@ Structural Search, Victim Removal, and Firefighter Survival Eys)¢-[m eel alein le Case History .....ssssssseensee 421 Firefighter Survival ee) Structural Searches .. 422 Prevention-Based Survival 443 Building Construction son 422 Preparation for Survival err) Building Floor Plan ann ADR, Recognition F sn AB Size-Up and Situational AwareM@SS.....o0.u- 425 Communication 446 Search Salely Guidelines 426 Air Management. .e-onnnnnamnin MMB Search Preparations, 428 Survival AGIONS ue 448 Search Procedur@s.o.cccncranennnnnnn M28 Rapid intervention 454 ‘Search Methods... : 431 Chapter Summary AST Marking Systems... 438 Review Questions 458 Victim Removal .. 439 Skill Sheets ..... 459 Selt-Evacuation 499 Shelter-in-Place : 440 Rescue ; one 440 418 Chapter 9+ Structural Search, Victim Removal, and Firefighter SurvivalChapter 9 Freelance ....... ccc Rokindle eu Soeenet¥4811 Low-Pressure Alarm ems 20 Secondary Search ..., 430 MaYDAY Aad Size-Up = A25 Point of No Return 448 Sounding «0 seeeeeseseesesaneee 2B; Preincident Survey 422 Target Hazard vee h23 Primary Search 430 Rapid Intervention Crew or Team (RIC/RIT)..... 447 NFPA® Job Performance Requirements This chapter provides information that addresses the following job performance requirements of NFPA® 1001, Standard for Fire Fighter Professional Qualifications (2013). Firefighter | 5.24 5.3.1 5.3.5 5.3.9 Chapter 9» Structural Search, Victim Removal. and Firetighter Survival 419eile til= | mlm ar] 8] el (Lele td 1. Summarize the impact of building construction and floor plans on structural search techniques. (5.3.9) . Explain si ‘Summarize safety guidelines for structural search and rescue. (5.3.9) -up and situational awareness considerations during structural searches. (5.3.9) |. Differentiate between primary and secondary search techniques. (6.3.9) Recognize basic search methods. (5.3.9) Describe victim removal methods. (5.3.5, 5.3.9) 7. Explain firefighter survival methods. (6.3.1) Explain what survival actions firefighters can take when needed. (6.3.9) Describe the actions of a rapid intervention crew or team (RIC/RIT) when locating a downed firefighter. (6.3.9) 10. Demonstrate the procedure for conducting a primary search. (Skill Sheet 9-1-1, 5.3.9) 11. Demonstrate the procedure for conducting a secondary search (Skill Sheet 9-1-2, 5.3.9) 12, Demonstrate the incline drag. (Skill Sheet 9-1-3, 5.3.9) 13. Demonstrate the webbing drag. (Skill Sheet 9-1-4, 5.3.9) 14, Demonstrate the cradle-in-arms liftcarry — One-rescuer method. (Skill Sheet 9-1-5, 5.3.9) 15. Demonstrate the seat lfticarry — Two-rescuer method. (Skill Sheet 9-16, 5.3.9) 16. Demonstrate the extremities lifticarry — Two-rescuer method. (Skill Sheet 9-17, 5.3.9) 17. Demonstrate the actions required for transmitting a MAYDAY report. (Skill Sheet 9-1-8, 5.2.4, 53.5, 5.39) 18. Demonstrate the proper procedures for an SCBA air emergency. (Skill Sheet 9-1-9, 5.3.1, 5.3. 53.9) 19. Demonstrate the actions required for withdrawing from a hostile environment with a hoseline. (Skill Sheet 9-1-10, 5.31, 5.3.5, 5.3.9) 20. Demonstrate low profile maneuvers without removing SCBA - Side first technique. (Skill Sheet 9-1-11, 5.3.1, 5.3.5, 5.3.9) 21. Demonstrate low profile maneuvers without removing SCBA - SCBA first technique. (Skill Sheet 9-1-12, 5.3.1, 5.3.5, 5.3.9) 22. Demonstrate the method for breaching an interlor wall. (Skill Sheet 9-I-13, 5.3.5, 5.3.9) 23, Demonstrate the steps for disentangling from debris or wires. (Skill Sheet 9-I-14, 5.3.5, 5.3.9) © PNOHRABN 420 chapter 9+ Structural Search, Vietim Removal, and Firefighter SurvivalChapter 9 Structural Search, Victim Removal, and Firefighter Survival During firefighting operations, a 42-year-old firefighter was killed and another was injured in 4 partial structural collapse at an apartment complex under renovation. The victim and three ‘crew members were exiting the complex through a breezeway that connected the fre structure to an uninvolved structure when a section of brick veneer from the uninvolved structure col- lapsed onto the victim and the injured firefighter. The injured firefighter called for help and was fread by other firefighters. Rescue crews did not immediately realize there was another trapped firefighter. A personal accountability report (PAR) was ordered by the Incident Commander (IC) which determined thatthe victim was missing. A second search located the victim unresponsive and without a pulse beneath a pile of bricks, The victim was extricated, given emergency medical treatment, and transported to a hospital where he was pronounced dead. The subsequent National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) investigation determined that the victim was wearing an SCBA with integrated Personal Alert Safety System (PASS) device and a secondary manual PASS device. The integrated PASS was not activated because the SCBA was not in use at the time. The secondary unit had ‘not been manually activated when the wall collapsed. One of the NIOSH recommendations was that personnel be instructed to activate PASS devices prior to entering the hot zone. This incident illustrates the importance of always activating the PASS device when working in a hazardous area. The device Is designed to operate when the wearer is motionless for 30 seconds or longer. Besides smoke inhalation a firefighter can become incapacitated from blunt trauma, asin this case, cardiac arrest, stroke, o fatigue, among other causes. The PASS will