Contents Preface to the Second Edition Preface tothe First Edition w Note tothe Stdent wi 1 Origins of Quantum Physies 1 1.1 Historical Note 1 12 Particle Aspoc of Radiation 4 121 Biackhody Raiation 4 122 Photoclcnc Efect, 0 123 Compion Etec B 124 Pair Production 15, 1.3 Wave Aspost of Patios 8 T21- de Broglie’ Hypothesis: Mater Waves R 13.2 Experimental Confirmation of de Broglie’s Hypothesis 18 1.3.3 Matter Waves for Macroscopi Objers 2 1.4 Paces versus Waves 2 LAL Classical View of Pancles and Waves 2 142 Quantum View of Particle and Waves 2 143 WavesPatcl Duality: Complementarity 26 1.44 Principle of Lincar Superpostion 2 1.5 Indeterminiie Nature ofthe Microphysical Werkd a 151 Heinenbor's Uncersnty Principle 28 152 Probabilistic Interpretation » 1.6 Atomic Trnciions and Spectroscopy » 1.61 Rutherford Planetary Med! of the Atom » 1.62 Bohr Mocel ofthe Hydrogen Atom 3 1.7 Quuntizaon Rules 36 TR Wave Packets 8 181 Localiced Wave Packets » 182 Wave Packets andthe Unestsinty Relations 2 183 Motion of Wave Packets % 1.9 Concluding Remarks 34 1.10 Solved Problems 3 LL Exercises rn2. Mathematical Tools of Quantum Mechanics Introduction ‘The Hilbert Space and Wave Functions wees 24 22 23 24 2s 26 27 221 233 223 224 ‘The Linear Vector Space... Lt : ‘The Hilbert Space it : Dimension and Basis ofa Veetor Space». - : ‘Square-Integrable Functions: Wave Functions - Dirac Notation 24 242 243 Dat Das 246 247 248 249 Hermitian Adjoine : it : Commutstor Algebra |... : : Uncertainty Relation between Two Operators Funetions of Operaiors Inverse and Unitary Operators : : Eigewvalues and Eigenwectors ofan Operator =... Infnitesimal and Finite Unitary Transformations.» Representation in Diserets Bases . . 2s 252 233 “Matrix Representation of Kets, Bras, and Operators (Change of Bases and Unitary Transformations . ‘Matrix Representation of the Figenvalue Problem . =. - Representation in Cominuous Bases. wees : 261 262 263 264 263 ‘General Treatment : oo ‘Momentum Representation ‘Connecting the Position and Momentum Representations arity Operator . . eee : Matrix and Wave Mechanics : it : 2a 272 ‘Matrix Mechanics : it : ‘Wave Mechanics : it : 28 Conchading Remarks 29. Solved Problems 20 Exercises. . : : wees : 13. Postulates of Quantum Mechanics Introduction 32. The Basic Postulates of Quantum Mechanics... . : 33° The Sia ofa System . - - coe : 31 34 35 3a 332 (Observables and Operators : lt : [Measurement in Quantum Mechanics 35 332 353 3a How Measurements Disturb Systems Expectation Values : ‘Complete Sets of Commuting Operators (CSCO) : ‘Measurement and the Uncertainty Relations . . : CONTENTS SRIKSSLSSERSSYUUs 175CONTENTS 3.6 Time Evolution ofthe System's State ar 38 361 362 363 364 365 Time Evolution Operator ‘Stationary States: Time-independent Potentials ‘Scluddinger Equation nnd Wave Packets... . ‘Tae Conservation of Probability . . : ‘Time Evolution of Expoctation Values : Symmowios rd Conseration Laws. : 371 372 373 Infintesimal Unitary Transformations Finite Unitary Transformations... . : ‘Symmewies and Conservation Laws : ‘Connecting Quantum to Classical Mechanics : 381 382 3x3 oiscon Brackets and Commutators : ‘The Ehrenfest Theorem... . : (Quantum Mechanics and Classical Mechanics 3.9 Solved Problems: 3.10 Exercises... cle : 4 One-Dimensional Problems Introduction Propetts of One-Dimensional Motion... - : 4 42 43 44 43 46 ar 48 49 421 422 423 424 Discrete Spectrum (Bound States) = : Continous Spoctrum (Unbound States)... Mixed Spectrum... . : ‘Symmetris Potentials and Party = = : The Free Particle: Continuous States... : ‘The Potential Step a : The Potential Barvier and Well |... sss : 431 452 453 The nt 461 462 Thc Case E > Vo : The Case £ < Vo: Manning << : ‘The Temnting let. ite Squate Wel Potent The Asymmetric Square Well... : The Synmetie Potential Well | : The Finite Square Well Potential... 