The Cuisine of Ancient Sumer

Author(s): Henri Limet

Source: The Biblical Archaeologist, Vol. 50, No. 3 (Sep., 1987), pp. 132-147
Published by: The American Schools of Oriental Research
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3210058
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 The

C U1I'SI'NE IX. AIi , k ,, It', U. ll

ofAncientSurner o

byHenriLimet

iggurat. Sumer. Akkad. often in broad terms. We can deter- I lit~l

Uruk. Gilgamesh. Gudea. mine when population groups began

Ebla. To the person inter- to settle, when they first cultivated Alt,

ested in the history of the grains and domesticated animals.

ancient Near East, these words and We can learn about the basic societal
names call up rich, often powerful, units, about pottery and architec-
images: images of human origins tural traditions, and even about
and progress, of the first great civili- some of the basic elements of their
zations and the art and literature diet. Unfortunately, however, the ~ ~A1 ...... ..

they produced; images that cause us archaeology of Mesopotamia, at

to journey back into time, to study least in its early stages, was some- Al III

and seek to understand those originstimes more interested in the spec-

and to evaluate that progress. tacular finds, with the palace and
V il o
Our attempt to understand earlytemple complexes, with archives.
human history is, of course, not new.Again, the less privileged of society A ll '

The great myths and epics first were only studied inasmuch as they
recorded by the Sumerians also give were part of the greater and more
reasons for the human condition. important institutions.
They address these human ques- In this article I will attempt to
tions, however, in the arena of the reconstruct one aspect of Mesopo-
gods or of superhuman, often semi- tamian life in one period of its his-
divine, beings. What of the lives of tory: the Sumerian diet at the end of
ordinary people? How did they live? the third millennium B.C.E. We will
What role did they play in their vil- look at the diet not only of royalty
lages or in the larger sphere of Meso-but also of the common people, of
Drawing of
potamian society. What did they eat the privileged classes and of the alabaster v
and drink? How did they survive? lower classes of the soldiers, arti- Uruk. The
And where can we turn for this type sans, and peasants. To do this, I will the goddes
of information? is being of
draw from a variety of texts dating Drawing, b
Archaeology provides abundant from the period of Sumerian history funde aus
data that help us reconstruct much known as the Third Dynasty of Ur in Uruk (B
schaft, 193
about early Mesopotamian life, but (see the accompanying sidebars for

132 Biblical Archaeologist, September 1987

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 C I j f.1. WSit 1 -- - 5 tamia during this period, and as
such was most used in the pro-
/4 Till ~ '4';h \ duction of bread. Other grains were
I, - 7k7fjlo cultivated as well but in smaller
amounts: wheat and emmer, the
Q!IfVIP / f
latter a coarser cereal. Of these
grains, wheat was better able to
withstand the high salt content of
the soil found in some areas of
Sumer.' Despite this, the proportion
Itt
of wheat to barley was low. A
milling list, for example, records the
processing of 556 kur of barley, 469
kur of flour (barley flour), 14 kur of
wheat and 6 kur of emmer (Jones
and Snyder, 1961: 135).
The barley was winnowed; then
WE:.ui Ti the kernels were ground into flour
.1114:1
hki~])' ~ It ~ ijt'4, *171,- with portable millstones. Milling
14 i 1. IIt /ij 1 q,1
produced various grades of flours.
Sometimes grain was toasted before
it was ground. It could be cracked to
rr
~c' JuI
'')II , produce a kind of groats or hulled
and crushed, much like the bour-
ghoul of present-day Syria. Emmer
Vu "' I Iry
yielded a special flour called esa.
It-" ,," ,l jL These flours were then com-
ol J .*C' \ N
bined with water (generally without
I " . . ' : ' .. . Y Pii :.. ' " '!' any leavening agent) to produce vari-
ous kinds of breads. A number of
varieties are attested: excellent, ordi-
nary, fresh, and dry. Of course barley
flour was most commonly used (in
fact, unless a different type was spec-
ified, we may assume that barley
flour was used in a given bread). This
basic bread resembled the large flat
cakes (hobes) that women knead and
bake in the Middle East today. It was
a rather coarse food, very plain and
certainly tasteless.
A better kind of bread was the
ninda.d.d.a, which was improved by
more detailed information on both Sumerian Diet "beating in" various fatty substances:
the texts consulted and the history What, then, were the items that vegetable oil (sesame oil), lard (pork
of this period). made up the Sumerian diet in thefat), Ur mutton "butter," or even fish fat.
I should mention here that, III period? The oldest lexical lists Among these breads, distinction was
while these documents do inform us begin with the terms for water, made between first-quality and ordi-
of the staples of the Sumerian diet, bread, beer, and soup. Other texts nary, between black and white.
we are at a great loss to know how include various types of oil, meat,Honey was sometimes added (MSL
the foods were prepared. Unfortu- fish and poultry, fruits, vegetables,XI, 119, 24-35).
nately, we have not yet discovered dairy products, cereal grains, and a Giig cakes were made with a
one text containing recipes or de- wide variety of herbs and spices. higher quality flour (Legrain 1937:
scriptions of the taste, texture, or Bread. Barley was the most common numbers 288 and 985)2 and a "noble"
appearance of Ur III cuisine. cereal grain cultivated in Mesopo-fat (ghee or clarified butter?). The

Biblical Archaeologist, September 1987 133

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 V

i'", Ilk

'o o

.AMR
MW
97

"IF

"Ael IV

or,

7777
'YAW,,,

Side B of the so-called Standard of Ur depicts scenes from a banquet in three panels. This mosaic, which was found in Royal Tobmb 779, is
made of shell, blue lapis lazuli, and red stone (possibly jasper). It measures 22 by 9 inches and dates to around 2600-2450 B.C.E. (See pages
98-102 of Ur'of the Chaldees') Photograph courtesy of the Trustees of the British Museum.

