − 0) + (a3 − 0) = a21 + a22 + a23 .
2 2 2
• The vectors i(1, 0) and j(0, 1) in V2 are called the unit vectors (or ver-
sors) of the coordinate axes Ox and Oy.
• The vectors i(1, 0, 0), j(0, 1, 0) and k(0, 0, 1) are called the unit vectors
(or versors) of the coordinate axes Ox, Oy and Oz (see Figure 1.15).
It is clear that
||i|| = ||j|| = ||k|| = 1.
We have defined the operations
+ : V2 × V 2 → V2 , (a, b) 7→ a + b
· : R × V2 → V2 , (k, a) 7→ k · a
respectively
+ : V3 × V 3 → V3 , (a, b) 7→ a + b
· : R × V 3 → V3 , (k, a) 7→ k · a.
The following result points out the important algebraic structure of V2 and
V3 .
29
Figure 1.15:
30
• Let a and b be two nonzero vectors in V3 (or V2 ). They are linearly
dependent if there exist the scalars α, β ∈ R∗ such that αa + βb = 0.
Theorem 1.3.1.7. 1) The vectors a and b are linearly dependent if and only
if they are collinear.
2) The vectors a, b and c are linearly dependent in V3 if and only if they
are coplanar.
Proof: 1) If the vectors a and b are collinear, then there exists a scalar α ∈ R∗
such that a = α · b, i.e.
1 · a + (−α) · b = 0,
so that a and b are linearly dependent. !
β
Conversely, if αa + βb = 0 for some scalars α and β, then a = − b, so
α
that a and b are collinear.
2) Suppose that the vectors a, b and c are linearly dependent. Then, there
exist α, β, γ ∈ R not all zero, such that αa + βb + γc = 0. Suppose that γ 6= 0.
One obtains ! !
α β
c= − a+ − b.
γ γ
−→ −−→ −−→
If OA and OB are representers of a respectively b, then the representer OC
−→ −−→
of c, constructed as in Figure 1.16, is coplanar with OA and OB.
Conversely, if a, b and c are coplanar, let us consider the representers
−→ −−→ −−→
OA ∈ a, OB ∈ b and OC ∈ c, situated in the same plane. Let OM CN be the
parallelogram constructed as in Figure 1.17. Then, there exist α, β ∈ R such
−−→ −→ −−→ −−→
that OM = α· OA and ON = β· OB. Hence OC = OM +ON = α·OA+β·OB
and c = α · a + β · b, so that α · a + β · b + (−1) · c = 0 and the vectors a, b and
c are linearly dependent.
31
Figure 1.16:
Figure 1.17:
Corollary 1.3.1.8. 1) The set {a, b} is a base in V2 if and only if the vectors
a, b are not collinear.
2) The set {a, b, c} is a base in V3 if and only if the vectors a, b, c are not
coplanar.
Figure 1.18:
Now, given the vectors a and b in V2 (or V3 ), their dot product is the real
32
number defined through
|a||b| cos θ, if a 6= 0, b 6= 0
a·b= . (1.8)
0, otherwise
Figure 1.19:
gives:
AB 2 = |a|2 + |b|2 − 2|a||b| cos θ,
hence
1 1
a · b = |a||b| cos θ = (|a|2 + |b|2 − AB 2 ) = (|a|2 + |b|2 − |AB|2 ) =
2 2
1
= [(a21 + a22 + a23 ) + (b21 + b22 + b23 ) − (b1 − a1 )2 − (b2 − a2 )2 − (b3 − a3 )2 ] =
2
= a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 .
a·b
Since cos θ = , then, for two nonzero vectors a and b, one has
|a||b|
[ a1 b1 + a2 b2
cos (a, b) = p 2 p , for a, b ∈ V2 ; (1.11)
a1 + a22 · b21 + b22
[ a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3
cos (a, b) = p p , for a, b ∈ V3 . (1.12)
a21 + a22 + a23 · b21 + b22 + b23
33
Theorem 1.3.2.2. If u and v are nonzero vectors in V2 (or V3 ) and θ is the
angle between them, then
π
c) θ = if and only if u · v = 0.
2
Proof: The sign of the cosine of the angle determined by two vectors
coincides with the sign of their dot product. The assertions are immediate.
Figure 1.20:
The values cos α, cos β and cos γ are the director cosines of the vector u.
u·i u1
Proof: Since i(1, 0, 0), the formula 1.12 gives cos α = = .
|u||i| |u|
34
u
Remark : For any nonzero vector u ∈ V3 , is a unit vector, called the
|u|
versor of u and, obviously,
u
= cos α · i + cos β · j + cos γ · k, with (cos α)2 + (cos β)2 + (cos γ)2 = 1.
|u|
Figure 1.21:
35
Theorem 1.3.2.5. If u and b are vectors in V2 or V3 and b 6= 0, then
u·b
• the orthogonal projection of u on b is prb u = · b;
|b|2
u·b
• the vector component of u orthogonal to b is u-prb u = u − · b.
|b|2
Proof: Since w1 is parallel to b, there exists a real number k, such that
w1 = kb. Thus,
u = w1 + w2 = kb + w2 .
Multiplying by the vector b, one obtains:
u·b
since w2 and b are orthogonal. Then the constant k is given by k = ,
|b|2
which completes the proof of the theorem.
The length of the orthogonal projection of the vector u on b can be obtained
as following:
u · b u · b
|prb u| = 2 · b = 2 |b|,
|b| |b|
which yields
|u · b|
|prb u| = . (1.14)
|b|
Remark : If θ is the angle between u and b, then
or, shortly,
i j k
u × v = u1 u2 u3 . (1.16)
v1 v2 v3
36
Theorem 1.3.3.1. If u and v are two vectors in V3 , then
1) u · (u × v) = 0 (u × v is orthogonal on u);
2) v · (u × v) = 0 (u × v is orthogonal on v);
3) |u × v|2 = |u|2 |v|2 − (u · v)2 (Lagrange’s identity).
Proof: Let u(u1 , u2 , u3 ) and v(v1 , v2 , v3 ). The components of u × v are
u × v(u2 v3 − u3 v2 , u3 v1 − u1 v3 , u1 v2 − u2 v1 ).
Hence,
u · (u × v) = u1 (u2 v3 − u3 v2 ) + u2 (u3 v1 − u1 v3 ) + u3 (u1 v2 − u2 v1 ) = 0,
v · (u × v) = v1 (u2 v3 − u3 v2 ) + v2 (u3 v1 − u1 v3 ) + v3 (u1 v2 − u2 v1 ) = 0,
and a simple computation will show that
|u × v| = (u2 v3 − u3 v2 )2 + (u3 v1 − u1 v3 )2 + (u1 v2 − u2 v1 )2
equals to
|u|2 |v|2 − (u · v)2 = (u21 + u22 + u23 )(v12 + v22 + v32 ) − (u1 v1 + u2 v2 + u3 v3 )2 .
Suppose that u and v are nonzero vectors in V3 . An immediate consequence
of the Lagrange’s identity is that |u|2 |v|2 − (u · v)2 ≥ 0, or |u · v| ≤ |u||v|, which
leads, after replacing the components of the vectors, to the Cauchy-Schwartz
inequality. The equality |u · v| = |u||v| holds if and only if the vector u × v is
the zero vector, i.e. its components are all zero, which happens if and only if
v1 v2 v3
= = = λ, or v = λu, λ ∈ R∗ . In summary, one has:
u1 u2 u3
Theorem 1.3.3.2. If u and v are nonzero vectors in V3 , then u × v = 0 if
and only if u and v are parallel.
Using the Lagrange’s identity and the definition of the dot product, one
can determine the length of the cross product of two nonzero vectors from V3 .
If θ is the angle determined by u and v, θ ∈ [0, π], then
|u × v|2 = |u|2 |v|2 − (u · v)2 = |u|2 |v|2 − |u|2 |v|2 cos2 θ = |u|2 |v|2 sin2 θ,
hence
|u × v| = |u||v| sin θ. (1.17)
The formula 1.17 has a useful geometric meaning: the length of the cross
product of two nonzero vectors from V3 is exactly the area of the parallelogram
constructed on the two vectors (see Figure 1.22).
The vector u×v is completely determined by the following three properties:
37
Figure 1.22:
• |u × v| = |u||v| sin θ.
Figure 1.23:
Theorem 1.3.3.3. (algebraic properties of the cross product) For any vectors
u, v and w from V3 and any scalar λ ∈ R, the following equalities hold:
a) u × v = −v × u;
b) u × (v + w) = u × v + u × w;
c) (u + v) × w = u × w + v × w;
e) u × 0 = 0 × u = 0;
38
f ) u × u = 0.
It is very easy to compute the cross products of the versors of the axes:
Given three vectors a, b and c from V3 , one defines their triple scalar
product to be the real number (a, b, c) = a · (b × c).
If a = (a1 , a2 , a3 ), b = (b1 , b2 , b3 ) and c = (c1 , c2 , c3 ), then the triple scalar
product can be calculated as
a1 a2 a3
(a, b, c) = b1 b2 b3 . (1.18)
c1 c2 c3
Indeed,
39
The triple scalar product has a geometric meaning. Suppose that the vec-
tors a, b and c are linearly independent and choose a representer for each,
having the same original point. These form the adjacent sides of a paral-
lelepiped (see Figure 1.24). Suppose that the base of this parallelepiped is
Figure 1.24:
|(a, b, c)|
V = h · Area(b, c) = |b × c| = |(a, b, c)|. (1.19)
|b × c|
1.3.4 Exercises
1) Let M and N be the midpoints of two opposite sides of a quadrilateral
ABCD and let P be the midpoint of [M N ]. Prove that
P A + P B + P C + P D = 0.
OA + OB + OC + OD = 2OM .
40
3) Consider, in the 3-dimensional space, the parallelograms A1 A2 A3 A4 and
B1 B2 B3 B4 . Prove that the midpoints of the segments [A1 B1 ], [A2 B2 ],
[A3 B3 ] and [A4 B4 ] are the vertices of a new parallelogram.
a) OA + OB + OC = OH (Sylvester’s formula)
b) HB + HC = HA0
c) HA + HB + HC = 2HO
d) HA + HB + HC = 3HG
e) the points H, G, O are collinear and 2GO = HG (the Euler’s
straight line of the triangle).
b c
M A1 = MB + M C.
b+c b+c
7) (Cauchy-Buniakovski-Schwarz) If a1 , a2 , a3 , b1 , b2 , b3 ∈ R, then
\ AD2 + BC 2 − AC 2 − BD2
cos(AB, CD) = .
2AB · CD
41
10) Let ∆ABC and ∆A0 B 0 C 0 be two triangles in the same plane, so that
the perpendicular lines through A, B, C on B 0 C 0 , C 0 A0 respectively A0 B 0
are concurrent. Then so are the perpendicular lines through A0 , B 0 , C 0
on BC, CA respectively AB.
a) u = −7i + 3j + k, v = 2i + 4k
b) u = (−1, −1, −1), v = (2, 0, 2).
12) Let a, b and c be three noncollinear vectors. Show that there exists a
triangle ABC with BC = a, CA = b and AB = c if and only if
a × b = b × c = c × a.
13) Find the area of the triangle having the vertices A(1, 0, 1), B(0, 2, 3),
and C(2, 1, 0).
42
a) Find the mutual vectors of i, j, k.
b) If a = xu + yv + zw, prove that
x = a · u0 , y = a · v0, z = a · w0 .
19) Let a, b and c be the lengths of the sides of the triangle ∆ABC and R
the radius of its circumscribed circle. Then:
a) OH 2 = 9R2 − (a2 + b2 + c2 );
b) OG2 = R2 − 19 (a2 + b2 + c2 ).