2. : and 472 ‘The Scattering Solutions (E > V) : The Bound State Solutions (0 < F <5)... The Harmonic Oscillator 4aL 432 433 434 48s Energy Eigenstates in Pesition Space : ‘The Matrix Representation of Various Operators [Expectation Values of Various Operators... [Namerieal Solution of the Sohridinger Equation 491 492 [Numerical Procedure Algom 2. : 4.10 Solved Problems oorereenees : ALLL Exercises... oorereenees : rm rE m 18 182 183 Ist 135 135 187 189 190 1 15 215 216, 216 217 217 218 21s 2a 243 24s 207 2ag 240 239 2825 Angular Momentum Introduction Orbital Angular Momentum wees General Formalism of Angular Momentura |... Matrix Represeatation of Angular Momentum»... Geometrical Representation of Angular Momentum. Spin Angular Momentum si 52 33 54 55 56 57 58 59 56. 362 363 Experimental Evidence ofthe Spin General Theory of Spin... . eee ‘Spin 1/2 and the Pauli Matuices coe Eigenfunctions of Orbital Angular Momentum»... S0L 312 573 Eigonfunctions and Eigenvalues of L; . .. - Eigenfunctions of 2? ... . wees Propertics ofthe Spherical Harmonics... Solved Problems... . it Exercises =. : : a 6 Three-Dimensional Problems Introduction . wees ID Problems in Cartesion Coordinates : 61 62 63 6a 6s 66 62.1 622 623 624 ‘General Treatment: Separation of Variables ‘The Bree artiste . wees ‘The Box Potential : coe ‘The Harmonic Oscillator.» it BD Problems in Spherical Coordinates it 63 632 633 634 63s 636 ‘Central Potential: General Treatment’ =... The Free Particle in Spherical Coordinates The Spherical Square Well Potential... - ‘The Isowopic Harmonic Oscillator... - ‘The Hydrogen Atom . [Effect of Magnetic Fics on Central Potentials Concluding Remarcs . . . wees Solsed Problems Exries .. : : oo 7) Rotations and Addition of Angelar Momenta Rotations in Classical Physics Rotations in Quantum Mechanics. cee nM 12 73 72.1 722 723 734 735 726 Tnfnitesimal Rovations . .. - lt Finite Rotations. it ropertics ofthe Rotation Operator |... Euler Rotations . : Representation af the Rotation Operator Rotation Matrices and the Spherical Harmonies, Addition of Angular Momenia. . . 73 732 ‘Addition of Two Angular Mementa: General Formalism Calculation ofthe Clsbsch~Gordan Coefficients CONTENTS 8 301 301 393 393 395 396 307 308 40CONTENTS ix 733. Coupling of Orbital and Spin Angular Moments ais 734 Addition of More Than Two Angular Momenta 419 735 Rotation Matrices for Coupling Two Angular Moments 20 736. Isospin 2? 7.4 Scalar, Vector, and Tensor Operators 25 741 Sealer Operators 25, 742 Vector Operators 25, 743 Tensor Operators: Reducible and reducible Tensors 428 7.44 Wignes-Eckart Theorem for Spherical Tensor Operators 0 1.5 Solved Problems B34 1.6 Exercises... cies : ce 430 8 Identical Particles 455 8. Many-Pastisle Systems 0... . ce ASS: 8.1 Schrodinger Equation... 22... : ce a5: 8.1.2 Interchange Symmetry... cee a5 81.3. Systemsof Distinguishable Nonincracing Particles... . 458 8.2. Systems of Identical Pericles cee 40 821 Identical Particles in Classical end Quantum Mechanics... 460 82.2 Exchange Degoncracy 2... . cee 462, 82.3 Symmotriztion Postulato .. - ce A 824 Constnicting Symmetric and Antisymmettic Functions...» 464 82.5 Systemsof dentcal Norinteracting Particles . . DILL as 8.3. The Pauli Exchison Principle . : cee M67 84 The Exclusion Principle and the Periodic Table : 469 8.5 Solved Problems vec vcee sees : coe aT: 484 86 Exercises... Cleves : cies 9 Approximation Methods for Stationary States 489 9.1 Introduction . . . er) 9.2 Time-independent Perwrbation Theory. =. . ce 40 92.1 Nondegenerate Perubation Theory . we 490 922. Deyenerate Perturbation Theory... we 496 923 Fine Suucture andthe Anomalous Zeeman Effect cee a9 9.3. The Variational Method... . . . fllll ll sor 9A The Wentzel-Kramers-Brilluin Method. - : cee SIS 94.1 Gencral Formalism . . cee SIS 942 Bound State for Potential Wells with No Rigid Walls |... 