not summon assistance i it has not been activated. Only training and practice will ensure that firefighters consciously turn on the device when they enter the hazard area, Chapter 9 + Structural Search, Victim Removal, and Firefighter Survival 421Locating and removing victims, generally known as search and rescue, requires firefighters to take calculated risks in hazardous situations. Before you are able to participate in this critical aspect ofa firefighter’s mission, you must know: © How to perform a primary and secondary search How to use standardized markings to indicate the areas you have searched How to work as part ofa team How to determine the best method for removing victims Emergency survival techniques General MAYDAY protocol © How to remove incapacitated firefighters B structural Searches ‘The NFPA® reports that in 2009, structural fires killed almost 2,700 civilians and injured 14,800 more. “These figures would be far worse if not for the thousands of potential vi firefighters located and removed from burning structures (Figure 9.1). To rescue victims, firefighters must be able to conduct an effective structural search. This requires extensive train- ing and a knowledge of: © Building construction © Floor plans and layouts ‘Size-up and situational awareness © Search safety guidelines # Search procedures © Thermal imagers © Search marking systems © Fire behavior © Other operations that may influ- ence searches, such as fire control Figure 9.1 Search and rescue activities and tactical ventilation ‘account for thousands of saved lives and mitigated injurios, Butlding Construction All firefighters must be aware of how building construction affects fire development. ‘This knowledge will help you to predict where fire will spread, how quickly it witl develop, and the potential for structural collapse. It will also alert you to safe areas within a structure, design aspects that may prevent you from exiting, and walls or Preincident Survey — partitions through which you can escape. ‘Assessment of a facility or location made before an ‘ld pe Building Floor Plan to prepare for an appropriate ‘To conduct an effective structural search, firefighters must know the layout or floor emergency response, plan. ‘This knowledge may come from inspections, preincident surveys, architectural plans, or personal observation, 422 Chapter 9 Structural Search, Victim Removal, and Firefighter SurvivalMany fire departments perform periodic preincident surveys of target hazards in aT their response areas (Figures 9.2a-d), Preincident surveysallow departments to meet a1gel Hazara Ay fal the facility's owner/occupants and become familiar with the contents, floor plans, disaster could cause substantial building construction, and manufacturing processes. ‘casualties or significant economic harm, through ether property or infrastructure damage. Figure 9.2a Hospitals shelter a high population of individuals who are unable to care for themselves. Figure 9.2b Public schools have a high population of people who are dependent on others for resourees. Figure 8.2d High rise buildings may cause ‘major urban damage if compromised. Figure 9.2c Refineries house highly dangerous chemicals and machinery. Chapter 9» Structural Search, Victim Removal, and 423Figure 9.3 A partial floorplan drawing may show locations offre extinguisher cabinets, labeled inthis diagram as FECs. 424 Chapter 9 Structural Search, Vi When new buildings are built or existing structures are modified, architectural building plans are submitted to the local authority having jurisdiction (AH) for ap- pfoval. In some jurisdictions, the fire department receives a copy of the plans and is involved in the review and approval process. The floor plan may also be made avail- able (Figure 9.3). In addition, fire companies should tour buildings under construction or reno- vation to learn about construction materials and floor plan arrangements. New construction surveys are especially important for residential construction, where the department will not have access for inspections or preincident planning once con- struction is complete. Another opportunity to observe residential dwellings occurs when the department installs smoke detectors as part of its fire prevention activities. ‘and Firefighter SurvivalFinally, your personal experience can help you determine the possible floor plan ofa structure. Observe the layout of all structures in your response area, including commercial buildings that you visit on a regular basis, Note the similarities between residential structures such as hotels, motels, apartment buildings, and single-family ivellings. After any emergency incident, observe the floor plan and the location of doors, windows, vent pipes, and chimneys (Figure 9.4). These items, visible from the outside, can give you a general idea of the interior floor plan. Remember, though, that interior alterations can drastically change the layout, so be prepared for the unexpected, You canalso gain knowledge by attending local zoning meetings, going to realtors’ ‘open houses, and getting to know local building offcials. The more you learn, the better prepared you will be when an emergency occurs. Size-Up and Situational Awareness ‘Your safety and the safety of your team members depends on your application of size- upand situational awareness. Both of these activities are essential skills that you must learn and practice at every opportunity. Size-Up Size-up