20) If E and F are the midpoints of the diagonals AC and BD of the convexe
quadrilateral ABCD, then
21) Let K, L, M and N be the midpoints of the sides AB, BC, CD and
respectively DA of the convexe quadrilateral ABCD. Then
where ϕ = (AC,
\ BD).
21) Let ABC be an arbitrary triangle, G its center of gravity, I its incenter,
H its orthocenter and O the center of its circumscribed circle. If P is
an arbitrary point and rA = P A, rB = P B, rC = P C, then:
rA + rB + rC
a) P G = ;
3
a · rA + b · rB + c · rC
b) P I = ;
a+b+c
tan A · rA + tan B · rB + tan C · rC
c) P H = ;
tan A + tan B + tan C
sin 2A · rA + sin 2B · rB + sin 2C · rC
d) P O = .
sin 2A + sin 2B + sin 2C
22) Let d be a line in the plane of the triangle ∆ABC and A0 , B 0 and C 0 the
orthogonal projections of the vertices A, B, respectively C on d. Prove
that the orthogonal lines through A0 , B 0 respectively C 0 on BC, CA
respectively AB are concurrent.
43
23) The radius of the sphere tangent at the point O to the face (BOC) of
the tetrahedron OABC and passing through the point A is
a sin α
R= 1 ,
2(1 + 2 cos α cos β cos γ − cos2 α − cos2 β − cos2 γ) 2
44
Chapter 2
Two-Dimensional Analytic
Geometry
Figure 2.1:
45
The line d in a 2-space, passing through the point P0 (x0 , y0 ) and parallel
to the nonzero vector v(a, b) has the parametric equations
x = x0 + at
d: t ∈ R. (2.1)
y = y0 + bt
Indeed, for any point P (x, y) on the line d, the vectors P0 P and v are linearly
dependent, since they are parallel, hence there exists t ∈ R such that P0 P = tv.
Identifying the components of these two vectors, respectively, one obtains
x − x0 = at
d:
y − y0 = bt
which leads to the formula (2.1).
The vector v is said to be the director vector of the line d.
Figure 2.2:
As before, the point P belongs to the line d if and only if the vectors P0 P
and v are linearly dependent. This means that there exists t ∈ R, such that
P0 P = tv. But P0 P = OP − OP0 = r − r0 (see Figure 3.4), hence tv = r − r0 ,
and the vector equation of the line passing through P0 and of director vector
v is
r = r0 + tv. (2.2)
46
2.1.3 Symmetric Equations of Lines
If, in (2.1), one expresses twice the parameter t, one obtains the symmetric
equation of the line d passing through the point P0 (x0 , y0 ) and of director
vector v(a, b):
x − x0 y − y0
= . (2.3)
a b
Remark : The vector v is a nonzero vector, so that at least one of the
denominators a and b is different from zero. Suppose that a = 0. Then, (2.1)
x − x0 y − y0
x = x0
becomes . In fact, = is just a convenient way to
y = y0 + bt 0 b
write that the numerator is zero when the denominator is zero. This is the
particular case of a line which is parallel to Oy. If b = 0, one obtains the
equations of a line parallel to Ox.
Ax + By + C = 0, with A2 + B 2 6= 0, (2.4)
meaning that any line from the 2-space is characterized by a first degree equa-
tion. Conversely, such of an equation represents a line, since the formula (2.4)
x+ C A y
is equivalent to B
= and this is the symmetric equation of the line
−A 1
! !
C B
passing through P0 − , 0 and parallel to v − , 1 .
A A
The equation (2.4) is called general equation of the line.
y = mx + n (2.5)
47
Let d be a line of equation y = mx+n in a Cartesian system of coordinates
and suppose that the line is not parallel to Oy. Let P1 (x1 , y1 ) and P2 (x2 , y2 )
be two different points on d and ϕ be the angle determined by d and Ox (see
π
Figure 2.3); ϕ ∈ [0, π] \ { }.
2
Figure 2.3:
y1 = mx1 + n
The points P1 (x1 , y1 ) and P2 (x2 , y2 ) belong to d, hence ,
y2 = mx2 + n
and x2 6= x1 , since d is not parallel to Oy. Then,
y2 − y1
m= = tan ϕ. (2.6)
x2 − x1
y − y0 = m(x − x0 ). (2.7)
48
The equation (2.8) can be put in the form
x y 1
x1 y1 1 = 0. (2.9)
x2 y2 1
Given three points P1 (x1 , y1 ), P2 (x2 , y2 ) and P3 (x3 , y3 ), they are collinear if
and only if
x1 y1 1
x2 y2 1 = 0.
x3 y3 1
2.1.7 Exercises
1) The sides [BC], [CA], [AB] of the triangle ∆ABC are divided by the
points M , N respectively P into the same ratio k. Prove that the trian-
gles ∆ABC and ∆M N P have the same center of gravity.
3) Find the equation of the line passing through the intersection point of
the lines
d1 : 2x − 5y − 1 = 0, d2 : x + 4y − 7 = 0
and through a point M which divides the segment [AB], A(4, −3),
2
B(−1, 2), into the ratio k = .
3
4) Let A be a mobile point on the Ox axis and B a mobile point on Oy, so
1 1
that + = k (constant). Prove that the lines AB pass through a
OA OB
fixed point.
5) Find the equation of the line passing through the intersection point of
d1 : 3x − 2y + 5 = 0, d2 : 4x + 3y − 1 = 0
49
7) Find the parametric equations of the line through P (−5, 2) and parallel
to v(2, 3).
x = 3 − t, y = 1 + 2t and x = −1 + 3t, y = 9 − 6t
9) Find the vector equation of the line passing through P1 and P2 , when
a1 b1 c1
2) If = 6= , the system is not compatible, and the lines have no
a2 b2 c2
points in common. They are parallel.
a1 b1 c1
3) If = = , the system has an infinity of solutions, and the lines
a2 b2 c2
coincide. They are identical.
50
2.2.2 Bundle of Lines
The set of all the lines passing through a given point P0 is said to be a
bundle of lines. The point P0 is called the vertex of the bundle.
If the point P0 is of coordinates P0 (x0 , y0 ), then the equation of the bundle
of vertex P0 is
Figure 2.4:
y − y0 = m(x − x0 ), m ∈ R, (2.12)
51
2.2.3 The Angle of Two Lines
Let d1 and d2 be two concurrent lines, given by their reduced equations:
d 1 : y = m1 x + n 1 and d2 : y = m2 x + n2 .
The angular coefficients of d1 and d2 are m1 = tan ϕ1 and m2 = tan ϕ2 (see
π π
Figure 2.5). One may suppose that ϕ1 6= , ϕ2 6= , ϕ2 ≥ ϕ1 , such that
2 2
π
ϕ = ϕ2 − ϕ1 ∈ [0, π] \ { }.
2
Figure 2.5:
The angle determined by d1 and d2 is given by
tan ϕ2 − tan ϕ1
tan ϕ = tan(ϕ2 − ϕ1 ) = ,
1 + tan ϕ1 tan ϕ2
hence
m2 − m2
tan ϕ = . (2.14)
1 + m1 m2
1) The lines d1 and d2 are parallel if and only if tan ϕ = 0, therefore
d1 k d2 ⇐⇒ m1 = m2 . (2.15)
2) The lines d1 and d2 are orthogonal if and only if they determine an angle
π
of , hence
2
d1 ⊥d2 ⇐⇒ m1 m2 + 1 = 0. (2.16)
52
2.2.4 Exercises
1) Given the line d : 2x + 3y + 4 = 0, find the equation of a line d1 passing
through the point M0 (2, 1), in the following situations:
a) d1 is parallel with d;
b) d1 is orthogonal on d;
π
c) the angle determined by d and d1 is ϕ = .
4
2) The vertices of the triangle ∆ABC are the intersection points of the
lines
d1 : 4x + 3y − 5 = 0, d2 : x − 3y + 10 = 0, d3 : x − 2 = 0.
3) Find the coordinates of the symmetrical of the point P (−5, 13) with
respect to the line d : 2x − 3y − 3 = 0.
8) Let B be the bundle of vertex M0 (5, 0). An arbitrary line from B in-
tersects the lines d1 : y − 2 = 0 and d2 : y − 3 = 0 in M1 respectively
M2 . Prove that the line passing through M1 and parallel to OM2 passes
through a fixed point.
53
9) The vertices of the quadrilateral ABCD are A(4, 3), B(5, −4), C(−1, −3)
and D((−3, −1).
4x + 2y + 8 5
= .
3x − y + 1 2
11) Find the geometric locus of the points whose distances to two orthogonal
lines have a constant ratio.
54
Chapter 3
Three-Dimensional Analytic
Geometry
Figure 3.1:
55
n⊥P0 P , or n · P0 P = 0. But P0 P (x − x0 , y − y0 , z − z0 ) and one obtains
the normal equation of the plane π containing the point P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) and of
normal vector n(a, b, c).
ax + by + cz + d = 0 (3.2)
Proof: One may ! suppose that a 6= 0. The equation (3.2) can be put in
d
the form a x + + by + cz = 0, which represents the plane containing the
a
!
d
point P − , 0, 0 and having n(a, b, c) as normal vector.
a
The equation (3.2) is called the general equation of the plane.
Given a fixed point O in the 3-space, any point P is characterized by its
position vector rP = OP .
b) The vector equation of the plane π, determined by a point A and two non-
parallel directions v 1 and v 2 contained into the plane, is
r = rA + αv 1 + βv 2 , α, β ∈ R. (3.4)
AM = αAB + βAC.
rM − rA = α(rB − rA ) + β(rC − rA ),
56
Figure 3.2:
or, equivalently,
rM = (1 − α − β)rA + αrB + βrC .
AM = αv 1 + βv 2 ,
or
rM − rA = αv 1 + βv 2
and
rM = rA + αv 1 + βv 2 .
If the points A, B and C which determine the plane π are of coordinates
A(xA , yA , zA ), B(xB , yB , zB ) and C(xC , yC , zC ) and an arbitrary point of π is
M (x, y, z), then the equation (3.3) decomposes into three linear equations:
x = (1 − α − β)xA + αxB + βxC
y = (1 − α − β)yA + αyB + βyC .
z = (1 − α − β)zA + αzB + βzC
57
The points A, B, C and D are coplanar if and only if:
xA yA zA 1
xB yB zB 1
xC yC zC 1 = 0. (3.6)
xD yD zD 1
Replacing now, in (3.4), the vectors v 1 (p1 , q1 , r1 ) and v 2 (p2 , q2 , r2 ) and the
points A(xA , yA , zA ) and M (x, y, z), the equation (3.4) becomes
x = xA + αp1 + βp2
y = yA + αq1 + βq2 , α, β ∈ R, (3.7)
z = zA + αr1 + βr2
and these are the parametric equations of the plane. Again, this system must
have an infinity of solutions (α, β), so that
x − xA y − yA z − zA
p1 q 1 r 1
= 0, (3.8)
p2 q2 r2
which is the analytic equation of the plane determined by a point and two
nonparallel directions.
3.1.1 Exercises
1) Let P1 (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and P2 (x2 , y2 , z2 ) be two different points. Prove that
the equations of the plane containing P1 and P2 and parallel to the vector
a(l, m, n) is
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1 = 0.
l m n
2) Find the equation of the plane containing P (2, 1, −1) and perpendicular
on the vector n(1, −2, 3).
3) Find the equation of the plane determined by O(0, 0, 0), P1 (3, −1, 2) and
P2 (4, −2, −1).