common folk did not eat them

Oil, Ike
(Gordon 1959: 1.52, note 6). Breads
AN&LA"

and cakes made from other kinds of

flours (regular and high-quality)
were destined for the royal table.
One text seems to provide the
proportions in which the ingredi- .77

ents are to be mixed for cakes that '19

"have gone to the palace" (Delaporte - If

1912: number 7248): 1 sila of butter;

1/3 sila of white cheese; 3 sila of first-
quality dates; 1/3 sila of Smyrna rai- qw use-
sins. We may assume that "excellent"
flour would have been added, but it
was not mentioned in this case.
We may compare this with a
recipe for a ninda.1.d6.a from Nippur, silk

a recipe that dates from the time of .J- J

Hammurapi: x sila of flour; x sila of

low

dates; 1/2 sila, 5 gin of butter; 9 gin

of white cheese; 9 gin of grape juice;
5 gin of apples; 5 gin of figs (Sigrist
1977: 169). - 0

Another type of pastry, mentioned Awl

quite frequently, was the girl.lam.

This was most often offered to the
gods, but it was sometimes received
by the king. Sweetened with honey
and bound together with small Limestone relief from Ur showing a libation offering before a seated god (upper register) and a
temple facade (lower register). In the lower scene a figure also holds a live kid, possibly for
amounts of flour, it was a prepara- sacrifice. In the center of the plaque, which dates to around 2450-2100 B.C. E., is a hole that
tion of fruit, always dates, and also was used to fasten the panel to a wall. (See pages 123-24 of Ur'of the Chaldees') Photograph
sometimes of figs. courtesy of the Tustees of the British Museum.

134 Biblical Archaeologist, September 1987

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 Mediterranean Sea

i ?mm

Vegetable oil. Vegetable oil, another

important part of the Sumerian diet,
was generally produced by an oil- Though we have not yet found a text
bearing plant, sesame. The olive tree
was not grown widely in the Near
that contains a recipe from Ur III, the
texts do tell us what items made up
East until much later. Also known
were mutton fat, lard, fish oil, and,
above all, the "noble fat." Sometimes the Sumerian diet.
the oil was seasoned or flavored and
was described in Sumerian as "made
good." This seasoning would mask
the rancid taste that the fat would of beer. Though the Sumerian word brewed. Freshly brewed beer and
have quickly acquired in the heat of ka' has been translated as "beer,"well-aged beer are mentioned. This
the Fertile Crescent. this is not strictly accurate. It is in-
latter beer must have been very
Drinks. Another essential compo- stead "barley-beer," for it was not strong. Sweet and pleasant beers, as
nent of this diet was drink. Water flavored with hops. Plain barley-beer,
opposed to beer one might call
was the natural drink, of course, one first quality as well as ordinary, is"bitter," are also attested.
that needed no other preparation listed, along with a beer that appears The Sumerians also drank milk:
and that was available to all; there- to have been weaker in alcoholic cow's milk, goat's milk, and, it
fore, it is seldom mentioned in the content (honey or grape juice was would seem, ewe's milk. A wide
lexicographic lists. sometimes added to it-Civil 1964: variety of cheeses were produced:
The lists do, however, contain 67 and following). A dark beer was a white cheese (which was on the
many terms describing various typesfavored at Ur; a clear beer was alsoroyal table), a "fresh" cheese, and

Biblical Archaeologist, September 1987 135

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 a

4i. If i

Dairy scene that makes up part of a frieze found in the temple of Ninhursag at Tell al-cUbaid. Dating to the first half of the third millennium
B.C.E., the frieze shows typical dairy activities-milking, straining, and, possibly, making butter-but the fringed garments of the workers sug-
gests that they are priests rather than ordinary laborers. (See page 108 of Ur'of the Chaldees' Photograph courtesy of the Iraq Museum, Baghdad.

a cheese that was richer than the list" has a possible mention of a "fish
others. The lexical lists also in- soup" (MSL XI, 152). These were
clude flavored, sweetened, and thick and nourishing soups that
sharp cheeses. must have really stuck to the ribs.
Although the vine was cultivated Meat. The diet we are describing is
(Legrain 1937: number 1368), it doesthat of a settled population. It was
not seem that wine was an everydayprincipally vegetarian, made up of
drink in Mesopotamia. The Sume- cereals and legumes, which provided
rian word for grape juice literally protein, some carbohydrates, and . .