involves observing the scene of an incident in order to answer the following questions: © What has happened? © What is happening? ‘® What is going to happen? The frst firefighter at the scene must perform the initial size-up and report exist- ing conditions. Throughout the incident, all personnel should also actively monitor ions so that everyone can stay informed. However, the ultimate responsibility for incident size-up rests with the officer in charge. ‘Sitvational Awareness Begin exercising your situational awareness when you first arrive at the scene. Carefully observe the exterior of the structure for indications of the size and location of the fire, and try to determine whether the building is occupied, based on clues such as vehicles in the driveway or lights visible in windows. Assess the probable struc- Figure 9.4 Extemal features of a building give some indication of the use of the spaces inside. ‘Size-Up — Ongoing evaluation of influential factors at the scene of an incident. Chapter 9 Structural Search, Victim Removal, and Firetighter Survival 425Sounding —Strikng the surface cof a roof or floor to determine its structural integrity or locate underlying support members; the blunt end of a hand tool is used for this purpose. Freelance — To operate independently ofthe Incident Commander's command and control, tural integrity of the building, and how long it will take to ef fectively search the structure, ‘Always identify possible escape routes, such as doors, windows and fireescapes, beforeentering. Communication is an im- portant aspect of situational awareness. ‘The fireground is a dynamic environment in which conditions can change rapidly, so tell other members of your company what you observe and pay attention to what they ob- serve. Listen to radio reports from the communication cen- ter and other units who may be observing sides of the structure you cannot see, Throughout the incident, keep your team mem- bers and supervisors informed of any changes you observe. After you enter the structure, use your senses to increase your awareness, Listen for sounds that indicate the fire is becom- Figure 9.5 The handle of a tool may be used to sound ing more intense. Watch for the the floor to determine its condition. color of smoke, which indicates the type of fuel and the phase of the fie. Feel walls and doors with the back of your hand to determine whether there is fire on the other side. Sounding the floor before you advance will help you deter- mine if it will support your weight (Figure 9.5). Listen for the sounds of structural ‘movement, sagging support members, or obvious structural displacement; these key indicators of structural instability can alert you to impending danger. Search Safety Guidelines Search safety guidelines in a structural fire include the following: © Do not enter a structure in which survivors are not likely to be found (Figure 9.6). If you observe conditions that indicate a lack of survivors, report this to your supervisor. © [Fthere is a possibility of extreme fire behavior, do not attempt entry until coordi- nated fire control and ventilation have been implemented. © Do not freelance. Work according to the incident action plan (AP). © Maintain radio contact with the Incident Commander (IC). © Monitor radio traffic for important information or changes in orders. © Continuously monitor fire conditions that might affect your safety and that of other firefighters. © Use your department's personnel accountability system, ‘© Beaware of your entry point and the secondary means of egress from the structure. 426 Chapter 9 Structural Search, Victim Removal, and Firefighter Survival© Wear full personal protective equipment, including SCBA and personal alert safety system (PASS) device. ‘© Work in teams of two or more and always remain in physical, visual, or vocal contact. © When opening or forcing doors, maintain control by placing a strap around the doorknob; this allows you to shut the door quickly if conditions on the other side make it necessary (Figure 9.7). © Ifyou encounter fire in a room, close the door and report the condition, © Search systematically to increase efficiency and reduce the possibility of becoming disoriented. Figure 9.6 A fully involved structure does not shelter survivors. Figure 9.7 A strap around the doorknob allows firefighters to maintain control ofa door during searches, Chapter 9+ Steuctural Search. Victim Removal, and Firefighter Survival 427© Where visibility is limited, stay low and move cautiously © Continuously monitor the structure's integrity and communicate any changes, © Mark entry doors into rooms and remember the direction you turned when enter- ing, To exit the building, turn in the opposite direction when leaving the room. © When visibility is obscured, maintain contact with a wall, hoseline, or search line. © Ifpossible, havea staffed charged hoseline available when working on the fire loor or the floors immediately above or below. The hoseline can be used for fire sup- pression, crew protection, and indicating the path out of the structure. © Coordinate with the IC and ventilation teams before opening windows to relieve heat and smoke. © Inform your supervisor immediately of any room or rooms that could not be searched. © Report promptly to your supervisor once the search is complete. © Keep your supervisor informed of the progress ofthe fire and the physical condi- tion of the building. Search Preparations