4) Find the equation of the plane containing P (3, 4, −5) and parallel to
both a1 (1, −2, 4) and a2 (2, 1, 1).
5) Find the equation of the plane containing the points P1 (2, −1, −3) and
P2 (3, 1, 2) and parallel to the vector a(3, −1, −4).
58
6) Find the equation of the plane passing through P (7, −5, 1) and which
determines on the positive half-axes three segments of the same length.
7) Find the equation of the plane containing the perpendicular lines through
P (−2, 3, 5) on the planes
π1 : 4x + y − 3z + 13 = 0, π2 : x − 2y + z − 11 = 0.
8) Find the equation of the plane passing through P and having the normal
vector n:
9) Find the equation of the plane passing through the given points:
10) Show that the points (1, 0, −1), (0, 2, 3), (−2, 1, 1) and (4, 2, 3) are copla-
nar.
P0 P = tv. (3.9)
59
Figure 3.3:
For a fixed point O in the space, the vector P0 P can be expressed as the
difference r − r0 (see Figure 3.4) and the equation (3.9) becomes
r = r0 + tv, t ∈ R, (3.11)
Figure 3.4:
60
x − x0
instance, the meaning of is that x = x0 .
0
A line d can be determined by two different points P1 (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and
P2 (x2 , y2 , z2 ) of it. In this case, the director vector of d is
P1 P2 (x2 − x1 , y2 − y1 , z2 − z1 )
3.2.1 Exercises
1) Let d1 and d2 be two lines in E3 , given by
d1 : x = 1 + t, y = 1 + 2t, z = 3 + t, t∈R
and
d2 : x = 3 + s, y = 2s, z = −2 + s, s ∈ R,
prove that d1 k d2 and find the equation of the plane determined by d1
and d2 .
61
3) Find the parametric equations of the line
−2x + 3y + 7z + 2 = 0
.
x + 2y − 3z + 5 = 0
5) Find the parametric equations of the line passing through (−1, 2, 4) and
parallel to v(3, −4, 1).
6) Find the equations of the line passing through the origin and parallel to
the line
x = t
y = −1 + t .
z = 2
The set of the intersection points of d1 and d2 is given by the set of the
solutions of the system of equations
x1 + p1 t = x2 + p2 s
y 1 + q 1 t = y2 + q 2 s . (3.15)
z1 + r 1 t = z2 + r 2 s
• If the system (3.15) has a unique solution (t0 , s0 ), then the lines d1 and
d2 have exactly one intersection point P0 , corresponding to t0 (or s0 ).
One says that the lines are concurrent (or incident); {P0 } = d1 ∩ d2 .
The vectors v 1 and v 2 are, necessarily, linearly independent.
62
Figure 3.5:
• If the system (3.15) has an infinity of solutions, then the two lines have
an infinity of points in common, so that the lines coincide. They are
identical ; d1 = d2 . There exists α ∈ R∗ such that v 1 = αv 2 (their
director vectors are linearly dependent) and any arbitrary point of d1
belongs to d2 (and reciprocally).
• Suppose that the above system of equations is not compatible. There
are two possible situations.
– If the director vectors are linearly dependent (there exists α ∈ R∗
p1 q1 r1
such that v 1 = αv 2 or, equivalently, = = ), then the lines
p2 q2 r2
are parallel ; d1 k d2 .
Figure 3.6:
– If the director vectors are linearly independent, then one deals with
skew lines (nonparallel and nonincident); d1 ∩ d2 = ∅ and d1 ∦ d2 .
63
and
π2 : a2 x + b2 y + c2 z + d2 = 0, n2 (a2 , b2 , c2 ) 6= 0
be two planes, having the normal vectors n1 , respectively n2 .
The intersection of these planes is given by the solution of the system of
equations
π1 : a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0
. (3.16)
π2 : a2 x + b2 y + c2 z + d2 = 0
a1 b1 c1
• If rank = 2, then the system (3.16) is compatible and the
a2 b2 c2
planes have a line in common. They are incident; π1 ∩ π2 = d.
Figure 3.7:
a1 b1 c1
• If rank = 1, then the rows of the matrix are proportional,
a2 b2 c2
a1 b1 c1
= = , which means that the normal vectors of the planes are
a2 b2 c2
linearly dependent. There are two possible situations:
Figure 3.8:
64
a1 b1 c1 d1
– If = = 6= , then the system (3.16) is not compatible,
a2 b2 c2 d2
and the planes are parallel ; π1 k π1 .
a1 b1 c1 d1
– If = = = , then the planes are identical ; π1 = π2 .
a2 b2 c2 d2
Bundle of Planes
Given a line d, the set of all the planes containing the line d is said to be
the bundle of planes through d. Let us suppose that d is determined as the
intersection of two planes π1 and π2 , i.e.
π1 : a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0 a1 b1 c1
d: , with rank = 2.
π2 : a2 x + b2 y + c2 z + d2 = 0 a2 b2 c2
The equation of the bundle is
Remark : Since not both λ1 and λ2 are zero, one may suppose that λ1 6= 0
and divide in (3.17) by λ1 ; one obtains the reduced equation of the bundle:
π1 + λπ2 = 0,
π : ax + by + cz + d = 0, a2 + b2 + c2 > 0
65
Figure 3.9:
• If (3.18) has an infinity of solutions, then d and π have the entire line d
in common and d is contained into π; d ⊂ π. In this case, the normal
vector n of π is orthogonal on the director vector v of d (then n · v = 0,
or ap + bq + cr = 0) and any point of d is contained into π.
Figure 3.10:
Figure 3.11:
3.3.4 Exercises
1) Find the equations of the line passing through P (6, 4, −2) and parallel
x y−1 z−5
to the line d : = = .
2 −3 6
66
2) Given the lines
d1 : x = 4 − 2t, y = 1 + 2t, z = 9 + 3t
and
x−1 y+2 z−4
d2 : = = ,
2 3 2
find the intersection points between the two lines and the coordinate
planes.
d1 : x = 3 + t, y = −2 + t, z = 9 + t, t∈R
and
d2 : x = 1 − 2s, y = 5 + s, z = −2 − 5s, s ∈ R.
67
7) Find the intersection point between the line
x = 3 + 8t
y = 4 + 5t
z = −3 − t
are skew.
9) Find the parametric equations of the line passing through (5, 0, −2) and
parallel to the planes x − 4y + 2z = 0 and 2x + 3y − z + 1 = 0.
10) Find the equation of the plane containing the point P (2, 0, 3) and the
line
x = −1 + t
d: y = t
z = −4 + 2t
13) Given the points A(1, 2α, α), B(3, 2, 1), C(−α, 0, α) and D((−1, 3, −3),
find the parameter α, such that the bundle of planes passing through
AB has a common point with the bundle of planes passing through CD.
68
14) Given the planes
π1 : 2x + y − 3z − 5 = 0
and
π2 : x + 3y + 2z + 1 = 0,
find the equations of the bisector planes of the dihedral angle and choose
which one belongs to the acute dihedral angle.
Figure 3.12:
Proof: The assertion is immediate.
Using the definition of the dot product of two vectors, (3.19) becomes
v1 · v2
arccos , if v 1 · v 2 ≥ 0
\ |v 1 ||v 2 |
m(d1 , d2 ) = (3.20)
v ·v
π − arccos 1 2 , if v 1 · v 2 < 0
|v 1 ||v 2 |
Remark : Two (concurrent or skew) lines d1 and d2 , having the director
vectors v 1 (p1 , q1 , r1 ), respectively v 2 (p2 , q2 , r2 ), are orthogonal if their director
vectors are orthogonal.
d1 ⊥d2 ⇐⇒ v 1 · v 2 = 0 ⇐⇒ p1 p2 + q1 q2 + r1 r2 = 0. (3.21)
69
3.4.2 The Angle Determined by a Line and a Plane
Let d be a line of director vector v(p, q, r) and π be a plane of normal vector
n(a, b, c). The angle determined by d and π, denoted by (d, d π), is the angle
0
determined by d and the orthogonal projection d of d on π.
Figure 3.13:
Theorem 3.4.2.1. The measure of the angle determined by the line d and the
plane π is given by
π
− m(vd
, n), if v · n ≥ 0
m(d,
d π) = 2 (3.22)
π
m(v,
d n) − , if v · n < 0
2
Figure 3.14:
70
Remarks:
1) The line d is parallel to the plane π if the vector v is orthogonal to n,
hence
d k π ⇐⇒ v · n = 0 ⇐⇒ pa + qb + rc = 0. (3.24)
2) The line d is orthogonal to the plane π if v is parallel to n. Then
d⊥π ⇐⇒ v k n ⇐⇒ ∃ α ∈ R∗ : n = αd. (3.25)
Figure 3.15:
71
Figure 3.16:
3.4.4 Exercises
1) Find the angle determined by d1 and d2 :
a) d1 : x = 4 − t, y = 3 + 2t, z = −2t, t ∈ R
d2 : x = 5 + 2s, y = 1 + 3s, z = 5 − 6s, s ∈ R.
x−1 y+5 z−1 x+3 y−9 z
b) d1 : = = , d2 : = = .
2 7 −1 −2 1 4
2) Find the angle determined by the planes
√ √
π1 : x − 2y + z − 1 = 0 and π2 : x + 2y − z + 3 = 0.
on the plane π : x + 2y − z = 0.
72
6) Find the angle determined by the planes
π1 : x + 3y + 2z + 1 = 0 and π2 : 3x + 2y − z − 6 = 0.
7) Find the angle determined by the plane xOy and the line M1 M2 , where
M1 (1, 2, 3) and M2 (−2, 1, 4).
Figure 3.17:
73
3.5.2 The Distance From a Point to a Line
x = x1 + pt
Given a point P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) and a line d : y = y1 + qt , t ∈ R, with
z = z1 + rt
2 2 2
p + q + r > 0, we present two ways to find the distance from P0 to d.
I) Let v(p, q, r) be the director vector of d and P1 (x1 , y1 , z2 ) be an arbitrary
point on d. The distance from P0 to d is the altitude of the parallelogram
determined by v and P1 P0 (see Figure 3.18).
Figure 3.18:
This altitude can be expressed using the area of the parallelogram and
one has
|v × P1 P0 |
d(P0 , d) = . (3.30)
|v|
II) Let π be the plane passing through P0 and orthogonal on d. Its equation
is
π : p(x − x0 ) + q(y − y0 ) + r(z − z0 ) = 0.
Let P00 be the intersection point of π and d; {P00 } = d ∩ π (see Figure
3.19). The coordinates of the point P00 correspond to the parameter t0 ,
solution of the equation
p(x1 + pt − x0 ) + q(y1 + qt − y0 ) + r(z1 + rt − z0 ) = 0.
Finally, d(P0 , d) = d(P0 , P00 ).
74
Figure 3.19:
Figure 3.20:
Figure 3.21:
75
• If d1 and d2 are skew, there exists a unique line which is orthogonal on
both d1 and d2 and intersects both d1 and d2 . The length of the segment
determined by these intersection points is the distance between the skew
lines.
Suppose that
x = x1 + p1 t x = x2 + p2 s
d1 : y = y1 + q1 t , t∈R and d2 : y = y2 + q 2 s , s∈R
z = z1 + r 1 t z = z2 + r 2 s
Figure 3.22:
q 1 r1 r1 p1 p1 q 1
Then n(A, B, C), with A =
,B=
and C =
.
q 2 r2 r2 p2 p2 q 2
The equations of the planes π1 and π2 are:
π1 : A(x − x1 ) + B(y − y1 ) + C(z − z1 ) = 0
π2 : A(x − x2 ) + B(y − y2 ) + C(z − z2 ) = 0.