318. 943 Bound States for Potential Wells with One Rigid Wall... 2... . 524 9.44 Bound States for Potential Wells with Two Rigid Walls... 2... . 525 945 Tuancling trough « Potential Baricr . ce 5 9.8 Concluding Remarks... eee : or) 946 Solved Problems Cleves : ce BL 97 Exercises ooo eco cece cece reece ese 56210 " ‘Time-Dependent Perturbation Theory 10.1 Intraduction 10.2 The Pictures of Quantum Mechanics 102.1 “The Schrodinger Picture 102.2 The Heisenberg Picture. .- 102.3 ‘The Interaction Picture 10.3 Time-Dependent Perturbation Thcory 103.1 Transition Probability 103.2 Transition Probability fora Constant Perturbation 103.3 ‘Transition Probability fora Harmonic Perturbation 104 Adiabatic and Sudden Approximations 10.4.1 Adizbatic Approximation 1042 Sudden Approximation 105 Inveaction of Atoms with Radiation 105.1 Classical Treatment of the Incident Radiation 1052 Quantization ofthe Electromagnetic Field 10.5.3 ‘Transition Rates for Absorption and Emission of Radiation 105.4 ‘Transition Rates within the Dipole Approximation 105.5. ‘The Fletric Dipole Selection Rules 1056 Spontaneous Emission 10.6 Solved Problems... . 107 Exercises... : Scattering Theory TILL Seattering and Cross Section TILL Connecting the Angles inthe Lab and CM frames 11.1.2 Connecting the Lab and CM Cross Sections. 11.2 Scattering Amplinate of Spinless Particles 112.1 Scanering Amplitude and Differential Cross Section 1122 Scattering Amplitude 11.3 The Bor Approximation 113.1 The First Bom Approximation 11.32 Valiiyy of the First Born Approximation 114 Partial Wave Analysis 11.41 Partial Wave Analysis for Elastic Scattering 11.42 Partial Wave Analysis for Inelastic Scattering 11.5 Scatering of Mentical Panicies 11.6 Solved Problems... . 117 Exercises. : Phe Delta Function ALL One-Dimensional Delia Function A.L.L_ Various Defiaitons ofthe Dela Function AL2. Propeities of the Dela Function A. Derivative ofthe Delia Function A2 Thrce-Dimeasional Delia Function CONTENTS sm sm sm sm 32 53 374 5%6 377 379 5x2 se 38 586 387 588 S91 502 503 504 397 63 “7 617 ols 633 633 654 655 656wi PREFACE Note to the student ie are what we repeatedly do. Excellence, then, is not an act, Dut a habit. Ariston No one expects to learn swimming without getting wet. Nor does anyone expect to leam it by merely reading books or by watching others swim. Swimming cannot be learned without practice. There is absolutely no substitute for dwwing yourself iato water and waning for ‘weeks, or even moaths, ill the exercise becomes a smooth reflex. ‘Similarly, physics cannot he learned passively. Without tockling various challenging prob- Jems, the stadent has no other way of testing the quality of his or her understanding of the subject. Here is where the student gains the sense of satisfaction and involvement produced by 4 genuine understanding ofthe underlying principles. The ably so solve problems i the best (proof of mastering the subject. As i swing, the more you solve problem, the more you sharpen and fine-tune your pecblem-sclving sails. ‘To derive full benefit fiom the examples and prablems solved in the text, avoid consulting the solution too early. If you cannot solve the problem after your fist attempt, try again! If you look up the solution ony after several attempts, it will remain etched in your mind for a Jong time. But ifyou manage to solve the problem on your own, you should stil compare your solution withthe book's solution. You