Before entering any area that is immediately dangerous to life and health (IDLH), prepare yourself and other members of your crew or team (Figure 9.8). You must ensure that: © You know who you report to. # You have all the necessary tools and equipment, including forcible entry tools, hand light, thermal imagers, and search line. © Your portable radio is turned on, working properly, and set to the correct fire- ground channel. © Your SCB) turned on, working properly, and contains a full cylinder of air: © Your PASS device is turned on and working properly. © You have signed in with the Accountability Officer or Incident Safety Officer. ‘© You know your assigned duties and the tactical objectives of your crew or team. # You are aware of the alternate means of egress from the structure. Search Procedures Witnesses can be a source of information about occupants who have not been ac- counted for. Question escaped occupants to obtain information about who might still be inside and their possible location, and the location and extent of the fire. If neighbors are familiar with the occupants’ habits and room locations, they can sug- gest where the occupants are likely to be found. They may also have seen someone near a window before you arrived. Any relevant information from a witness should be relayed to the IC andall incoming units. If possible, all information should also be verified. Never assume that all occupants are out until the building has been searched. If there are no witnesses, assume that the structure is occupied. Even vacant, boarded-up structures can contain homeless or indigent people (Figure 9.9). Many commercial, educational, institutional, and industrial occupancies are occu hours a day by shift-workers, janitorial staff, or security personnel. 428 Chapter 9+ Structural Search, Vietim Removal, and Firefighter SurvivalA Prepared Firefighter iow Assignment and Tactical Objectives — Fully Functional Know Alternate PASS Device Means of Egress Fully Functional ae — Fado Figure 9.8 A prepared firefighter must have the correct gear and knowledge prepared before entering an environment that is ‘Accountability immediately dangerous to lite Tag and health Correct Tools Figure 9.9 A seemingly vacant ‘commercial structure may shelter occupants, Chapter 9 + Structural Search, Victim Removal, and Firefighter Survival 429If possible, fire attack and ventilation should be started simultaneously with any interior search. Effective fire control and ventilation create more survivable conditions for firefighters and trapped occupants. They also improve visibility, en- abling search crews to quickly find and remove victims. In some cases, fire control Primary Search — Rapid but may even have to take place before search activities. However, if resources are limited or if local policy requires, search teams performed elther before may have to perform the search while advancing a hoseline into the structure. ‘or during fire suppression If extinguishment is necessary during search operations, use extreme caution. ‘operations. May be conducted “Firefighters are protected by PPE, but excess steam production can severely burn with or without a charged victims. ‘hoseline, depending on local pale, ‘There are two objectives of a structural search: searching for life by locating and removing victims, and assessing fire conditions by obtaining information CLIT SS about the location and extent of the fire. In most structure fires, the search for life thorough search toensure that requires two types of searches: primary and secondary. aia er vend 1uring the primary search; Primary Conducted after the fire is under Search control by personnel who did During the primary search, quickly check the known or likely locations of victims ‘ot conduct the primary search. and all affected areas of the structure. While doing so, check that fire conditions are as they appeared from outside, and report any changes you encounter. Search the ‘most critical areas first (Figure 9.10), in this order of priority: Four Search Priorities @ Most Severely Threatened @ Largest Number of Victims © Remainder of Hazard Zone @ Exposures Figure 9.10 The four search area priorities are ranked in order of urgency. 430 Chapter 9 « Structural Search, Victim Removal. and Firefighter Survival1. Most severely threatened — The area closest to the fire on the fire floor and the floor directly above. In multistory structures, the top floor is also considered a severely threatened area due to the accumulation of smoke. 2. Largest numbers — Areas that contain the largest possible number of victims. 3, Remainder of hazard zone — Areas farthest from the fire on the same level, upper floors, and floors below the fire floor. 