Now, the distance between d1 and d2 is the distance between the parallel
planes π1 and π2 ; d(d1 , d2 ) = d(π1 , π2 ), and one has:
Theorem 3.5.4.1. The distance between two skew lines d1 and d2 is
given by
|A(x1 − x2 ) + B(y1 − y2 ) + C(z1 − z2 )|
d(d1 , d2 ) = √ . (3.31)
A2 + B 2 + C 2
76
3.5.5 Exercises
1) Find the distance from the point P (1, 2, −1) to the line d : x = y = z.
2) Find the distance from (3, 1, −1) to the plane 22x + 4y − 20z − 45 = 0.
3) Find the equation of the line passing through P (4, 3, 10) and orthogonal
on the line
x−1 y−2 z−3
d: = = ,
2 4 5
the distance from P to d and the coordinates of the symmetrical P 0 of
P with respect to the line d.
π : 3x + 6y − 2z − 5 = 0.
2x − 3y + 4z − 7 = 0 and 4x − 6y + 8z − 3 = 0.
x+1 y−3 z
7) Show that the line = = and the plane 2x−2y−2z+3 = 0
1 2 −1
are parallel and find the distance between them.
8) Find the geometric locus of the lines passing through a given point and
having a constant distance to a given line.
77
11) Let ABCD be a cube with side of length a, M and P be the midpoints
of [BC] respectively [AA0 ], O the center of the cube, O0 the center of
the face A0 B 0 C 0 D0 and S the midpoint of [OO0 ]. Find the area of the
section determined by the plane (M P S) in the cube.
12) Let ABCD be a cube with side of length a, M and P be the midpoints of
[BC] respectively [AA0 ] and O0 the center of the face A0 B 0 C 0 D0 . Find the
perimeter and the area of the section determined by the plane (M P O0 )
in the cube.
78
Chapter 4
Plane Isometries
79
there exists X ∈ [AB] such that |AX| = |f (A)Y |. The points X and Y have
the following properties:
|AX| = |f (A)f (X)| = |f (A)Y |
X ∈ [AB] =⇒ f (X) ∈ [f (A)f (B)]
4) The image of a triangle ∆ABC is triangle ∆f (A)f (B)f (C), such that
Iso(E2 ) = {f : E2 → E2 , f isometry}.
80
Figure 4.1:
Indeed, it have been proved that any isometry is surjective. Now, given two
points A and B such that f (A) = f (B), it follows that |f (A)f (B)| = 0, so
|AB| = 0 and A = B, hence f is injective. Then Iso(E2 ) ⊂ S(E2 ).
Moreover, if f and g are isometries, then
hence f ◦ g −1 is an isometry.
Proposition 4.1.5. 1) If A and B are two fixed points for the isometry f ,
then any point of the line AB is fixed for f ;
2) If the isometry f has three noncollinear fixed points, then f is the iden-
tity of the plane, f = 1E2 .
81
Proof: 1) Let C be an arbitrary point of the line AB and suppose, for in-
stance, that C ∈ [AB]. Then, its image f (C) ∈ [f (A)f (B)] = [AB]. Moreover,
|AC| + |CB| = |AB|, hence |Af (C)| + |f (C)B| = |AB|. It follows necessarily
that f (C) = C, therefore C is a fixed point for f .
2) Let A, B and C be three noncollinear fixed points for f and choose an
arbitrary point X ∈ E2 . Let M ∈ AB and N ∈ CA, such that XM k AC and
XN k AB (see Figure 4.2).
Figure 4.2:
The points M and N are fixed for f , since they belong to lines determined
by two fixed points. Then, the line M N has only fixed points. Hence, the
midpoint O of the segment [M N ] is a fixed point, so that the line AO contains
only fixed points. Therefore, X is a fixed point for f .
4.2 Symmetries
Let d be a line in E2 . The map sd : E2 → E2 , given by
Theorem 4.2.1. The axial symmetries and the central symmetries are invo-
lutive isometries.
82
Figure 4.3:
Figure 4.4:
Figure 4.5:
83
Remarks:
1) Any point lying on the axis d of an axial symmetry sd is a fixed point
for sd ;
2) Any line d0 which is orthogonal on the axis d of an axial symmetry sd is
invariant with respect to sd (i.e. sd (d0 ) = d0 );
3) The center O of a central symmetry sO is fixed for sO ;
4) Any line passing through the center O of a central symmetry sO is in-
variant with respect to sO .
We saw in Theorem 4.2.1 that the symmetries are involutions. The fol-
lowing result shows that, excepting the identity of E2 , the symmetries are the
only involutive isometries.
Proposition 4.2.2. Let f ∈ Iso (E2 ) be an involutive isometry. Then f is
either an axial symmetry, or a central symmetry, or 1E2 .
Proof: Any involutive isometry has at least a fixed point. Indeed, if A is
an arbitrary point on the plane and A0 = f (A), then
The image, through f , of the midpoint M of the segment [AA0 ] is the midpoint
of the segment [A0 A], hence M . Then M is a fixed point for f .
Suppose that f has a unique fixed point O. This point must be the mid-
point of any segment [AA0 ] in the plane, so that for any A ∈ E2 , one has
A0 = sO (A). Then, f = sO .
If f has at least two fixed points A and B, then any point of the line
d = AB is fixed (see Proposition 4.1.5). If f has another fixed point P , not
on d, then f = 1E2 .
Suppose that all the fixed points of f are situated on d. Take an arbitrary
point M ∈ E2 \ {d} and let M0 be the orthogonal projection of M on d. Then
M0 is a fixed point for f (since it lies on d) and the line M M0 is invariant
(since it is orthogonal on d). The image M 0 of M will be on M M0 and
|M M0 | = |M 0 M0 | (f is an isometry). Moreover, M 0 6= M (since M ∈/ d, hence
0
M is not a fixed point), and then M = sd (M ) and f = sd .
Theorem 4.2.3. Given A, B, C, A0 , B 0 , C 0 ∈ E2 , such that A, B and
C are noncollinear and ∆ABC ≡ ∆A0 B 0 C 0 , there exists a unique isometry
f ∈ Iso(E2 ), with
f (A) = A0 , f (B) = B 0 , f (C) = C 0 .
84
Proof: It is clear that, if ∆ABC 6= ∆A0 B 0 C 0 , an isometry having the
required properties does not exists.
We prove first that, if such an isometry does exist, then it is unique. Sup-
pose there are two isometries f, g ∈ Iso (E2 ), such that f (A) = A0 , f (B) = B 0 ,
f (C) = C 0 , and g(A) = A0 , g(B) = B 0 , g(C) = C 0 . The map h = f −1 ◦ g is
also an isometry and h(A) = A, h(B) = B, h(C) = C. Hence h has three
noncollinear fixed points, and therefore h = 1E2 and f = g.
Let us prove now the existence of f .
1) If A = A0 , B = B 0 and C = C 0 , one can take f = 1E2 ;
Theorem 4.2.5. Any isometry is the product of at the most three axial sym-
metries.
85
Proof: Let A, B and C be three noncollinear points, f ∈ Iso (E2 ) and
A0 = f (A), B 0 = f (B), C 0 = f (C). Theorem 4.2.3 assures that the isometry
f is unique and, following the way in which f was constructed before, it can
be decomposed into at the most three axial symmetries.
Corollary 4.2.6. The axial symmetries generate the group of isometries.
4.2.1 Exercises
1) Let d be a line and A and B be two points on the plane. Determine the
position of a point M on d, such that the sum |AM |+|M B| is minimum.
4) Let AOB
\ be an angle and O be a point inside the triangle. A variable
line d, passing through O, cuts AB at M and BC at N . Prove that the
area of the triangle ∆M BN is minimal if and only if O is the midpoint
of the segment [M N ].
5) Let ABCD be a parallelogram, ∆ABE and ∆CDF two equilateral tri-
angles situated outside the parallelogram, and let G and H be, respec-
tively, the centers of two squares constructed on AD, respectively BC,
outside the parallelogram. Prove that EGF H is a parallelogram.
6) Let ABCD be a parallelogram and O1 , O2 be the incenters of the tri-
angles ∆ABC, respectively ∆ADC. Show that AO1 CO2 is a parallelo-
gram.
7) Let ∆ABC be a triangle and H its orthocenter. Prove that the sym-
metricals of H with respect to AB, BC and CA are situated on the
circumscribed circle of the triangle. Also, the symmetricals of H with
respect to the midpoints of [AB], [BC] and [CA] are on the circum-
scribed circle.
4.3 Translations
Let v be a vector in V2 . The map tv : E2 → E2 , given by
tv (M ) = M 0 , where M M 0 = v,
86
is called translation of vector v.
Figure 4.6:
t−1
v = tv ⇐⇒ v = 0.
87
Figure 4.7:
Figure 4.8:
Proposition 4.3.2. A product of two axial symmetries, whose axes are pa-
rallel, is a translation. Conversely, any translation can be decomposed into a
product of two axial symmetries, having parallel axes.
Proof:
Let d and d0 be two parallel lines. Let M be an arbitrary point on the
plane, M 0 = sd (M ) and M 00 = sd0 (M 0 ) = (sd0 ◦ sd )(M ) (see Figure 4.8).
If {A} = M M 0 ∩ d and {B} = M 0 M 00 ∩ d0 , then M M 00 = 2AB. One has
sd0 ◦ sd = tAB , where the vector AB is orthogonal on d and its length is a half
of the distance between the lines d and d0 .
Conversely, given a translation tv , one can choose an arbitrary line d,
orthogonal on the direction of v. Let A be an arbitrary point on d and there
1
exists a unique point B, such that AB = v. Let d0 be the line passing through
2
B and parallel to d. Then tv = sd0 ◦ sd .
Proposition 4.3.3. Given two points A and A0 in E2 , there exists a unique
translation tv , such that tv (A) = A0 . In particular, if a translation tv has a
fixed point, then tv = 1E2 .
88
Proof: tAA0 is the unique translation having the required property. If
tv (P ) = P , then v = P P = 0, and tv = t0 = 1E2 .
Denote by
T (E2 ) = {tv : E2 → E2 : tv translation },
the set of all the translations of the plane.
4.3.1 Exercises
1) Let C(O, R) be a circle and A, B ∈ C(O, R) two fixed points. Find the
geometric locus of the orthocenter of the triangle ∆ABC, when C is a
mobile point on C(O, R).
a) |M N | = a;
b) |AM | + |M N | + |N B| is minimum.
89
4) Let C1 (O1 , r1 ) and C2 (O2 , r2 ) be two circles and d be an arbitrary line.
Construct a line d0 , parallel to d, such that the chords determined by d0
on the two circles are of the same length.
5) Let C1 (O1 , r1 ) and C2 (O2 , r2 ) be two circles and [M N ] a segment. Con-
struct a segment [AB], parallel to [M N ] and of the same length, such
that A ∈ C1 (O1 , r1 ) and B ∈ C2 (O2 , r2 ).
6) Prove that the group (T (E2 ), ◦) is isomorphic to the additive group of
the complex numbers.
4.4 Rotations
\ is said to be oriented if the pair of half-lines {[OA, [OB}
An angle AOB
is ordered. The angle AOB
\ is positively oriented if [OA gets over [OB coun-
terclockwisely. Otherwise, AOB
\ is negatively oriented. If the measure of the
nonoriented angle AOB
\ is θ, then the measure of the oriented angle AOB
\ is
either θ, or −θ, depending on the orientation of AOB.