might find a shorter cr more clegant approach. ‘One important observation as the book is laden with a rich collection of fally solved ex= amples and problems, one should absolutely avoid the temptation of memorizing the various techniques and solutions; instead, one should focus on understaning the concepts and the une derpinnings of the formalism involved. tis not my intention inthis book o each the student numnbor of tricks or techniques for acquiring good grades in quantum mechanics classes without genuine understanding or mastery ofthe subject; that is | dida’t mesnto teach the student how fopass quantum mechanics exams without a deep and lasting understanding. However, the st dent who focuses on understanding the underiying foundations of the subject anc on reinforcing. thatby solving numcrous problears and thoroughly understanding them will doubtlessly achieve ‘double aim: reaping good grades as well es obtaining a sound and long-lasting education, N.ZoutiliChapter 1 Origins of Quantum Physics In this chapter we are going to review the main physical ideas and experimental focs that delied classical physics and led to the birth of quantum mechanics. The introduction of quan= tum mechanics was prompted by the failure of classical physics in explaining a number of ‘microphysical phenomens that were observed at the end ofthe nineteanth and early twentieth 1.1 Historical Note [At the cnd ofthe ninctmth century, physics consisted essentially of classical mechanics the theory of electromagnetism!, and thermodynamics. Classical machanics was used to predict the dynamis of material bodies. and Maxwell's electromagnetism provided the proper rame= work 1 study radiation; matter and radiation were descibed in temas of particles and waves, respectively, As for the interactions between mater and radiation, they were well explained by the Lorentz fore or by thenmodyramics, The overhckning success of classical physio classical mochanics, classical theory of electromagnetism, and thermodynamics —made people boleve thatthe wltimte description of mature had been schioved. I seemed that all known physical phenomena could be explained within the framework of the general theories of matter and radiation. _Atthe tim ofthe twontcth centry, however, classical physics, which had bea quite unase sailable, was seriously challenged on two major rons: «Relativistic domain: Finn's 1905 theary of relativity showed that she valicty of NNewionian mechanics cxases at very high speeds (Le, at speeds comparable 1 that of High. + Microscopie domain: As soon as acw experimental techniques were dovsloped to tho point of probing atomic and sukstoe strcnres, it tumed ott kat classical payee ils miserably in providing the proper explanation for several newly discovered phenomena. Ti thus became exiden that the valty of classical physics ceases a the microscopic level and that ew concepts had to be invoked to describe, For instance, the sructare of _soms and molecules and how ight interacts with tem, "twas they of elecromagietian hd nthe ten ostensibly rr tres ranches ef physics: elo tc magnons an ep(CHAPTER 1. ORIGINS OF QUANTUM PHYSICS ‘The failure of classical physics to explain several micrascopie phenomena—such as black= body rahation, the photoelectric effect, atomic stability, and atomic spectroseapy—had cleared, the way for seeking new ideas outside its purview. ‘The first real breakthrough came in 1900 when Max Planck introduced the concept of the _quarnuan of energy. In his efforts to explain the phenomenon of blackbody radiation, he suc= ‘ceded in reproducing the experimental results only after postulating that the energy exchange between radiation and its surroundings takes place