4, Exposures — Interior and exterior. During the primary search, always use the buddy system and work in teams of two or more. Rescuers working together can conduct a safer, faster search. When searching in an IDLH atmosphere, maintain physical, visual, or voice contact with ‘ther team members. The procedures for conducting a primary search are described in Skill Sheet 9-I-1, Secondary Search Affer initial fire suppression and ventilation have been completed, a secondary search is conducted by personnel who did not participate in the primary search (Figure 9.11), Using different personnel to conduct the secondary search has the advantage of allowing the search team to use “fresh eyes” and get an unbiased view of the scene. _Rekindle — To reignite Secondary searches are slower and more thorough than primary searches. However, re es Sparks, they must be just as systematic as the primary search to ensure that no rooms or Yanna a4 oy pened by spaces are missed. Structural instability and areas in which the fire is starting to proper overhaul rekindle must be reported immediately. The procedures for conducting a secondary search are listed in Skill Sheet 9-I- Even though the interior of the building may appear to be free of smoke, do not remove your SCBA while conducting the secondary search. Fire gases such as carbon monoxide and hy- drogen cyanide may still be present after the fire is extinguished, Air monitoring is the only effective way to determine the pres- ence of toxic gases. Once air monitoring has determined that the atmosphere is safe, your supervisor or safety officer will tll you that you can remove your SCBA. Search Methods Each department has its own search procedures, and you will be trained to apply these in a variety of situations. However, most procedures draw on the same general search methods, which can be applied to almost any type of search. Specialized search methods include oriented search, wide area search, and search using thermal imagers. General Methods General methods for primary and secondary searches follow a systematic pattern. When you enter a room, turn right or left and follow the walls around until you return to your starting point. As you leave the room, turn in the same direction you did to enter and continue to the next room to be searched (Figure 9.12, p. 432). For example, if you turned left when you entered the room, turn left when you leave the room. To remove a vic- tim to safety or to exit the building, turn opposite the direction you turned to enter. Always exit through the same doorway you entered to ensure a complete search. Figure 9.11 A secondary search is conducted by team ‘members who did not participate in the primary search. Chapter 9 Structural Search. Vietim Removal, and Firefighter Survival 431On the fire loos, start your search as close to the fire as pos- sible and then work back toward the entrance door. This allows your team to reach those in the greatest danger first. People farther from the fire are in less immediate danger, so they can safely wait as your team moves back toward safety. To reach a point nearest the fire, proceed as directly as possible from the entry point. Advancing a hoseline or deploying a search line will provide a way for you to remain oriented so that you can find your way out quickly iffire conditions change. When rooms extend from a center hallway, both sides should be searched using the oriented-search method dis- cussed. If two teams are available, each one can search opposite sides ofthe hallway. I there is only one search team, it must search down one side of the hallway and back up the other side (Figures 9.13 a and b). Always control the egress Figure 9.12 By picking a passageways so that search teams can escape if conditions standard direction to search, a ‘change rapidly. This can be accomplished by: HescreeSongeolelydewentea ® Wedge doors open to prevent them from shutting behind you or closing on a in a low-visibility environment. hoseline. © Close doors to rooms adjacent to the passageway after they are searched, ¢ Position hose teams at intervals along the path to cool accumulated gases. ‘One good search practice is to get low to the floor to perform a quick survey. ‘Thermal layering of heat and the buoyancy of smoke will produce a clear area of vi- sion just above the floor level. Victims, obstacles, or the general layout of a room may be identified more quickly from this perspective. Pees cur nS coy Depending on conditions, you may be able to walk upright or you may have to crawl on your hands and knees. Walking is preferable if there is minimal smoke and heat. But in heavy smoke or extreme heat, crawling on your hands and knees be- low the smoke level can increase visibility and reduce the risk of tripping or falling, Although crawling is much slower, an advantage is that it is much cooler near the floor. Ifyou have to use stairs while crawling, proceed head first while ascending and feet first while descending (Figure 9.14). Keep your feet and hands as far apart as pos- sible to distribute your weight close to the side of the stairs, That way you can brace yourselfif the stairs collapse. © When to Crawl During a Search It you encounter extreme heat or cannot see your feet through the smoke, you should not be walking upright. Victims may be found in paths of egress and any areas where they seek shelter from the fire, such as: © Bathrooms © Bathtubs © Shower stalls, 432 Chapter 9« Structural Search, Victim Removal, and Firelighter SurvivalTwo Search Teams to fy heal ANS) So Figure 9.13a When two search teams are avaliable, each team takes one side of a hallway to search. =, .