\
Figure 4.9:
Remarks:
90
Figure 4.10:
• The center O of the rotation rO,θ (of an angle θ 6= −2π, 0, 2π) is its
unique fixed point and there are no invariant lines with respect to rO,θ .
Figure 4.11:
rotation, one has that [OA] ≡ [OA0 ], [OB] ≡ [OB 0 ] and AOB 0 OB 0 .
\ ≡ A\
0 0 0 0
Therefore, ∆AOB ≡ ∆A OB so that |AB| = |A B |.
91
Theorem 4.4.2. Any isometry with a unique fixed point O is a rotation of
center O.
Proof: Let f ∈ Iso(E2 ) and f (O) = O. Let M ∈ E2 \ {O} be an arbitrary
point and M 0 = f (M ), M 0 6= M . There exist exactly two isometries such
that f (O) = O and f (M ) = M 0 (see Theorem 4.2.4) and, since the rotation of
center O and angle M \OM 0 and the axial symmetry with respect to the internal
bisector of the angle M \OM 0 have these properties, and since the latter has an
entire line of fixed points, then f must be a rotation of center O.
Remarks:
• Sometimes, the Theorem 4.4.2 is given as definition of rotation: the
rotation is the isometry having a unique fixed point, called center, or
the identity 1E2 ;
• Let us denote by R(O) the set of all the rotations of center O and angle
θ ∈ [−2π, 2π]. Then (R(O), ◦) is a commutative subgroup of (Iso(E2 ), ◦).
−1
Indeed, rO,θ1 ◦ rO,θ2 = rO,θ1 +θ2 ( mod 2π) and rO,θ = rO,−θ .
Proposition 4.4.3. A product of two axial symmetries, whose axis are con-
current, is a rotation. Conversely, any rotation can be expressed as a product
of two axial symmetries, whose axis are concurrent at the center of rotation.
Proof: Let sa and sb be two axial symmetries, with a ∩ b = {O}. We shall
prove that sb ◦ sa is a rotation of center O, by verifying that O is the unique
fixed point of sb ◦ sa . First,
(sb ◦ sa )(O) = sb (sa (O)) = sb (O) = O,
hence O is a fixed point.
Let M be another fixed point of sb ◦ sa . Since (sb ◦ sa )(M ) = M , then
(s−1 −1
b ◦ sb ◦ sa )(M ) = sb (M ) and, because the symmetry sb is involutive, it
follows that sa (M ) = sb (M ) = N . If the points M and N are distinct, M 6= N ,
then the lines a and b are both perpendicular on the midpoint of the segment
[M N ], contradiction to the fact that a ∩ b = {O}. Hence M = N . Then
M = sa (M ) and M = sb (M ), meaning that M ∈ a and M ∈ b. It follows,
necessarily, that M = O, and O is the unique fixed point of sb ◦ sa .
Conversely, denote r = rO,θ and let A 6= O be an arbitrary point and
0
A = r(A). Let b be the bisector of the angle AOA \0 . The map sb ◦ r is an
isometry and, moreover,
(sb ◦ r)(O) = sb (r(O)) = sb (O) = O
92
and
(sb ◦ r)(A) = sb (r(A)) = sb (A0 ) = A,
so that sb ◦ r has at least two fixed points, A and O. Therefore, any point
of OA is fixed and sb ◦ r is either the identity, or the axial symmetry with
respect to a = OA (see Theorem 4.2.3). If sb ◦ r = 1E2 , then sb = r, which
is impossible, since r has a unique fixed point and sb has an infinity of fixed
points. Then, sb ◦ r = sa , and r = sb ◦ sa .
Because the point A was chosen arbitrarily, one of the axis a and b can be
chosen arbitrarily.
sa ◦ sb ◦ sc = sa ◦ sa ◦ sd = sd .
4.4.1 Exercises
1) Let ∆ABC be an equilateral triangle and M a point in the same plane.
93
4) Let C1 , C2 , C3 be three circles, of radius r1 < r2 < r3 , respectively.
Determine an equilateral triangle ∆ABC, such that A ∈ a, B ∈ b,
C ∈ c.
Figure 4.12:
x + x0
Since P is the midpoint of the segment [M M 0 ], then x0 = and
2
y + y0
y0 = , and the equations (4.2) hold.
2
94
Remark : If the center of symmetry is the origin O(0, 0) of the system of
coordinates, then the equations (4.2) become
0
x = −x
. (4.3)
y 0 = −y
Proposition 4.5.2. Let d : ax + by + c = 0, a2 + b2 > 0, be a line in E2 . The
equations of the axial symmetry sd are:
2 2
x0 = b − a x − 2ab y − 2ac
a2 + b2 a2 + b2 a2 + b2 . (4.4)
2ab b 2 − a2 2bc
y0 = −
x − y −
a2 + b2 a2 + b2 a2 + b2
Proof: One may suppose that b 6= 0. Let M (x, y) be an arbitrary point
and M 0 = sd (M ), M 0 (x0 , y 0 ).
Figure 4.13:
The points M and M 0 are symmetrical with respect to d if and only if the
line passing through M and M 0 is orthogonal on d and the midpoint P of the
segment [M M 0 ] belongs to d.
X −x Y −y
The equation of the line determined by M and M 0 is 0 = . The
x − x y0 − y
orthogonality condition gives a(y 0 − y) = b(x0 − x).
The midpoint of [M M 0 ] is a point of d if and only if
! !
x + x0 y + y0
a +b + c = 0.
2 2
Then, the coordinates (x0 , y 0 ) of M 0 are the solution of the system of equa-
tion
ax0 + by 0 = −(ax + by + 2c)
bx0 − ay 0 = bx − ay
and one obtains (4.4).
95
Remarks:
• If the line d passes through the origin O, then c = 0 and (4.4) becomes
b2 − a2 2ab
x0 =
2 2
x− 2 y
a +b a + b2 . (4.5)
2ab 2
b −a 2
0
y =−
x− 2 y
a2 + b2 a + b2
Figure 4.14:
96
Proposition 4.5.4. Let f ∈ Iso(E2 ) be an isometry, having the origin O(0, 0)
as fixed point. The equations of f are
0
x = ax − εby
, (4.9)
y 0 = bx + εay
Proof: Take the point A(1, 0) and let A0 = f (A), with A0 (a, b). Let M (x, y)
be an arbitrary point and M 0 = f (M ), M 0 (x0 , y 0 ). Since 1 = |OA| = |OA0 |,
then a2 + b2 = 1.
On the other hand,
x = ax0 + by 0
⇐⇒
x2 + y 2 = x02 + y 02
Replacing x in the second equation, one gets
(ax0 + by 0 )2 + y 2 = x02 + y 02 ,
or
x = ax0 + by 0
, ε = ±1,
εy = −bx0 + ay 0
97
= (a2 + b2 )[(x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 ] = |M1 M2 |2 ,
therefore |M10 M20 | = |M1 M2 | and the equations (4.9) define an isometry.
98
4.5.1 Exercises
1) Let A(−1, 2) and B(2, −1) be two points and d : 2x + 3y − 6 = 0 a line
on E2 , let v(2, 3) be a vector, C = tv (A), D = tv (B) and b = tv (a).
4) Find the symmetrical of the point P (4, 2) with respect to the line
d : x + 2y − 4 = 0.
6) Find the coordinates of a point M ∈ Ox, such that the sum of its
distances to A(1, 2) and B(3, 4) is minimum.
99
100
Chapter 5
Conics
Figure 5.1:
p
Hence, (x − a)2 + (y − b)2 = R, or
101
The equation (5.1) represents the equation of the circle centered at I(a, b) and
of radius R.
represents either a circle, or a point, or the empty set. Indeed, (5.2) can be
written in the equivalent form
(x − a)2 + (y − b)2 = a2 + b2 − c.
x2 + y 2 − 2ax − 2by + c = 0,
with a2 + b2 − c = 0. Since the three points are on the circle, one obtains the
system of equations (with variables a, b and c)
2
x + y 2 − 2ax − 2by + c = 0
2
x1 + y12 − 2ax1 − 2by1 + c = 0
,
x22 + y22 − 2ax2 − 2by2 + c = 0
2
x3 + y32 − 2ax3 − 2by3 + c = 0
which has to be compatible, so that
2
x + y 2 x y
2 1
x1 + y12 x1 y1 1
x2 + y 2 x2 y2 = 0. (5.3)
2 2 1
x2 + y 2 x3 y3 1
3 3
102
The equation (5.3) is the equation of the circle determined by three points.
It follows immediately that four points Mi (xi , yi ), i = 1, 4, belong to a
circle if and only if
2
x1 + y12
2 x1 y1 1
x2 + y22 x2 y2 1
x2 + y 2 = 0. (5.4)
3 3 x3 y3 1
x2 + y 2 x4 y4 1
4 4
(1 + m2 )x2 + 2mnx + n2 − R2 = 0.
∆ = 4(R2 + m2 R2 − n2 ).
103
5.1.4 The Tangent to a Circle
The Tangent Having a Given Direction
Let C be the circle of equation x2 + y 2 − R2 = 0 and m ∈ R a given real
number. There are two lines, having the angular coefficient m, and which are
tangent to C. We saw, in the previous paragraph, that a line d : y = mx + n
is tangent to C if and only if R2 + m2 R2 − n2 − 0. Then, the equations of the
two tangent lines of direction m are
p
y = mx ± R 1 + m2 . (5.5)
y0
Remark : The equation of the line OP0 is y = x. Then, the product of
x0
the angular coefficients of OP0 and of the tangent at P0 is −1, meaning that
the tangent at a point to a circle is orthogonal on the radius which corresponds
to the point.
104
5.1.5 Intersection of Two Circles
Given two circles,
C1 : x2 + y 2 − 2a1 x − 2b1 y + c1 = 0
and
C2 : x2 + y 2 − 2a2 x − 2b2 y + c2 = 0,
the system of equations
x2 + y 2 − 2a1 x − 2b1 y + c1 = 0
x2 + y 2 − 2a2 x − 2b2 y + c2 = 0
gives informations about the intersection of the two circles. The previous
system is equivalent to
x2 + y 2 − 2a1 x − 2b1 y + c1 = 0
which will give rise to a second degree equation, having the discriminant ∆.
• If ∆ > 0, then C1 and C2 are secant (they have two intersection points);
5.1.6 Exercises
1) Find the equation of the circle of diameter [AB], where A(1, 2) and
B(−3, −1).
2) Find the equation of the circle of center I(2, −3) and radius R = 7.
3) Find the equation of the circle of center I(−1, 2) and which passes
through A(2, 6).
4) Find the equation of the circle centered at the origin and tangent to
d : 3x − 4y + 20 = 0.
5) Find the equation of the circle passing through A(3, 1) and B(−1, 3) and
having the center on the line d : 3x − y − 2 = 0.
6) Find the equation of the circle determined by A(1, 1), B(1, −1) and
C(2, 0).
105
7) Find the equation of the circle tangent to both d1 : 2x + y − 5 = 0 and
d2 : 2x + y + 15 = 0, if the tangency point with d1 is M (3, 1).
8) Determine the position of the point A(1, −2) relative to the circle
C : x2 + y 2 − 8x − 4y − 5 = 0.
9) Find the intersection between the line d : 7x − y + 12 = 0 and the circle
C : (x − 2)2 + (y − 1)2 − 25 = 0.
10) Determine the position of the line d : 2x − y − 3 = 0 relative to the circle
C : x2 + y 2 − 3x + 2y − 3 = 0.
11) Find the equation of the tangent to C : x2 + y 2 − 5 = 0 at the point
A(−1, 2).