means "that which comes forth from lipids from the oils and the fats.
the grape." The word we translate as Nomads ate more dairy products, as
"grape-water" does not describe wine well as moderate amounts of meat.
but vinegar. This fermented grape The Sumerians, too, certainly ate
juice was used to season certain meat. There was a "slaughterhouse"
dishes. At Mari, it should be noted, at Lagash, but this meat may have
wine was brought in from the north been reserved for the temples
and the west and was offered as a gift (Oppenheim 1948: 6, note 13).
(Finet 1974-1977: 122-31). There are, however, a number of
indications that animals were raised TWo b
Soup. Soup, food that is both liquid plaster
and solid, came at the top of the lex- "for cooking." At Puzrish-Dagan found
icographical lists but is not men- (Drehem), not far from Nippur, there to arou
tioned in any other texts of the were some very large structures that 76 of U
tesy of
period. Should we conclude from were probably used to confine nu-
this that it was the everyday food of merous animals. These flocks and
the people, too common to merit herds came from voluntary or obliga-
special note? These soups had a tory contributions and were redistrib- typic
starch or flour base: chick-peas, uted for dietary or cultic needs. period
lentils, barley flour or emmer flour. The documents often list ani- mals
They were sometimes made with mals described as "delivery for cook- ular m
hulled barley and may have ing." Sometimes the animals were steers
resembled the bourghoul dish that is delivered alive, then slaughtered by food:
still prepared in Syria or the kishk the butcher; on occasion they ar- day 11: 8 steers, 4 cows were
soup found in several parts of the rived already dead. This does not loaded on a boat when the king
Middle East today. Certain soups seem to have made them unfit for went to Uruk.
contained mutton fat or oil, honey, human consumption in the eyes of day 16: 1 living steer and 1 dead
or meat juice. They were rarely sim- the Sumerians. According to the cow for cooking were loaded on
ilar to our vegetable soups. A soup of Drehem texts, the meat was for the a boat when the king went to
turnips seems to have been rather soldiers of the guard, the couriers, Nippur.
unusual (MSL XI, 113, 4-46), though and the cult functionaries. day 19: 4 steers, 11 cows, placed
another list mentions a few soups The following document, from at the disposal of the soldiers of
with a vegetable base. A "forerunner the second year of king Shu-Sin is the guard who hauled the boat

136 Biblical Archaeologist, September 1987

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 from Ur. (Gregoire 1981: palace at Ur. A suckling pig is deliv- of summer and of winter, both sweet
number 142) ered for roasting, as well as two and bitter, are attested, as is a kind
Steers and cows were also provided for wood-pigeons, one duck, and one of rape, which most likely was the
the fourth, fifth, ninth, fourteenth, pigeon (all dead). The fowl were des- turnip.
twenty-fourth, and twenty-fifth days tined, no doubt, for the stewpot Because the cultivation of dates
of the month. We know neither the (Keiser 1971: number 366). Among was not profitable, they were scarce
number of the soldiers nor the size of the other foodstuffs mentioned, and were reserved for the temples
the royal suite for whom this meat occasionally the following were and the court. Apples, pears, grapes,
was intended. So, even if we were sent: a lamb, a pigeon, one or two figs, plums (or this may have been a
able to determine the size of each geese (once, a goose fattened with medlar fruit), pistachios, and pome-
person's serving of meat, we would barley), and a number of birds that granates were commonly grown. Of
still not know the proportion of we are unable to identify. And course, a few other fruits whose
meat in the Sumerian diet. eggs (probably from ducks, geese, identification is uncertain were
Other records list deliveries of or chickens) were certainly repre- listed in the lexical texts. The fruits
animals on the occasion of the king's sented in the Sumerian diet. were used frequently in the prepara-
trip to Ur or Nippur (Schneider Fish were also on the royal table. tion of the giri.lam cakes mentioned
1931: number 108). Elsewhere, en- Again, it is difficult for modern above.
tries are made of animals delivered historians to identify exact species,
to the palace. At Lagash, the workersalthough the documents list many Food Preparation
at the textile workshop got 194 sheepdifferent kinds of fish (Limet 1976:By gathering the elements of the
and 39 lambs. At other times, they number 93). The Sumerians enjoyedSumerian diet, we have done our
were given 100 sheep; a single steer saltwater and freshwater fish but shopping, so to speak. Now we must
with salt; and 6 sheep with bread preferred those that had been raised try to understand the finer points of
and salt (Hackman 1937: number 73; in "fish ponds." These ponds were Sumerian cuisine. How were these
Genouillac 1912: numbers 4957 and actually reservoirs that held water foods prepared or given flavor in
5417, 1911: number 4135). before it was released into the order to please the palate or, on a
The Sumerians had no prohibi-canals? more basic level, in order simply to
tion against pork. They ate (on rareFruits and vegetables. The landscape be edible?
occasion, it is true) roast suckling of southern and central Mesopo- The Sumerians were very con-
pig (Limet 1976: number 70, reverse tamia was very different from the scious of the superiority of their
1, 4, 5; Oppenheim 1948: 43, E3, one that we see today in Iraq and cuisine over that of the bedouin of
n.c.). It is clear, however, that theySyria. What are now the desolate the western desert. These people,
were repulsed by donkey meat, vistas and arid countryside with they said, did not know what civi-
much as we are repulsed by the flesh their few scattered villages were lized life was. They ate their food
of dogs. Horse meat does not enteronce far more fertile, planted with raw. If you gave them flour, eggs, and
into consideration here, since horses fruit trees and gardens. Sumerian honey for a cake, they would not
had not yet come into the area. cooking made great use of these know what to do with them (Limet
Fish and Poultry. The Sumerians ap- vegetables and fruits. Chick-peas and 1972: 130).
preciated poultry and fish, though lentils begin one list of vegetables Was this pride in Sumerian culi-
these are seldom included in the (MSL X, 245). But the base of their nary art justified, or were they simply
texts. This may be because many of diet contained members of the being pretentious? This is, of course,
the texts from this period are eco- onion family: onions, leeks, shallots,impossible for us to judge. As I
nomic tablets, records of trans- and garlic. Their use and variety arestated above, not a single text from
actions of either the temple or shown in both lexical and economic this period contains both proportions
palace. Birds and fish were beyond texts. The "Dilmun onion" of the of ingredients and instructions for
the control of both institutions; they pre-Sargonic period was called the preparation of a given dish. We know
were not, therefore, quantifiable "Maharsi onion" in the Ur III period.nothing of the texture or appearance
items for the scribe to record. The The characteristics of these onions of any Sumerian foods; however,
many canals contained masses of were also noted: sharp, sweet, or cultic recipes from the later Old
fish, while game was plentiful as those "which have a strong odor." Babylonian period do give us specific
well. And all peasants were capable To this well-established group ofdirections for food preparation (See
of raising poultry outside their vegetables we may add many vari- Bottiro: 1985). Texts have also been
homes. eties of lettuce (perhaps even esca- discovered that contain exact
Nevertheless, we see the follow- role), the hearts and the tops of measurements for pharmaceutical
ing entry made for one day at the which were eaten. Cucumbers, both preparations (Goltz 1974: 49). Is it