— 5 Searched Searched VW One Search Team & Searched [f||® Searched | ron dit iW x = Figure 9.13b When only one search —. Pe team is available, the team begins on one side of the hallway and works ‘around in a loop. Figure 9.14 Firefighters, descending a staircase during ‘extreme fire conditions should keep their hands and feet close tothe edge of the stairs, Chapler 9 Structural Search, Victim Removal, and Firefighter Survival 433Figure 9.15 A tool handle extends a searcher’s reach under low clearance spaces. © Closets © Under beds © Behind furniture © Under stairs © Basements © Attic rooms © Cabinets Search the perimeter of each room. Because occupants may be overcome by smoke while trying to escape, always check behind doors and on the floor below the win- dows. As you move around the perimeter, extend your arms or legs or use the handle ‘of a tool to reach completely under beds and other furniture (Figure 9.15). After searching the perimeter, search the middle of the room by placing the tool against the wall and extending your arm or leg toward the center of the room. During the primary search, visibility may be extremely limited. You may have to identify objects by touch, and this may be your only clue as to the type of room you are in, Make sure to search all sides of any object. Never move an object, however, as this may disorient you. If smoke obscures your vision, report this to the IC, The smoke may indicate that additional ventilation is needed Search teams should maintain radio contact with their supervisor ot IC and report their progress in accordance with departmental SOPs. Progress reports and new in- formation are especially important during the primary search. For example, the IC should be notified immediately if the fire has spread farther than it appeared from the outside, if trapped victims are found, or if the search has to be terminated. Reporting on areas that have not been completely searched enables additional search teams to be assigned to these areas. Close the doors to any rooms that are not involved in fire unless the doors are be- ing used for ventilation. This prevents fire from spreading into these rooms. Opening doors and windows can disrupt ventilation efforts and can even spread the fire by drawing it toward the opening. 434° Chapter 9 Structural Search, Victim Removal. and Firefighter SurvivalClear unused hoselines and other equipment from exit pathways. This reduces tripping hazards and generally makes egress less difficult. Be aware of the location of exit pathways in case you have to remove a victim quickly. Oriented-Search Method ‘The oriented-search method is an efficient way for a team to search a room. ‘The team leader remains anchored at the door, wall, orhoseline, while other team members spread out through the room to complete the search (Figure 9.16). All members stay in constant communication with the leader and each other, and update the leader on their progress. They must coordinate their efforts in order to prevent confusion =—=—- * and avoid clustering in one section of the room. After the search is complete, the searchers return to the anchored team leader and proceed to the next room. Wide-Area-Search Method A wide-area-search system is sometimes used to conduct a primary search of a large cor complex area that is filled with smoke. This system employs a dedicated search line, typically 200 feet (60 m) of %-inch (10 mm) rope with a Kevlar™ sheath to resist heat and abrasion. A minimum of three team members are required, although larger teams can be more effective, ‘About 10 feet (3 m) outside the entry point to the search area, the end of the search line is tied to a fixed object about 3 feet (1 m) above the floor. A tag indicating the unit or company designation is left at that point (Figure 9.17). An attendant is some- times stationed at the entry point to maintain communication with the team and ‘monitor their air management. One team member, usually called the lead, picks up the rope bag containing the search line and enters the search area. ‘The lead is accompanied closely (shoulder to shoulder) by another member called the navigator. The navigator directs the lead using a hand light and, ifavailable, a thermal imager (1) (Figure 9.18). They Oriented Search Method Figure 9.16 Oriented search involves one team member maintaining contact witha fixed point and other team members, Spreading out in the open area, while all team members remain in constant communication contact, Figure 9.17 Tags on a search line ‘outside the search area should indicate the unit or company using area, Courtesy of Jim Sobota. the line. Chapter 9 + Structural Search, Victim Removal. and Firefighter Survival 435Figure 9.20 When using a ‘search line to find the ext, the ‘ing will point toward the exit and the knots next to the ring will point toward the fire. Figure 9.19 A steel ring is tied into search line to provide tether points for searchers. Wide-Area-Search Method — Ropes, Rings, and Knots o 20 tt(6 m) 1 60.1 (18 m) 80 11 (24 m) 1 100 ft (30 m) I are followed by one or more radio-equipped searchers. Each searcher carries a tether wrapped around one wrist and a forcible entry tool in the other hand. As the team progresses into the building, the search line pays out behind them and all members maintain contact with the search line. Every 20 feet (6 m) along its length, a 2-inch (50 mm) steel ring is tied into the search line (Figure 9.19), Immediately behind cach ring, one or more knots are tied n the search line to indicate distance. After the first ring, one knot indicates 20 feet (6 m) from the beginning of the line, After the second ring, there are two knots in- dicating 40 feet (12 m) from the beginning of the search line. After the third ring, three knots are tied, and so on (Figure 9.20). ‘The knots indicate the distance from the beginning of the search line and they are always behind the ring, so they provide a directional indication — knots toward the fire; rings toward the exit. “The rings also provide an anchor point for lateral tethers. The tethers are 20- foot (6 m) lengths of ¥-inch (6 mm) rope with a Kevlar™ sheath. Each tether has a %-inch (19 mm) steel ring tied to one end, a knot at the mid-point, and either a nonlocking carabiner or a snap hook on the other end. Each member of the search team carries one tether. 