12) Find the equations of the tangent lines to C : x2 + y 2 + 10x − 2y + 6 = 0,
parallel to d : 2x + y − 7 = 0.
13) Find the equations of the tangent lines to C : x2 + y 2 − 2x + 4y = 0,
orthogonal on d : x − 2y + 9 = 0.
14) Let Cλ : x2 + y 2 + λx + (2λ + 3)y = 0, λ ∈ R, be a family of circles. Prove
that the circles from the family have two fixed points.
15) Find the geometric locus of the points in the plane for which the sum
of the squares of the distances to the sides of an equilateral triangle is
constant.
16) Let P and Q be two fixed points and d a line, orthogonal on P Q. Two
variable orthogonal lines, passing through P , cut d at A, respectively B.
Find the geometric locus of the orthogonal projection of the point A on
the line BQ.
17) Two circles of centers O, respectively O0 , intersect each other at A and B.
A variable line passing through A cuts the two circles at C, respectively
C 0 . Find the geometric locus of the intersection point between the lines
OC and O0 C 0 .
106
The two fixed points are called the foci of the ellipse and the distance
between the foci is the focal distance.
Let F and F 0 be the two foci of an ellipse and let |F F 0 | = 2c be the focal
distance. Suppose that the constant in the definition of the ellipse is 2a. If M
is an arbitrary point of the ellipse, it must verify the condition
|M F | + |M F 0 | = 2a.
Figure 5.2:
This is equivalent to
p p
(x − c)2 + y 2 = 2a − (x + c)2 + y 2
and p
(x − c)2 + y 2 = 4a2 − 4a (x + c)2 + y 2 + (x + c)2 + y 2 .
One obtains p
a (x + c)2 + y 2 = cx + a2 ,
which gives
107
or
(a2 − c2 )x2 + a2 y 2 − a2 (a2 − c2 ) = 0.
Denoting a2 − c2 = b2 (possible, since a > c), one has
b2 x2 + a2 y 2 − a2 b2 = 0.
x2 y 2
+ − 1 = 0. (5.7)
a2 b2
bp 2 ap 2
y=± a − x2 ; x=± b − y2,
a b
which means that the ellipse is symmetrical with respect to both Ox and
Oy. In fact, the line F F 0 , determined by the foci of the ellipse, and the
perpendicular line on the midpoint of the segment [F F 0 ] are axes of symmetry
for the ellipse. Their intersection point, which is the midpoint of [F F 0 ], is the
center of symmetry of the ellipse, or, simply, its center .
In order to sketch the graph of the ellipse, remark that is it enough to
represent the function
bp 2
f : [−a, a] → R, f (x) = a − x2 ,
a
and to complete the ellipse by symmetry with respect to Ox.
One has
b x ab
f 0 (x) = − √ , f 00 (x) = − √ .
a a − x2
2 (a2 − x2 ) a2 − x2
x −a 0 a
f 0 (x) | + + + 0 − − − |
f (x) 0 % b & 0
f 00 (x) | − − − − − − − |
The graph of the ellipse is presented in Figure 5.3.
108
Figure 5.3:
Remarks:
• All the considerations can be done in a similar way, by taking the foci
of the ellipse on Oy. One obtains a similar equation for such an ellipse.
c
The number e = is called the eccentricity of the ellipse. Since a > c,
a
then 0 < e < 1, hence any ellipse has the eccentricity smaller that 1. On the
!2
2
c2 b
other hand, e = 2 = 1 − , so that e gives informations about the shape
a a
of the ellipse. When e is closer and closer to 0, then the ellipse is ”closer and
closer” to a circle; and when e is closer to 1, then the ellipse is flattened to
Ox.
109
or, by replacing y in the equation of the ellipse,
• If ∆ < 0, then d does not intersect E. The line is exterior to the ellipse;
• If ∆ > 0, then there are two intersection points between d and E. The
line is secant to the ellipse.
b x0 b2 x0
f 0 (x0 ) = − √ =− 2 .
a a2 − b2 a y0
110
The equation of the tangent to E at P0 is
b2 x0
y − y0 = − (x − x0 ),
a2 y0
equivalent to
b2 x0 (x − x0 ) + a2 y0 (y − y0 ) = 0,
or !
x0 x y0 y x20 y02
+ 2 − + = 0.
a2 b a2 b2
x2 y 2
Since P0 belongs to the ellipse, then 20 + 20 = 1, and the equation of the
a b
tangent to the ellipse at the point P0 is
x0 x y0 y
+ 2 − 1 = 0. (5.9)
a2 b
5.2.4 Exercises
1) Determine the coordinates of the foci of the ellipse 9x2 + 25y 2 − 225 = 0.
3√
2) Sketch the graph of y = − 16 − x2 .
4
3) Find the intersection points between the line x + 2y − 7 = 0 and the
ellipse x2 + 3y 2 − 25 = 0.
4) Find the position of the line 2x + y − 10 = 0 relative to the ellipse
x2 y 2
+ − 1 = 0.
9 4
5) Find the equation of the tangent to the ellipse E : x2 + 4y 2 − 20 = 0,
orthogonal on the line d : 2x − 2y − 13 = 0.
x2 y2
6) Find the equations of the tangent lines at + − 1 = 0, passing
25 16
through P0 (10, −8).
7) Find the geometric locus of the orthogonal projections of a focus of an
ellipse on the tangent lines to the ellipse.
8) Let d1 and d2 be two variable orthogonal lines, passing through the point
x2 y 2
A(a, 0) of the ellipse 2 + 2 = 1, and let P1 and P2 be the intersection
a b
points of these two lines and the ellipse. Prove that the line P1 P2 passes
through a fixed point.
111
5.3 The Hyperbola
5.3.1 Definition
A hyperbola is a plane curve, defined as the geometric locus of the points in
the plane, whose distances to two fixed points have a constant difference.
The two fixed points are called the foci of the hyperbola, and the distance
between the foci is the focal distance.
Denote by F and F 0 the foci of the hyperbola and let |F F 0 | = 2c be the
focal distance. Suppose that the constant in the definition is 2a. If M (x, y) is
an arbitrary point of the hyperbola, then
||M F | − |M F 0 || = 2a.
Figure 5.4:
or, p p
(x − c)2 + y 2 = ±2a + (x + c)2 + y 2 .
This is
p
x2 − 2cx + c2 + y 2 = 4a2 ± 4a (x + c)2 + y 2 + x2 + 2cx + c2 + y 2 ⇐⇒
p
⇐⇒ cx + a2 = ±a (x + c)2 + y 2 ⇐⇒
⇐⇒ c2 x2 + 2a2 cx + a4 = a2 x2 + 2a2 cx + a2 c2 + a2 y 2 ⇐⇒
112
⇐⇒ (c2 − a2 )x2 − a2 y 2 − a2 (c2 − a2 ) = 0.
Denote c2 − a2 = b2 (possible, since c > a) and one obtains the equation of
the hyperbola
x2 y 2
− − 1 = 0. (5.10)
a2 b2
bp 2 ap 2
y=± x − a2 ; x=± y + b2 .
a b
Then, the coordinate axes are axes of symmetry for the hyperbola. Their
intersection point is the center of the hyperbola.
To sketch the graph of the hyperbola, is it enough to represent the function
bp 2
f : (−∞, −a] ∪ [a, ∞) → R, f (x) = x − a2 ,
a
by taking into account that the hyperbola is symmetrical with respect to Ox.
f (x) b f (x) b b
Since lim = and lim = − , it follows that y = x and
x→∞ x a x→−∞ x a a
b
y = − x are asymptotes of f .
a
One has, also,
b x ab
f 0 (x) = √ , f 00 (x) = − √ .
a x − a2
2 (x2 − a2 ) x2 − a2
x −∞ −a a ∞
f 0 (x) − − − − | | + + + +
f (x) ∞ & 0| |0 % ∞
f 00 (x) − − − − | | − − − −
The graph of the hyperbola is presented in Figure 5.5.
Remarks:
• If a = b, the equation of the hyperbola becomes x2 − y 2 = a2 . In this
case, the asymptotes are the bisectors of the system of coordinates and
one deals with an equilateral hyperbola.
• As in the case of an ellipse, one can consider the hyperbola having the
foci on Oy.
113
Figure 5.5:
c
The number e = is called the eccentricity of the hyperbola. Since c > a,
a
then the eccentricity is always greater than 1. Moreover,
!2
c2 b
e2 = 2 = 1 + ,
a a
hence e gives informations about the shape of the hyperbola. For e closer to
1, the hyperbola has the branches closer to Ox.
b
• If a2 m2 − b2 = 0, (or m = ± ), then the equation (5.11) becomes
a
±2bnx + a(n2 + b2 ) = 0.
114
– If n = 0, there are no solutions (this means, geometrically, that the
two asymptotes do not intersect the hyperbola);
– If n 6= 0, there exists a unique solution (geometrically, a line d,
which is parallel to one of the asymptotes, intersects the hyperbola
at exactly one point);
115
5.3.4 Exercises
x2 y 2
1) Find the foci of the hyperbola − − 1 = 0.
9 4
2) Find the area of the triangle determined by the asymptotes of the hy-
x2 y 2
perbola − − 1 = 0 and the line d : 9x + 2y − 24 = 0.
4 9
x2 y 2
3) Find the intersection points between the hyperbola − − 1 = 0 and
20 5
the line d : 2x − y − 10 = 0.
x2 y 2
4) Find the equations of the tangent lines to the hyperbola − − 1 = 0,
20 5
which are orthogonal to d : 4x + 3y − 7 = 0.
x2 y 2
5) Find the equations of the tangent lines to the hyperbola − − 1 = 0,
3 5
passing through P (1, −5).
116
Figure 5.6:
!2 !2
p p
⇔ x+ = x− = y2 ⇔
2 2
p2 p2
⇔ x2 + px + = x2 − px + + y 2 ,
4 4
and the equation of the parabola is
y 2 = 2px. (5.14)
√
Remark : The equation (5.14) is equivalent to y = ± 2px, so that the
parabola is symmetrical with respect to Ox.
Representing the graph of the function f : [0, ∞) → [0, ∞) and using
the symmetry of the curve with respect to Ox, one obtains the graph of the
parabola (see Figure (5.7). One has
p p
f 0 (x) = √ ; f 00 (x) = − √ .
2px0 2x 2x
117
x 0 ∞
f 0 (x) | + + + +
f (x) 0 % ∞
f 00 (x) − − − − −
Figure 5.7:
y 2 = 2px
y = mx + n
• If ∆ > 0, then there are two intersection points between the line and the
parabola;
• If ∆ = 0, then the line is tangent to the parabola and they have a unique
intersection point.
118
5.4.3 The Tangent to a Parabola
The Tangent of a Given Direction
A line d : y = mx + n (with m 6= 0) is tangent to the parabola P : y 2 = 2px
if the discriminant ∆ which appears in (5.15) is zero, i.e. 2mn = p. Then, the
equation of the tangent line to P, having the angular coefficient m, is
p
y = mx + . (5.16)
2m
y − y0 = f 0 (x0 )(x − x0 ),
5.4.4 Exercises
1) Find the focus and the director line of the parabola y 2 − 24x = 0.
2) Find the equation of the parabola having the focus F (−7, 0) and the
director line x − 7 = 0.
119
3) Find the equation of the tangent line to the parabola y 2 −8x = 0, parallel
to d : 2x + 2y − 3 = 0.
5) Find the equation of the tangent line to y 2 − 4x = 0 at the point P (1, 2).