Biblical Archaeologist, September 1987 137

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not equally possible that such preci-
sion existed in food preparation
during the Ur III period? With this
possibility in mind, let us examine a
few facts from which we may draw
some conclusions that are not too
farfetched.
Use of herbs and spices. Sumerian
and Arabic cuisines, though they are
much separated by time, share the
tendency to use spices in large quan-
tities. They also share a taste for
garlic and other kinds of onions,
which give a very piquant flavor to
their respective foods.
Among the spices used by the
Sumerians, naga (see sidebar on
documentation) was the seasoning
of the poor. A very piquant spice
called gazi, used in meat dishes, was
reserved for the well-to-do. It gave
rise to the proverb, "The poor man is
the one who does not have gazi
when he has meat, nor does he have
meat when he has gazi" (Gordon
1959: 1.55). According to the same
proverb, one ate bread with salt.
The list of condiments is lengthy:
coriander, black and white cumin,
"the mountain plant," watercress,
and many medicinal herbs were in-
cluded. In fact, it is from the Sume-
rian word for cumin that our name
for this spice is derived (it was writ-
ten i'.TIR but was read gamun=
cumin). Many of the names for season-
ings are not translated but surely
describe very common plants such
as thyme, fenugreek, rue, and
marjoram.
Further, most spice names show
a Semitic influence. (Does this in-
dicate a foreign influence on the
dietary customs of the Sumerians?)
These "herbs" were grown in a
"kitchen garden" (see Limet 1982:
259) and were not imported to Sumer was used only by the wealthy. As
(unlike the pepper, cinnamon,
cloves, and ginger that arrived in the may have been imported. But only
Mediterranean and Near Eastern coun-
tries from the Far East in the Middle brought from afar. "Dark," "red," and
Ages; see Rodinson 1949:151).
Sweeteners. The Sumerians evi-
dently never encountered sugar. In-the dates, not an actual honey. Honey with other spices (MSL XI, 158). It
stead, they used fruit juices, espe- is classified in the lists with oil,
She archivists of the Ur III period have preserved innumerable records for
Sus. These records come from a variety of sources: Economic, literary,
and lexical texts all inform us about Sumerian life and culture.
Economic texts. Income, expenditures, amounts of harvest, salaries, ration
lists, numbers of livestock at hand, and receipts of even the smallest trans-
actions were all carefully recorded and preserved. Not a single action that had
any economic significance was overlooked by the scribes. These records may
have been kept indefinitely, or collated and revised periodically (and the ori-
ginals discarded).
Lexicons. The Sumerian language - a non-Semitic tongue - seems to have
ceased being spoken near the end of the third millennium B.C.E. It later fell into
disuse even as a written language, although it was preserved for cultic pur-
poses and studied in the scribal schools. Some ancient texts were copied even
in the last centuries B.C.E. Because Akkadian began to be more widely used
than Sumerian, lexicographical lists were drawn up in the beginning of the
Old Babylonian period (around 1900 B.C.E.) giving Akkadian equivalents for
Sumerian words.
The lexicon for foodstuffs is well furnished. The principal source is found
in the series of tablets known as HAR.RA = hubullu texts. Food is mentioned
as follows: Tablet XVII (MSL X, 82 and following) mentions vegetables and
various condiments; tablet XXIII (MSL XI, 69 and following) lists soups, beers,
and various flours and breads; tablet XXIV (MSL XI, 78 and following) has
terms for honey, oil, milk, cheese, and fruit. The "forerunner lists," especially
those from Nippur, also enhance our knowledge of Sumerian foods (MSL XI,
93 and following).
These lexical tablets give us only the elements of the cuisine of this soci-
ety. We have not yet discovered a collection of recipes from the Ur III period.
Our major obstacle is the precise identification of the products used in cook-
ing: What particular type of vegetables, cereals, fish, poultry, and game are
intended?
The messenger texts. These texts give us a reasonably correct picture of the
Sumerian diet. They come primarily from Lagash and Umma and list provi-
sions given to people such as military personnel or couriers who passed through
a particular locale on their mission (see Jones and Snyder 1961: 280-310). They
were generally given beer, bread, and oil. The bread could be replaced by flour,
while another fat such as mutton oil might be substituted for the sesame oil
(Thureau-Dangin 1903:390,392,397). The beer was sometimes'good quality."
A typical daily ration was 5 sila (4 liters) of beer and roughly the same amount
of bread. The oil was measured by the flagon, which held a bit less than
2 deciliters. The ration varied depending on the importance of the recipient.
This type of ration has been confirmed by many documents that also
specify the number of days for which a quantity of food is anticipated (see
Reisner 1901: 199, 217). At Umma a few fish were added to this frugal diet,
cially grape and date juice. Honey cheese, and the resinous perfumes.
It was, therefore, considered a na-
mentioned in merchants' records, it tural product but one that was proc-
essed before it could be used (MSL
"mountain honey" was definitely XI, 156, 268-75).
Salt. Though salt was plentiful, it is
"white" honey are also attested. seldom mentioned in the texts.
"Date-honey" was a syrup made from When it is included, it is grouped
was weighed in the form of a block