436. chapler9 Structural Search, Victim Removal, and Firetighter ServivalWide Area Search Method — Off Ring Figure 9.21 Searching off-ring allows the team member on the search line to move the entire length between the rings while searching, ‘The tethers enable team members to search areas perpen- dicular to the search line. They snap their tether onto one of the search line's steel rings, or at any point between the rings, then pay out the tether while moving away from the search line. Reaching the tether’s mid-point knot allows the searcher to make a 10-foot (3 m) arc from the attachment point. If nothing is found, the searcher can progress an additional 10 feet (3 m) to the end of the tether (Figure 9.21). There, the searcher can sweep 4 20-foot (6 m) arc.If there is still more area to be searched, a sec- ond searcher attaches a tether to the ring on the end of the first tether. This enables the second searcher to sweep in a 40-foot (12 m) arc away from the search line. When the searchers return to the search line, they disconnect from the ring and rewind their tethers around their wrists. ‘Any time team members move off from the search line, they must stay in voice contact with the navigator. The navigator also. constantly updates the IC, reporting on fire conditions, what the team has found, and how many knots into the building they have progressed. Thermal-Imager-Search Method “Thermal imagers (Tls) allow firefighters to see sources of heat through darkness and thick smoke. ‘They are used to locate vic~ tims and hidden fires (Figure 9.22). Tis are typically assigned to a chief officer orto specialized units such as heavy rescue compa- nies or rapid intervention teams. In some cases they are assigned to all companies for use in search and overhaul operations. Tis can also detect heat through barriers, but with impor- tant limitations. They cannot detect a person under or behind Figure 9.22 & thermal imager shows pattems of furniture or on the opposite side of a wall. They also cannot see temperature n @ room where vicims may be hidden by through water or glass, Ifa structure is carpeted, Tls may not be debris or dust Chapter 9 Structural Search, Victim Removal, and Firetighter Survival 437Figure 9.23 A search mark should be placed in a way that will make I visble to subsequent teams, as per local protocols. able to detect fire on the floors below. This can create a safety hazard because fire- fighters may think a room is safe to enter when the floor has actually been weakened by the fire below. Another disadvantage is that Tls are very fragile and prone to me- chanical failure, Thermal Imagers Aid Search Techniques Practice using your department's TI to become familiar with the equipments ‘capabilities and limitations. Remember that Tls are an effective search aid, but not a substitute for proper search techniques. Operate the TI according to manufacturer's instructions and your department's SOPs. Siowly scan the TI around the room close to floor level, then rise to scan at a higher level. you encounter furniture, usea manual search method to check beneath and behind it. Open closet and cabinet doors and scan inside with the TI. Remember that the camera screen may “white out” when it detects high levels of heat. Allow it time to readjust before proceeding into a room that has shown a high heat level. Inspect Tis afier every use, while following the manufacturer's instructions. Replace batteries as needed, clean them regularly, and make sure they are properly stored. Tls are sensitive electronic tools and must be treated with care. Report any damage or malfunction immediately. Marking Systems A consistent room marking system is necessary to ensure a thorough, effective search. Searched rooms can be marked using any of the following: © Chalk or crayon markers © Specially designed door markers © Latch straps over doorknobs Marks should be placed low so that they can be seen under the smoke. They can be placed on the lower third of the door, the lower third of the adjacent wall, or in the landing of adjacent stairs. Marking with latch straps has the added advantage of preventing the door from closing, which might trap the search team. Never mark a room by blocking the door open with furniture, as this can contribute to fire spread. Allso, never place the mark inside the room. Subsequent searchers would then have to enter the room to find your marker (Figure 9.23). Some departments have marking systems based on the Federal Emergency ‘Management Agency's Urban Search and Rescue System (FEMA US&R). This sys- tem consists of diagonal marks that would fit into a2 foot by 2 foot (0.61 m by 0.61 m) square (Figure 9.24). A diagonal mark from upper right to lower left indicates that a search is underway. When the search is complete, a second mark is made from upper left to lower right, forming an “X.” These marks alert other search teams that they do not have to search that particular room or floor. Ifa search team fails to report and does not respond to calls for a personnel accountability report (PAR), rescuers can use these marks asa