[Science Technology and Society]

1
[Formation of Scientific Knowledge]

Formation of Scientific Knowledge

This module starts with the stages toward the acquisition of scientific
knowledge and ends with responsibilities of scientists to the society. The
module covers the experimentation on animals and humans and its
ethicality, the application of science to technology and of technology to
science, the sociopolitical influence on science and the intellectual property
dispute, biopolicy, conflicts in scientific study, and research data recording.
Read through the text more than once in order to grasp the key details
of the lesson..

Facets of Science
Science may be defined as a “body of organized knowledge” that has
been accumulated through research and that serves as a tool for solving
problems, a learning theme, a cultural resource, or a social enterprise which
needs physical facilities (Ziman, 1985). In this regard, scientific
investigations are geared towards obtaining new information for short-term,
long-term, immediate or future use in various fields, including economics,
agriculture, industries, and education, or for publication in scholarly journals,
encyclopedias, reference books and textbooks, and so forth, across several
areas of study, for example, biology, psychology, geology, chemistry or
physics.
As presented below, principles or concepts are used to explain or
describe the features or aspects of science. These are the discovery science,
academic science, industrial science, science as a social enterprise, and
science as a cultural resource. Thus, science is multifaceted, for it is an
engagement with investigated information and phenomena in the context of
society, education, economics, industries, politics, and culture.
1. Discovery science
The formation of scientific knowledge starts from the works of
scientists that leads to discovery of novel (new) information explaining or
describing a phenomenon. Through systematic methods, the data relating to
the discovery is rigorously examined for validity prior to its publication as
historical knowledge for addressing a corresponding economic, social, or
political problem, issue, or necessity.
2. Academic science
From the territory of science, scientific knowledge is passed on to the
world of technology.
3. Industrial science

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 Technology that emerges from scientific knowledge serves as an
instrument to solve practical problems in areas of sociology, military,
commerce, or industry.
4. Science as a social enterprise/institution
Scientists have a social responsibility in their quest for novel
knowledge, while the society interacts with science and are becoming
increasingly concerned about its impact to both society and culture. In this
regard, the community of scientists communicate with one another in order
to arrive at a consensus of opinion as to the validity or truthfulness of
publicized outcomes of scientific investigations, while the community of
learners examine such publications through a variety of media, such as books
and scholarly journals.
5. Science as a cultural resource
Scientific knowledge influences cultural beliefs and values.

Dimensions of Science
1. Cognitive/Philosophical Dimension
Scientific knowledge is spread, for instance, through scholarly
publication, which brings about the historical dimension, as the pieces of
scientific knowledge are stored and organized in an archive to serve as a
bridge to future discoveries.
2. Sociological/Communal Dimension
Scientific knowledge is addressed to a specific segment of society, for
example, the scientific researchers.
3. Psychological Dimension
The scientific information has a psychological relevance to its author
or discoverer who has an intellectual authority over the information and who
deserves the recognition for bringing about novel knowledge which is related
to the cognitive status of the research outcome that the information presents.

Research Toward Scientific Information

The stages of obtaining scientific knowledge are:
1. Describing the natural or physical world or event through expert
observation
2. Making generalizations about an observed phenomenon
3. Examining patterns of facts derived from observation
4. Using research instruments to measure and interpret data collected from
investigation
5. Conducting a purposeful, contrived (designed), empirical (real-world or
experience-based), and relatively original experiment
6. Formulating scientific laws or rational (logical) generalizations based on
the outcome of the experimentation
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[Formation of Scientific Knowledge]

7. Presenting an explanation for the formulated scientific laws or rational

generalizations, which can be (a) a cause-and-effect relationship, (b) a model
for the investigated phenomenon, or (c) a theory
8. Subjecting the rational generalizations or scientific laws to investigation
and review by other members of the scientific community for evaluation
9. Interpolating over the evaluated information for consideration as a
scientific frontier (fresh discovery) or as a support or addition to an already
established or widely accepted knowledge
10. Acknowledging the verity (trueness) of the scientific knowledge

Glossary
Science – is a body of organized knowledge that has been accumulated
through research and that serves as a tool for solving problems, learning
theme, cultural resource, and social institution, which needs physical
facilities (Ziman, 1985).
Phenomenon (pl. phenomena) – a situation or event that can be perceived by
the senses
(http://www.macmillandictionary.com/us/dictionary/american/phenomen
on).
Model – a descriptive statement of how something works.
(http://www.macmillandictionary.com/us/dictionary/american/model_1#
model_1__18).
Theory – an explanation of why or how something occurs; a set of principles
on which a particular subject or occurrence is based.
(http://www.macmillandictionary.com/us/dictionary/american/theory).
Cognitive – recognition and comprehension of things.
(http://www.macmillandictionary.com/us/dictionary/american/cognitive).

References
Lecture Reference:
Ziman, J. (1985). An Introduction to Science Studies: The Philosophical and
Social Aspects of Science and Technology. NY: Cambridge University Press.
PDF.
Reading Activity Reference:
Kramer, D. (2015). Reducing carbon: a bacterial approach. Bio 2.0. Scitable.
Nature Education. Retrieved from
http://www.nature.com/scitable/blog/bio2.0/reducing_carbon_a_bacterial_approa

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Reading Assignment Reference:
Norrgard, K. (2008). Human Subjects and Diagnostic Genetic Testing. Nature
Education. Retrieved from http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/human-
subjects-and-diagnostic-genetic-testing-720