138 Biblical Archaeologist, September 1987

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 the bolting, which left more or less
bran, and upon the fineness of the
grind. Emmer and chick-peas were
roughly ground or often crushed.
(Gregoire 1970: number 135, VI, 34).
Coriander and gazi were also crushed
so that they might give off all their
flavor.
_ _.
Barley and barley-flour were of-
ten toasted in an oven. Fruits were
frequently dried in an oven or in the
The Sumerians usedopen airatosys-
insure their preservation
tem of writing known astheir transport. Grapes
and facilitate
cuneiform, where a reed
stylus was used toweremake
pressed in order to produce their
juice, just as sesamein
wedge-shaped impressions seeds were
a clay tablet. This tablet,
pressed in order to produce oil.
dating to the Third Dynasty
Cooking. 2100
of Ur (approximately While thetofruits, the
2000 B.c. E.), lists salads,
the the onions, and the cucum-
quanti-
ties of barley received
bers could by
all be the
eaten raw, the
ruler Shulgi from various
breads,
farmers. Photograph courtesy the cakes, the meats, and the
of the 71Tustees of soups
theall had to be cooked. The vo-
British Museum.
cabulary for cooking is imprecise in
both Sumerian and Akkadian. For
along with a bunch of onions and a seasoning derived from an alkaloid plant example, the Chicago Akkadian
(the naga) whose ashes, sprinkled on fish or bread, gave it some taste. Dictionary translates the Akkadian
The proportion of bread in their diet corresponded to that of the other
verb ba'alu as "to boil, to roast," pro-
Sumerians. Five sila a day would equal 6 bushels per year. This is the precise
cesses that are quite different. And
amount of barley that a slave is bound to furnish to the wife of his master in
von Soden's Akkadishes Handwdr-
order to insure her maintenance. He was also obligated to provide her with 6
sila (almost 5 liters) of oil (see Falkenstein 1956: number 7). terbuch translates baIalu simply as
"to cook."
Food for royalty. Other documents describe the table of the king as more
lavishly decked than those of his subjects. A princess on her journey to Ashnan Certainly though, precise and
in Elam takes with her butter, cheese, jugs of milk (clabbered milk?), dried different methods were used to
apricots, onions, and two spices (Lambert 1968: text 46A; Thureau-Dangin prepare the food. When meat was
1903: number 384). placed in direct contact with the
fire, the cooking was described by
Note: Sumerian IJAR.RA (Akkadian hubullu) means "debt" or "obligation (with in-
the terms meaning literally, "to
terest)."These texts (along with the "forerunner texts" are catalogued and collated in the
MSL series. Work on these collections of Sumerian-Akkadian texts was begun by Benno touch with fire" or "touched by the
Landsberger, with volume I published in 1937 and the latest volume appearing in 1985. fire" (MSL XIII, 157, 73-76, 79).
Volumes I-IX are published under the title Materielien zum Sumerische Lexicon, Meats were often cured, dried, and
Volumes X-XVII are entitled Materiels for the Sumerian Lexicon. They are based on roasted as well. Fish is described as
Landsberger's work and edited by E. Reiner and M. Civil. The entire set is published by
the Pontificum Institutum Biblicum in Rome. "touched by fire" and "placed upon
the fire," possibly placed in the glow-
ing coals. Some breads seemed to
have been cooked in the coals as
well. A grill was used for cooking
and then crushed. The weight of salt while those of inferior quality did over the flames. The stews and soups
was most commonly reckoned in not. The stones that one could turn had to be prepared in pots placed
minas. Once, three talents (90 kilo- by hand while using the grip were upon the fire. The vocabulary for
grams) of salt is noted (Genouillac more desirable (Hussey 1915: num- such vessels, whether of clay or
1910, number 892, IV; 4135; Legrain ber 5, reverse I, 12-13; reverse III, metal, is very full. We can imagine
1937: numbers 126 and 1021, reverse 17-18; Genouillac 1912: numbers the foods simmering slowly in the
6; MSL XI 161, VI). 5509, 6145; Legrain 1937: number kettles of various shapes and sizes
Grinding grains. Barley was ground 272, IV, 40-41). (see Salonen 1966).
The difference between the The Sumerians used several dif-
with millstones.4 Some had a protu-
berance that served as a handgrip, grades of flour depended both upon ferent types of ovens. The du.ru.un

Biblical Archaeologist, September 1987 139

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 tant questions remain unanswered.
For example, many varieties of plants,
fish, vegetables, and wild and domes-
110
ticated animals contained in the
lexical lists cannot be identified pre-
cisely. Our greatest difficulty, how-
ever, lies in our ignorance of the
manner in which these foods were
FIN,
prepared.
Sumerian cuisine seems to have
corresponded closely to the Mediter-
ranean diet of ancient and modern