120
We shall prove that, after making some changes of coordinates (given, in
fact, by a rotation and, eventually, a translation of the original system), the
equation (5.18) turns into an equation which can be identified to be of one of
the conics already studied.
a11 x02 + 2a12 x0 y 0 + a22 y 02 + fx0 (x0 , y0 )x0 + fy0 (x0 , y0 )y 0 + f (x0 , y0 ) = 0. (5.21)
Suppose that the point M0 is the center of symmetry of the conic Γ. Then,
the origin (0, 0) is the center of symmetry in the new system. Hence, both
P (x0 , y 0 ) and sO (P )(−x0 , −y 0 ) belong to the conic, when P ∈ Γ. Thus,
a11 x02 + 2a12 x0 y 0 + a22 y 02 + fx0 (x0 , y0 )x0 + fy0 (x0 , y0 )y 0 + f (x0 , y0 ) = 0
a11 x02 + 2a12 x0 y 0 + a22 y 02 − fx0 (x0 , y0 )x0 − fy0 (x0 , y0 )y 0 + f (x0 , y0 ) = 0
and fx0 (x0 , y0 )x0 + fy0 (x0 , y0 )y 0 = 0, for any P (x0 , y 0 ) ∈ Γ. Then,
0
fx (x0 , y0 ) = 0
,
fy0 (x0 , y0 ) = 0
121
Conversely, if (x0 , y0 ) ∈ C(f ), then fx0 (x0 , y0 ) = 0 and fy0 (x0 , y0 ) = 0, the
equation (5.21) becomes a11 x02 +2a12 x0 y 0 +a22 y 02 +f (x0 , y0 ) = 0 and, obviously,
O(0, 0) is center of symmetry, i.e. M0 (x0 , y0 ) is the center of symmetry for Γ.
The conics can, also, be classified through the sign of the invariant δ.
• If δ > 0, the conic is said to be of elliptical genus;
• If δ < 0, then the conic is of hyperbolical genus;
• If δ = 0, then the conic is of parabolical genus.
122
∆
• If − < 0, then Γ = ∅;
aδ
∆
• If − = 0, then Γ = {M0 (x0 , y0 )}; the conic is degenerated to one
aδ
point: its center of symmetry;
s
∆ ∆
• If − > 0, then Γ is the circle centered at M0 and of radius − .
aδ aδ
∆
a11 x02 + a22 y 02 + = 0.
δ
I 2 −4δ = (a11 +a22 )2 −4(a11 a22 −a212 ) = (a11 −a22 )2 +4a212 > 0, (since a12 6= 0),
so that the equation (5.23) has two real and distinct solutions, λ1 and λ2 .
123
Let a1 (u1 , v1 ) and a2 (u2 , v2 ) be the eigenvectors associated to the eigen-
values λ1 respectively λ2 . Their components are, thus, given by the solutions
of the systems
(a11 − λ1 )u1 + a12 v1 = 0 (a11 − λ2 )u2 + a12 v2 = 0
, respectively .
a12 u1 + (a22 − λ1 )v1 = 0 a12 u2 + (a22 − λ2 )v2 = 0
a0 2 a0 2 a02 a02
λ1 x0 + 10 + λ2 y 0 + 20 + a000 − 10 − 20 = 0.
λ1 λ2 λ1 λ2
a0
x00 = x0 + 10
λ1 ,
00 0
a020
y =y +
λ2
one obtains the canonical equation of the conic
λ1 x00 + λ2 y 00 + a = 0,
a02
10 a02
where a = a000 − − 20 .
λ1 λ2
124
Since δ 6= 0, then Γ has a unique center of symmetry. Its coordinates are
given by the solution of the system of equations
6x − 4y − 2 = 0
,
−4x + 4 = 0
6 8
−x02 + 4y 02 + √ x0 + √ y 0 − 3 = 0,
5 5
or !2 !2
3 1
− x0 − √ + 4 y 0 + √ y 0 − 2 = 0.
5 5
3
x00 = x0 − √
After a translation of equations 5 , the conic is of the form
1
y 00 = y 0 + √
5
125
−x002 + 4y 002 − 2 = 0, so that the canonic equation of the given conic is
x00 y 00
− = −1,
2 1
2
and it is a hyperbola.
Figure 5.8:
126
Replacing in the equation of the conic, one obtains
⇔ a11 (x0 cos θ − y 0 sin θ)2 + 2a12 (x0 cos θ − y 0 sin θ)(x0 sin θ + y 0 cos θ)+
+a22 (x0 sin θ+y 0 cos θ)2 +2a10 (x0 cos θ−y 0 sin θ)+2a20 (x0 sin θ+y 0 cos θ)+a00 = 0.
The coefficient of x0 y 0 in this equation is
But we saw that the effect of the rotation is to cancel this coefficient. Thus
Since δ 6= 0 and δ > 0, then the conic has a unique center of symmetry and is
of elliptic genus. The coordinates of the center of symmetry are given by
2x + y − 6 = 0
,
x + 2y = 0
π
(1 − 1) sin 2θ = cos 2θ ⇐⇒ cos 2θ = 0 ⇐⇒ θ = .
4
3
The eigenvalues λ1 and λ2 are the solutions of the equation λ2 − 2λ + = 0,
4
3 1
hence λ1 = and λ2 = .
2 2
The equations of the rotation are
√ √
π π 2 2
x = x0 − y0
cos 4 − sin 4 x0
0
x x x √2 √2 ,
= R 0 ⇐⇒ = 0 ⇐⇒
y y y π π y 0
2 0
2
sin cos y=x
+y
4 4 2 2
127
and the conic becomes
3 02 1 02 √ √
x + y − 3 2x0 + 3 2y 0 − 16 = 0,
2 2
or
3 0 √ 2 1 0 √
(x − 2) + (y + 3 2)2 − 28 = 0.
2 2
00 √
x = x0 − √2
After a translation of equations , one obtains the reduced
y 00 = y 0 + 3 2
equation of the conic
x002 y 002
+ = 1,
56 56
3
the conic being an ellipse.
Figure 5.9:
Conclusions
We can put together all the considerations we have made. Let Γ be the
conic given by the zeros of the polynomial function f : R2 → R,
128
with a211 + a212 + a222 6= 0. Let
a11 a12 a10
a11 a12
∆ = a12 a22 a20 ; δ=
; I = a11 + a22 .
a10 a20 a00 a12 a22
be the invariants of Γ.
5.5.4 Exercises
1) Find the canonical equation and sketch the graph of the conic
2) Find the canonical equation and sketch the graph of the conic
3) Find the canonical equation and sketch the graph of the conic
x2 − 4xy + x2 − 6x + 2y + 1 = 0.
x2 + λxy + y 2 − 6x − 16 = 0, λ ∈ R.
129
130
Chapter 6
Quadric Surfaces
The quadric surfaces can be seen as the three dimensional analogs of the
conics. The set S of the points (x, y, z) ∈ R3 , such that g(x, y, z) = 0, where
g ∈ R[X, Y, Z] is a polynomial, is called algebraic surface in R3 . If deg(g) = 2,
S is said to be a quadric surface in R3 . Hence, the points of a quadric surface
are the zeros of the polynomial function
g(x,y,z)=a11 x2+a22 y 2+a33 z 2+2a12 xy+2a13 xz+2a23 yz+2a10 x+2a20 y+2a30 x+a00
with a211 + a222 + a233 + a212 + a223 + a213 > 0.
If Oxyz is a Cartesian system of coordinates, the sections determined by
the coordinate planes on a quadric surface are conics, and so are the sections
determined by planes which are parallel to the coordinate planes. By studying
these sections, one can imagine the shape of a given quadric surface.
The simplest equations for the quadric surfaces are obtained when the
surfaces are situated in certain standard positions relative to the coordinate
axes.
6.1 Ellipsoids
The ellipsoid is the quadric surface given by the equation
x2 y 2 z 2
E: + + − 1 = 0, a, b, c ∈ R∗+ . (6.1)
a2 b2 c2
• The coordinate planes are all planes of symmetry of E since, for an
arbitrary point M (x, y, z) ∈ E, its symmetrical points with respect to
these planes, M1 (−x, y, z), M2 (x, −y, z) and M3 (x, y, −z) belong to E;
therefore, the coordinate axes are axes of symmetry for E and the origin
O is the center of symmetry of the ellipsoid (6.1);
131
• The traces in the coordinates planes are ellipses of equations
y2 z2 x2 z 2 x2 y 2
2
+ − 1 = 0 ; + 2 −1=0 ; + 2 −1=0 ;
b c2 a
2 c a
2 b
x=0 y=0 z=0
The sections with planes parallel to xOz or yOz are obtained in a similar
way.
Figure 6.1:
132
Particular case: If a = b = c = R, one obtains the sphere
x2 + y 2 + z 2 − R2 = 0
x2 y 2 z 2
H1 : + − − 1 = 0, a, b, c ∈ R∗+ , (6.2)
a2 b2 c2
is called hyperboloid of one sheet.
• The coordinate planes are planes of symmetry for H1 ; hence, the co-
ordinate axes are axes of symmetry and the origin O is the center of
symmetry of H1 ;
133
Figure 6.2:
Through any point on H1 pass two lines, one line from each family.
x2 y 2 z 2
H2 : + − + 1 = 0, a, b, c ∈ R∗+ . (6.3)
a2 b2 c2
• The coordinate planes are planes of symmetry for H1 , the coordinate
axes are axes of symmetry and the origin O is the center of symmetry
of H1 ;
134
• The intersections with planes parallel to the coordinate planes are
y2 z2 λ2 x2 z 2 λ2
− = −1 −
− = −1 −
b2 c2 a2 , a2 c2 b2
x=λ
y=λ
hyperbolas hyperbolas
x2 y 2 λ2
and + = −1 +
a
2 b2 c2 .
z=λ
Figure 6.3:
x2 y 2 z 2
C: + − = 0, a, b, c ∈ R∗+ , (6.4)
a2 b2 c2
is called elliptic cone.
135
• The coordinate planes are planes of symmetry for C, the coordinate axes
are axes of symmetry and the origin O is the center of symmetry of C;
• The intersections with the coordinates planes are
y 2 z 2 x2 z 2 x2 y 2
− = 0
− − 1 = 0
+ =0
b2 c2 ; a2 c2 ; a2 b2 ;
x=0
y=0
z=0
two lines two lines the origin O(0, 0, 0)
Figure 6.4:
136
• The planes xOz and yOz are planes of symmetry;
y2 x2 x2 y 2
= 2z = 2z + =0
q ; p ; p q ;
x=0
y=0
z=0
a parabola a parabola the origin O(0, 0, 0)
• The
2intersection with the planes parallel to the coordinate planes are
x y2
+ = 2λ ,
p q
z=λ
and 2
λ2
2
y x λ2
= 2z − = 2z −
q p ; p q ;
x=λ
y=λ
parabolas parabolas
Figure 6.5:
137
6.6 Hyperbolic Paraboloids
The hyperbolic paraboloid is the surface given by the equation
x2 y 2
Ph : − + = 2z, p, q ∈ R∗+ . (6.6)
p q
• The planes xOz and yOz are planes of symmetry;
• The traces in the coordinate planes are, respectively,
y2 x2 x2 y 2
= 2z − = 2z − + =0
q ; p ; p q ;
x=0
y=0
z=0
a parabola a parabola two lines
• The intersection with the planes parallel to the coordinate planes are
2
λ2 x2 λ2 x2 y 2
y
= 2z + − = 2z − − + = 2λ
q p ; p q ; p q ;
x=λ
y=λ
z=λ
parabolas parabolas hyperbolas
Figure 6.6:
138
then the two families are, respectively, of equations
x y x y
−√ + √ = λ √ +√ =µ
p q! p q !
dλ : , λ ∈ R∗ and d0µ : , µ ∈ R∗ .
x y x y
µ − √p + √q = 2z
λ √p + √q = 2z
x2 y 2 x2 z 2 y2 z2
+ − 1 = 0, a, b > 0, (or + − 1 = 0, or + − 1 = 0). (6.7)
a2 b2 a2 c2 b2 c2
The graph of the elliptic cylinder is presented in Figure 6.7.