starting point for their search, Adjacent marks can be used to convey additional information. The search unit is noted to the left of the “X” (for example, Eng. 2). Time of completion is noted above the “X” (for example, 09-21-13, 0230 hours). Hazards are noted to right of the “X” (for example, weak floor or broken glass). Victims and their condition are noted below the 438 Chapter 9+ Structural Search, Victim Removal, and Firefighter SurvivalSearch Markings When You Enter When You Exit Single Slash Second Slash Structure or Room Structure or Room (Idontify Victims & Hazards) Main Entrance Search Markings Date and Time Search Team Left the Structure 1-23-03 Search Tom 1420 hrs. ae ‘ sma RATS TA Figure 9.25 Search eame shoul se the best 2-LIVE available space to mark the findings from their search. qotaVicime - 3-DEAD Hazards Courtesy of Andrea Booher!FEMA. Sul ince the svcture X =No Victims Figure 9.24 The spaces formed by the large “X" are used {o denote (counterclockwise from top) time of search, name of search team, number of vietims, and hazards. “X° (Figure 9.25). This can include fatalities still in the room, live victims sheltered in place, or the fact that no victims were located during the pri- mary search. Victim Removal Victims located during the search must be separated from the hazard. Depending on conditions, this can be done through self-evacuation, shelter-in-place, or rescue. Self-Evacuation Most occupants can evacuate a structure on their own or with minimal assistance. For example, you may have to direct them to an alternate jaa k Figure 9.26 Some assistance may be exit or close stairwell doors to maintain the integrity of their exit path helpful for vielims who are otherwise able (Figure 9.26). You may also have to establish a safe haven away fromthe to selt-evacuate. Chapter 9 © Structural Search. Victim Removal, and Firefighter Survival 439Figure 9.27 Shelter-in- place exists as an option In structures where the inhabitants are not able to leave the confines of the structure and a safe place is structure where occupants can be accounted for, treated, and interviewed. Your actual duties in any self-evacuation setting will depend on staffing levels and local SOPs, Shelter-in-Place Sheltering-in-place involves moving victims to a protected location wit ture (Figure 9,27). It is used when: © The hazard is minor. «It is safer to keep victims inside the structure. © Victims are incapacitated and cannot be moved. © ‘There is limited staffing to assist with evacuation. in the struc- ‘© ‘The structure can provide a protective barrier between the victim and the hazard. Sheltering-in-place is common in hospitals, nursing homes, correctional facilities, high-rises, and high-hazard industrial sites. The protected location may be predeter- mined during a preincident survey or chosen based on the size-up of the incident. Only your supervisor or the IC can make the decision to shelter-in-place. If you observe any condition within the structure that might influence the safety of this ‘method, report it immediately. Rescue Rescue is required when conditions prevent self-evacuation and sheltering-in-place, or when victims are directly threatened. You may have to extinguish a fire that has cut them off from an exit, provide them with an alternate exit pathway, or remove debris from a victim who has been pinned. You may also have to carry injured or unconscious victims to safety. Injured victims should not be moved until they have been assessed and treated, unless they (or you) are in immediate danger. The primary danger in moving Victims uickly isthe possibility of aggravating a spinal injury. But in an extreme emergency, preserving the victim's life becomes the first priority. Even in an emergency, however, never pull a victim sideways — instead, pull along the long axis of the victim’s body (Figure 9.28). If the victim is on the floor, pull on the vietim’s clothing in the neck or shoulder area. Shelter-in-Place 440 Chapter 9+ Structural Seareh, Victim Removal, and Firefighter SurvivalImproper lifting technique is a common cause of injury (Figure 9.29). Keep your back straight and lift with your legs, not your back. One rescuer can safely carry a small child, but two to four may be needed to safely carry an adult. Follow these safety guidelines: Liftas a team. ‘© Focus on keeping your balance, ‘¢ Support the head and neck. © Avoid unnecessary jostling. Never drag or carry a victim through the hazard zone unless there is no other choice. The various types of carries and drags are described in the following sections. Incline Drag ‘The incline drag enables a rescuer to move the victim up or down a stairway or incline. It is especially useful for moving unconscious victims (Figure 9.30). ‘This method is described in Skill Sheet 9-1-3. Webbing Drag In this drag, a rescuer pulls on a section of webbing that has been ‘wrapped around the victim's body. The webbing drag is useful when heat and smoke force you to stay low, or the victim is a downed firefighter wearing an SCBA (Figure 9.31, p. 442). This method is described in Skill Sheet 9-1-4. Figure 8.28 Proper moving techniques will minimize strain on a victim's existing injuries and help prevent new ones, i” * Figure 9.29 Safe lifting techniques minimize danger to victins as well as firefighters. Figure 9.90 An incline drag may be used with an unconscious vietim, ler 9» Structural Search, Victim Removal, and Firefighter Survival 444