W.. "e-W
times (see Sorre 1943-1948: I, 267).
It was essentially a vegetarian diet,
40 OF.
made up of cereals, legumes, and
garden produce supplemented by
large quantities of milk, cheese, and
fish, and smaller amounts of red
meat. For the less privileged, the
diet was quite frugal, one which just
met basic needs. But in contrast to
the nomads, the Sumerians were
A man and a privileged. They had already passed se
woman,
and left, are shown
the stage of hand-to-mouth bein
existence
this alabaster plaque da
B.C.E. found and
at were not confined
Khafajah to a few prod-
graph courtesyucts obtained
of by poorly
the managed O
Chicago. agriculture, by meager barter, or by
dangerous raids.
The upper classes enjoyed a
or di.li.na was a clay oven (see Civil other artisans included are metal- more varied and refined cuisine,
1973: 172-75). Its sides were pre- workers, basket-weavers, and jewelers). as the wide variety of spices and
heated before bread was baked in Another text lists "the great cook" seasonings indicates. Perhaps the
them, as is still done today. If the and "chief cook" (MSL XII, 36, professional cooks of ancient Sumer
opening at the top of the oven was 95-97). One of these chefs even left had the skill and imagination of the
closed off with a cover, heat high an imprint of his seal, which he great chefs of our own day.
enough for the baking of cakes and claimed was given to him by King
other dishes was produced. The ki.ne Ibbi-Sin himself.
Notes
was probably used as a modern bar- Women played virtually no role
This article, originally written
becue is. We may conclude, then, in the royal kitchens, as confirmed
in French, was translated by Jonathan
that at the beginning of the second by the many paleo-Babylonian texts, Glass.
millennium B.C.E. the culinary ter- including those from Mari. (There 'By the end of the third millennium
minology became more precise, most were female servants who molded the B.C.E., certain areas of land were covered
likely demonstrating developments barley.) This distribution of tasks with salt because of the poor drainage of
in diet. is described in official administrative the irrigation canals. Sometimes a field
It would appear that men were texts. It is probable, however, that was called ki.mun "salty place." This
salinization is reflected in the Atra-
the professional cooks during this within the households of the peas-
period. They are mentioned a num- ants it was the women who preparedHasis myth, in the plague of famine with
ber of times in the documents from the meals. which the gods afflicted humanity
(tablet II, iv: 7-8).
Ur (Legrain 1937: number 46, 1257).
2The term g"ig does not describe a
While one text from Lagash lists the Conclusion
container, as was once thought.
cooks merely as "workers" (Reisner The economic and lexical texts from 3For the distinction between "salt-
1901: number 139, IV, 23-25; Oppen- the Ur III period provide us with a water fish" and "pond fish," see Delaporte
heim 1948: 3, note 5), a list of arti- good understanding of the various (1912: numbers 7091, 8812) and Salonen
sans from the Early Dynastic period foods and components of the ancient(1970: 198).
begins with "cooks" (MSL XII, 17, 13; Sumerian diet. Yet, certain impor- 4The term na4 may describe simply

140 Biblical Archaeologist, September 1987

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 A Brief History
of the Third Dynasty of Ur

(aJ' F

A"' - -

~c

T he history of the ancient civilization of Sumer is one of remarkable A reconstruction of the great ziggurat at Ur
built by Ur-Nammu. The structure was part
achievement (see Hallo and Simpson 1971; Jacobsen 1977; Kramer 1963,
of a temple complex that included a
1981; Roux 1980). By the end of the Early Dynastic period (the twenty-fourth courtyard in front of, and connected to, the
century B.C.E.), the Sumerians had invented writing and cylinder seals, deve- ziggurat area. The excavator of Ur, Leonard
loped a ruling system that has been characterized as a primitive democracy Woolley, believed that the terraces were
(see Jacobsen 1943, 1957) or an oligarchy (Oppenheim 1977: 112), planned and planted with trees. The building on top was
completed monumental building projects, and produced sophisticated art and the god's house and would therefore be seen
from the ground outside the walls as tiers
literature. In many ways, however, the Third Dynasty of Ur, which lasted from of greenery with the god's house on top. (See
approximately 2100 to 2000 B.C.E., marks their greatest accomplishment. pages 141 and 145-49 of Ur 'of the Chaldees'
Under the Ur III kings, Sumer experienced a cultural and political renaissance [Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1982];
(Hallo and Simpson 1971: 77); the arts once again flourished, and a highly effi- this book is PR R. S. Moorey's revision and
updating of Woolley's Excavations at Ur.)
cient political bureaucracy emerged.
Drawing courtesy of the 71Trustees of the
In some respects this ruling system was the last in a series of innovations British Museum.
which began even before the Early Dynastic period (2900-2300). At that time,
rule in the early settlements was almost certainly clan- or kinship-based. As
the settlements grew in size, their affairs came to be governed by an assembly
of free adult males. In times of emergency (generally a military crisis but
occasionally economic or environmental problems-Redman 1978: 307), one

Biblical Archaeologist, September 1987 141

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 ,Oki

A detail from the Stele of Ur-Nammu, foun-

der of the Third Dynasty at Ur. Ur-Nammu
is depicted carrying tools (an ax, compasses,
and basket for mortar or bricks) for the
ceremonial founding of a temple. The hands
in the lower right of the picture belong to a
priest who accompanies the king. Photo-
graph courtesy of the 71-Tustees of the British
Museum.