Figure 6.7:
x2 y 2 x2 z 2 y2 z2
− − 1 = 0, a, b > 0, (or − − 1 = 0, or − − 1 = 0). (6.8)
a2 b2 a2 c2 b2 c2
The graph of the hyperbolic cylinder is presented in Figure 6.8.
139
Figure 6.8:
Figure 6.9:
140
x y
(or an analogous form) represents the union of two planes π1 : − = 0 and
a b
x y
π2 : + = 0.
a b
(x − x0 )2 (y − y0 )2 (z − z0 )2
+ + = 0.
a2 b2 c2
x2 y 2 z 2
+ + = −1.
a2 b2 c2
g(x,y,z)=a11 x2+a22 y 2+a33 z 2+2a12 xy+2a13 xz+2a23 yz+2a10 x+2a20 y+2a30 x+a00
141
Consider the matrices
a00 a10 a20 a30
a11 a12 a13
a10 a11 a12 a13
and A0 =
A = a12 a22 a23 a20
.
a12 a22 a23
a13 a23 a33
a30 a13 a23 a33
Since A is symmetric, then P (λ) has three real roots λ1 , λ2 and λ3 . These are
the eigenvalues of A. Let i be the number of negative eigenvalues (obviously,
0 ≤ i ≤ 3).
Now, the characteristic polynomial is
P (λ) = I0 − I1 λ + I2 λ2 − λ3 ,
where
I0 = δ = λ1 λ2 λ3 ,
a11 a12 a11 a13 a22 a23
I1 =
+ + = λ 1 λ 2 + λ1 λ3 + λ2 λ3 ,
a12 a22 a13 a33 a23 a33
where
k0 = ∆,
a00 a10 a20 a00 a10 a30 a00 a20 a30
k1 = a10 a11 a12 + a10 a11 a13 + a20 a22 a23 ,
a20 a12 a22 a30 a13 a33 a30 a23 a33
a00 a30 a00 a20 a00 a10
k2 =
+ + .
a30 a33 a20 a22 a10 a11
142
Theorem 6.8.1. Let Q be the quadric surface given by g(x, y, z) = 0, where
g is a polynomial of degree 2. There exists a Cartesian system of coordinates
in which the quadric has one of the following forms:
∆
1) If δ 6= 0, then Q : λ1 x02 + λ2 y 02 + λ3 z 02 + = 0;
δ
s
∆
2) If δ = 0, ∆ 6= 0, I1 6= 0, then Q : λ1 x02 + λ2 y 02 ± − z 0 = 0;
I1
k1
3) If δ = 0, ∆ = 0, I1 6= 0, then Q : λ1 x02 + λ2 y 02 + = 0;
I1
s
k1 0
4) If δ = 0, I1 = 0, k1 6= 0, then Q : I2 x02 + 2 − y = 0;
I2
k2
5) If δ = 0, I1 = 0, k1 = 0, then Q : I2 x02 + = 0.
I2
143
Conclusions
r0 r i Quadric Canonical equation Remarks
∆>0 ∅
3
∆<0 ellipsoid
hyperboloid non-
∆>0 of one ∆ singular
λ1 x02 + λ2 y 02 + λ3 z 02 + = 0
3 sheet δ quadrics
2 hyperboloid
4 ∆<0 of two
sheets s
2 elliptic paraboloid ∆
2 λ1 x02 + λ2 y 02 ± − z 0 = 0
1 hyperbolic paraboloid I1
3 a point
3 λ1 x02 + λ2 y 02 + λ3 z 02 = 0
2 elliptic cone
elliptic
k1 I1 < 0 cylinder k1
2 2 λ1 x02 + λ2 y 02 + =0
3 I1
k1 I1 > 0 ∅
1 hyperbolic cylinder s
k1 0
1 1 parabolic cylinder I2 x02 + 2 − y =0 singular
I2
quadrics
2 a line
2 1 two planes λ1 x02 + λ2 y 02
k2 > 0 ∅ k2
2 1 1 I2 x02 + =0
two I2
k2 < 0
parallel
planes
1 1 1 a double plane x2 = 0
6.9 Exercises
x2 y 2 z 2
1) Sketch the graph of the ellipsoid + + = 1.
4 16 9
z2
2) Sketch the graph of the hyperboloid of one sheet x2 + y 2 − = 1.
4
y2
3) Sketch the graph of the hyperboloid of two sheets x2 + − z 2 = −1.
4
144
y2
4) Sketch the graph of the elliptic cone z 2 = x2 + .
4
x2 y 2
5) Sketch the graph of the elliptic paraboloid z = + .
4 9
x2 y 2
6) Sketch the graph of the hyperbolic paraboloid z = − .
4 9
7) Sketch the graph of the surface z = 1 − x2 − y 2 .
a) z = (x + 2)2 + (y − 3)2 − 9;
b) 4x2 − y 2 + 16(z − 2)2 = 10;
c) 4x2 + y 2 − z 2 + 8x − 2y + 4z = 0;
d) 9x2 + y 2 + 4z 2 − 18x + 2y + 16z − 10 = 0.
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146
Chapter 7
Generated Surfaces
147
As before, one can parameterize the curve. The set
In general, the family Cλ does not cover the entire space. By eliminating the
parameter λ between the two equations of the family, one obtains the equation
of the surface generated by the family of curves.
Suppose now that the family of curves depends on two parameters λ, µ,
F1 (x, y, z; λ, µ) = 0
Cλ,µ : ,
F2 (x, y, z; λ, µ) = 0
and that the parameters are related through ϕ(λ, µ) = 0 (one can choose
only the sub-family corresponding to such λ and µ). If it can be obtained
an equation which does not depend on the parameters (by eliminating the
parameters between the three equations), then the set of all the points which
verify it is called surface generated by the family (or the sub-family) of curves.
148
Figure 7.1:
ϕ(λ, µ) = 0.
The equation of the surface can be determined now from the system
π1 (x, y, z) = λ
π2 (x, y, z) = µ ,
ϕ(λ, µ) = 0
149
Remark : Any equation of the form (7.1), where π1 and π2 are linear func-
tion of x, y and z, represents a cylindrical surface, having the generatrices
π1 = 0
parallel to d : .
π2 = 0
Example: Let us find the equation of the cylindrical surface having the
generatrices parallel to
x+y =0
d:
z=0
and the director curve given by
2
x − 2y 2 − z = 0
C: .
x−1=0
and, replacing in the first one, one obtains the compatibility condition
2(λ − 1)2 + µ − 1 = 0.
Then,
2(x + y − 1)2 + x − 1 = 0.
150
7.2 Conical Surfaces
The surface generated by a variable line, which passes through a fixed point
V and intersects a given curve C, is called conical surface. The point V is
called the vertex of the surface and the curve C director curve.
Figure 7.2:
151
must be compatible. This happens for some values of the parameters λ and
µ, which verify a compatibility condition
ϕ(λ, µ),
It follows that !
x − x0 y − y0
ϕ , = 0..
z − z0 z − z0
Example: Let us determine the equation of the conical surface, having the
vertex V (1, 1, 1) and the director curve
2
(x + y 2 )2 − xy = 0
C: .
z=0
152
must be compatible. A solution is
x=1−λ
y =1−µ ,
z=0
and, replaced in the first equation of the system, gives the compatibility con-
dition
[(1 − λ)2 + (1 − µ)2 ]2 − (1 − λ)(1 − µ) = 0.
The equation of the conical surface is obtained by eliminating the parameters
λ and µ in
x − 1 = λ(z − 1)
y − 1 = µ(z − 1) .
((1 − λ)2 + (1 − µ)2 )2 − (1 − λ)(1 − µ) = 0
x−1 y−1
Expressing λ = and µ = and replacing in the compatibility con-
z−1 z−1
dition, one obtains
!2 !2 2 ! !
z−x z−y z−x z−y
+ − = 0,
z−1 z−1 z−1 z−1
or
[(z − x)2 + (z − y)2 ]2 − (z − x)(z − y)(z − 1)2 = 0.
Theorem 7.3.1. The conoidal surface whose generatrix intersects the line
π1 = 0
d:
π2 = 0
153
Figure 7.3:
and has the director plane π = 0, (suppose that π is not parallel to d and that
C is not contained into π), is characterized by an equation of the form
!
π1
ϕ π, = 0. (7.3)
π2
Again, the generatrix must intersect the director curve, hence the system of
equations
π=λ
π1 = µπ2
F1 (x, y, z) = 0
F2 (x, y, z) = 0
ϕ(λ, µ) = 0,
154
By expressing λ and µ, one obtains (7.3).
Example: Let us find the equation of the conoidal surface, whose genera-
trices are parallel to xOy and intersect Oz and the curve
2
y − 2z + 2 = 0
.
x2 − 2z + 1 = 0
2λ2 µ − 2λ2 − 2µ + 1 = 0,
y
and, replacing λ = and µ = z, the equation of the conoidal surface is
x
2x2 z − 2y 2 z − 2x2 + y 2 = 0.
155
Figure 7.4:
px + qy + rz = µ
ϕ(λ, µ) = 0,
which, after replacing the parameters, gives the equation of the surface (7.4).
156
Example: Let us determine the equation of the torus (the surface generated
by a circle C, which turns around an exterior line, lying in the plane of the
circle). Choose the system of coordinates such that Oz is the line d and Ox is
the orthogonal line on d, passing through the center of C. Let r be the radius
of the circle and (0, a, 0) the coordinates of its center. Since the line is exterior
to the circle, then a > r > 0.
Figure 7.5:
In this system of coordinates, the equations of the circle and of the line
are, respectively,
(y − a)2 + z 2 = r2
x=0
C: and d : .
x=0 z=0
The equations of the family of circles generating the surface are
2
x + y2 + z2 = λ
Cλ,µ : .
z=µ
The system of equations
2
x + y2 + z2 = λ
z=µ
x=0
(y − a)2 + z 2 = r2
157
Replacing in the remained equation, one obtains the compatibility condition
p
(± λ − µ2 − a)2 + µ2 = r2 .
or
(x2 + y 2 + z 2 + a2 − r2 )2 = 4a2 (x2 + y 2 ).
7.5 Exercises
1) Find the equation of the cylindrical surface, having the circle
x2 + y 2 − a2
C:
z=0
3) Find the equation of the cylindrical surface, having the director curve
x2 + y 2 − z = 0
C:
x = 2z
4) Find the equation of the conical surface, with the vertex V (0, −a, 0) and
the director curve 2
x + y2 + z2 = 4
C: .
y+z =2
158
6) Find the geometric locus of the lines passing through the origin O(0, 0, 0)
and tangent to the sphere
(x − 5)2 + (y + 1)2 + z 2 − 16 = 0.
7) Find the equation of the surface generated by a line which intersects Oz,
the line
x−z =0
d:
x + 2y − 3 = 0
and stays parallel to xOy.
9) Find the equation of the surface generated by the rotation of the line
d : x = y = z around the axis Oz.
10) Find the equation of the surface generated by the rotation of a line
around another line.
11) Find the equation of the surface generated by the rotation of the hyper-
bola
z=0
H: x2 y 2
− −1=0
a2 b2
around the axis Oy.
159