member would be appointed to rule the another (Redman 1978: 305-07). Trade and tribute brought needed com-
village or city; however, the ruler was Ironically, the dynastic ideal was modities to Akkad from distant vassal
responsible to the council and was not more
to fully realized under a Semitic territories. In order to ensure loyalty and
(Akkadian) than a Sumerian ruler.
act without its sanction (Jacobsen 1943: stability, Naram-Sin appointed many of
165-67). When the crisis ended, the Sometime around 2300, Sargon, an the royal family to important positions
ruler was divested of his power and the
Akkadian usurper, wrested control of throughout the empire.
council again reigned supreme (Jacob-
the city-state of Kish from his lord, Ur- Near the end of Naram-Sin's reign,
sen 1957: 99-104). This was Jacobsen's
Zababa. After establishing a new city, signs of unrest and even weakness be-
Akkad, as his capital, he undertook
primitive democracy. It was a democ- came evident. But it was when his son
racy in the "classical rather than in its
several military expeditions to such dis- Sharkalisharri took the throne that the
modern sense" (Jacobsen 1943: 159), antant areas as southern Anatolia, Elam empire fell apart. Tradition credited a
interesting mix of kinship, shared, and
(southwestern Iran), the Zagros Moun- nomadic tribe from the Zagros Moun-
individual ("charismatic") rule. tains, and eastern Syria. During most of tains, the Gutians, with his defeat, but
As the Early Dynastic period con-his reign, the city-states of southern they were most likely only one of many
Mesopotamia remained, as before, inde-
tinued and the number and size of city- factors leading to the end of the Sargonic
states in Sumer increased, there was pendent. It happened, however, that period. The Elamites (in southwestern
evidently a shift toward centralization
his power came to be challenged by a Iran) declared their independence, and
of power (Jacobsen 1943: 160). Rulerscoalition of some fifty kings, led by additional threats to the east (the Hur-
seem to have consolidated their control Lugalgalezi of Uruk. Sargon routed the rians) and west (the Amorites) doubtless
rather than to relinquish power to the coalition, thereby gaining control of contributed to his downfall. In 2193,
assembly Although the council con- their cities. Thus emerged the world's Sharkalisharri was defeated, and this
tinued to be active even in later periods, first empire. period of Akkadian rule ended.
its powers were circumscribed and the The Akkadian empire continued The Akkadian empire was followed
king reigned supreme. Kingship came to under Sargon's two sons and reached its by a brief period of Gutian control. The
be considered as divinely bestowed upon fullest development under his grandson, Sumerian King List records the length of
a ruler and his city-state, and the first Naram-Sin, who ruled from 2254 to this interlude at 125 years, including
true dynasties emerged. Initially, city- 2198. He was the first Mesopotamian twenty-one kings. The accuracy of the
states remained semiautonomous; a king to take the title "king of the four list has been questioned, however, and
loose city-state league may even have quarters" (which was roughly equivalent William Hallo argues that their rule
been formed (Jacobsen 1957: 106; Hallo to "king of the universe") and claim cannot have lasted for more than 40 or
and Simpson 1971: 43). But the drive divine status. Military campaigns ex- 50 years. The geographical extent of
toward "concentration of power in as few Gutian hegemony is also unclear but is
panded his territory so that it stretched
hands as possible" continued (Jacobsen likewise considered to have been fairly
from Dilmun (modern Bahrain) in the
1943: 160). By the end of the Early Dy- Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean. His limited. Georges Roux has suggested
nastic period, major city-states in Sumer long reign was also marked by sound that they occupied "Nippur and a few
were competing for supremacy over one economic and administrative policies. strategic sites" (1980: 154), while Hallo

142 Biblical Archaeologist, September 1987

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 Texts from Umma, Lagash, and Ur at-
test, respectively, to a banking or redis-
tribution system, a well-developed judi-
cial system, and government-controlled
trade and industry. It is in this period
that a monied economy (based upon
silver) first developed (Hallo and Simp-
son 1971: 81; Oppenheim 1977: 87).
Also in the second portion of his
rule, he conducted a number of military
expeditions against tribal groups across
the Tigris river. These were both for
79
defensive and economic purposes: to
protect the empire and develop trade. He
sit
was succeeded by his two sons, first
Amar-Sin, then Shu-Sin.
Amar-Sin (2046-2038) spent much
A

of his comparatively short rule in build-

ing and military activities. It was in the
A detail from the Stele of Ur-Nammu showing him pouring a libation on a plant before a reigns of both Amar-Sin and his father
god. According to the inscription between the registers on the back, this action symbolizes that the Sumerian empire was most
watering the fruits of the earth. Photograph courtesy of the University Museum, University powerful and extensive and may have
of Pennsylvania.
stretched from Susa to Byblos. The con-
trol enjoyed by both kings was a conse-
has said that their control was at least
ziggurats of Ur, Uruk, Nippur, and quence of their efficient centralized
initially limited to northern Mesopo-Eridu. The base of the best preserved of government.
tamia and that it "rested lightly andthese, in Ur, measures 200 by 150 feet Like his brother, Shu-Sin (2037-
briefly on Sumer and Akkad" (1971:and probably supported a three-story 2029) embarked on regular military
710-11; 715). Certainly many Sumerian structure. It seems that one of Ur- campaigns in the northeastern sector of
city-states remained completely in-Nammu's strategies for expanding
thehis
empire. Among his many building
dependent of the Gutian rulers. influence was to build temples forand therestoration projects was a fortress-
In 2120, Utu-hegal, then ensi (gover-gods of the various city-states, wall, thusthe purpose of which was to deter
nor) of Uruk, rebelled against the Gutian ingratiating himself with their cults. the Amorites. Mention of these no-
overlords. Other city-states joined the Once he controlled (or at least signifi- madic peoples in texts of the time is
uprising, and the last Gutian king, Tiri-cantly influenced) the temple of a given the first sign of the weakening of the
gan, was overthrown. Utu-hegal reignedlocale, political control often followed dynasty.
for only 7 years, when Ur-Nammu (pos-quickly. The empire was then divided Ibbi-Sin's rule began in approxi-
sibly his son, almost certainly a memberinto a series of provinces (ultimately mately 2024, following the death of his
of his extended family) declared himself there would be as many as 40 separate father, Shu-Sin. Though he reigned for
king of Ur and founded the Third Dy- districts), each with a city-state as24its years, his rule was beset by internal
nasty of Ur. center. Provided that a provinceand re-external struggles. The economic
Under Ur-Nammu (2112-2095) Su- mained loyal to the king and supplied bureaucracy that was so efficient under
merian control was established through- the throne with the demanded tribute, his predecessors
it eventually became too
out greater Mesopotamia and Syria. enjoyed at least some measure of self- large to support itself and drained the
It was eventually expanded, during the rule (Hallo and Simpson 1971: 80). Ineconomy. A number of more dis-
royal
reigns of his descendants, to approxi- addition, Ur-Nammu began such signif- tant provinces refused to submit to taxa-
mately the same size as the Akkadian icant projects as expanding the irriga- tion, ultimately causing both famine
empire (Roux 1980: 165; for a more tion canal system and fortifying many and of
severe inflation at Ur.
conservative estimate of the geograph- the other important cities of his devel- Added to the economic disaster was
ical control exercised by the Ur III oping empire. military pressure, both from the Amo-
dynasty, see Redman 1978: 317). Ur- His son, Shulgi (2094-2047), suc- rites in the north and from city-states
Nammu's concerns were mainly domes- ceeded him and enjoyed the longest that began to assert their independence.
tic -establishing stability throughout reign of the dynasty. In his early years he Ultimately, it was the challenge of the
the empire. He is credited with promul- devoted himself to completing the build- Elamites that brought down the Third
gating one of the earliest law "codes," a ing projects begun by Ur-Nammu and to Dynasty of Ur. When they besieged and
collection of casuistic, or case, laws, one consolidating the empire further. Once destroyed Ur in 2004, Ibbi-Sin was cap-
that is marked by monetary rather than this was successfully accomplished, he tured and taken to the Elamite city of
capital penalties for crimes. He also turned to the economic and cultural Ashnan. Thus ended the last period of
carried out extensive building projects, spheres, where significant gains wereSumerian rule in Mesopotamia.
the most noteworthy of which are the realized in the second half of his reign. C. E. Carter

Biblical Archaeologist, September 1987 143

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a rock, a stone weight, or, in the proper
context, a millstone.
A Sumerian/Akkadian Glossary
Bibliography
Benito, C.
1969 "Enki and Ninmah"and "Enki The Sumerian for this glossary is taken from a variety of texts of the Ur III
and the World Order." Ann or early Old Babylonian periods. Most entries are from the HAR.RA=
Arbor, MI: University hubullu texts, which often (but not always) provide an Akkadian translation
Microfilms. of a given Sumerian term. Where the Akkadian is not listed we have furnished
Bottero, J. it based either on the Chicago Assyrian Dictionary (CAD) or von Soden's
1982 La plus vieille cuisine du Akkadisches Handwarterbuch. These restorations are marked with an
monde. L'histoire 49: 72-82. asterisk (*). There are, however, Sumerian words for which the Akkadian
1985 The Cuisine of Ancient Mesopo- unknown. All Akkadian entries are listed in their lexical form.
tamia. Biblical Archaeologist The following conventions have been used: Sumerian is transliterated
48: 36-47. in lowercase roman text; where the exact reading of a word is unknown, it
Civil, M. is transliterated in uppercase roman letters. The Akkadian words are listed
in italics.
1964 A Hymn to the Beer Goddess.
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to A. Leo Oppenheim. Chicago: Fruits and Vegetables
Oriental Institute of Chicago. apple ha1hur ha'hflru*
bitter lettuce hi.is.ges marrutu
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1912 Textes de l'6poque d'Ur. Mission fig pe tittu*
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lettes de Tello conserves au lentil gii.tur.tur kakkfi
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l'6poque d'Ur. Volume II of zi.gu asguqu
Mission Frangaise de Chaldee. zi.gu.ba.ba
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conserves au Musde Impirial flour for cake zi.1.d6.a
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III of Mission Frangaise de lentil flour zi.gu.tur.tur isquq kakki*
Chaldie. Inventaire des tab- toasted barley flour zi. se.sa tappinnu laptu*
lettes de Tello conserves au wheat gig kibtu
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E. Leroux

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 Goltz, D.
1974 Studien zur altorientalischen
Breads and Cakes und griechischen Heilkunde.
bread ninda akalu Sudhoffs Archiv, Beiheft 16.
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dry bread (ninda.)hIad akalu ablu
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grape juice getin.&.a

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t.batu sity Press.

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beer ka'.gi6 ka'.babbar
ikaru sallamu * pes.u
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freshly brewed beer ka'.gibil sik aru esu * von Soden. Berlin: Walter de
ordinary beer ka'.gin sikaru ginzl *
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a weaker beer, ka'.dida bikletu/bilat labki 1971 The Ancient Near East:
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Keiser, C.
1971 Neo-Sumerian Account Texts sweet milk ga.ku7 ,izbu matqu
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Lagash (6poque de la IIIe fish ku6 nznu
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de la Societe asiatique 19. Paris: fish-pond fish ku6 kun.zi
Centre National de la Recherche salt-water fish ku6 ab.ba
Scientifique. varieties of fish pe.gi'd.da
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1937 Business Documents of the Herbs and Seasonings
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tions. Texts III. London: British an alkali naga uhhlu/uhhulu
Museum and the University aromatic spices se.zi.bl.tum zibitum
Museum, University of Wim riqqu*
Pennsylvania. black cumin zi.zi.bl.a.num zibibanu
Limet, H. coriander e.16 kusibirru
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schaftsklassen im alten (vinegar?)
Zweistromland und in den meat juice a.uzu me ^eri*
angrenzenden Gebieten, edited a garden herb for spice or 6.hu
by D. O. Edzard. Munich: Verlag medicinal use
der Bayerischen Akademie der "mountain plant" ui.kur.ra nin^
Wissenschaften (Recontre assyri- generally used
ologique internationale, XVIII). medicinally
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foodstuffs; offering mal.da.ri.a
head (of vegetable) ugu muhhi*
heart (of vegetable) libis libbu *
kitchen e.muhaldim bit nrihatimmi
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Biblical Archaeologist, September 1987 147

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