in diserot, or quantized, amounts. He a= ‘quod thatthe energy exchange between an electromagnetic wave of frequency v and matter occurs only tr integer muldples of hv, which be called the energy of quantum, where h is fundamental constant called Planck's constant. The quantization of electromagnetic radiata, tumed out to be an idea with far-reaching consoquences. Planck’ idsa, which gave an accurate explanation of blackbody radiation, prompted new thinking and triggered an avalanche of new discoveries that yielded solutions to the most ct standing problems of he time. In 1905 Einstein provided a powerful consolidation to Planck’s quantum concept. In uying ‘ounderstand the photoelectc eflect, Einstein recognized hat Planck's idea ofthe quantization of the electromagnetic waves mast be valid for light as well. So following Planck's approach, ha posited thet ligh itself is made of discrete bits of energy (or tiny particles), ealloé photons, each af energy hiv, » heing the frequency ofthe light. The intradvction ofthe photon concept enabled Einstein to give an elegantly accurate explanation to the photoelectric problem, which had been waiting for 2 solution ever since its fst experimental observation by Hert i 1887. Another seminal breakthvough was due w Niels Bohr. Rightaer Rutherford’ experimental discovery of the atomic nucleus ia 1911, and combining Rutherford’s atomic model, Planck's ‘quantum concept, and Einstein's photons, Bohr introduced in 1913 his model ofthe hydrogen, atom. In this work, he argued that atoms ean be found only in discrete states of energy and that the interaction of atoms with radiation, ‘., the emission or absorption of radiation by atoms, takes place only in dserere damoarus of hv because it resulis fiom ansitions oF the atom between its various discrete encrgy states. This work provided 2 satisfactory explanation 10 several oustanding probleme such as atomic stability and atomic spectroscopy. ‘Then in 1923 Compton made an important discovery that gave the most conclusive confi. sation forthe corpuscular aspect of light. By scattering Xerays with electrans, he confirmed that the X-ray photons behave like particles with momenta /v/e: v 38 the frequency of the Xnys. This series of breakthroughs—due to Planck, Einstein, Bohr, and Comptor—gave both the thoorctical foundations as well asthe conclusive experimental confirmation for the particle spect of waves; that is, the concept that waves exhibit particle behavior atthe microscopic scale. At this scale, classical physics fails not only quantitatively but even qualitatively and conceprually. Asif things were not bad enough for classical physics de Broglie introduced in 1923 an- other powerful now concept that clasical physics could not eeconcile: he postulated thet not only does radiation exhibit particle behavior but, corverscly, material particles themselves display wave-like bchavior This concept was confirmed experimentally in 1027 by Davisscn, and Germer, they showed that interference pattrns, 2 property of waves, can be obtained with ‘material particles such as electors. Although Boir’s model for the atom produced results that agree well with experimental spectroscopy, it was criticized for lacking the ingredieats of a theory. Like the “quantization” scheme introduced by Planck in 1900, the postulates and assumptions adopted by Bohr ia 19131. HISTORICAL NOTE 3 wore quite abitrary ard donot fallow from the fst principles of theory. twas the dissatie faction with the arbitrary nature of Planck's idea and Bohe’s postulates as well ste need to fit them within the context ofa corsistent theory that tad prompted Heisenberg and Schrodinger to seach forthe theoretical foundation undesiying ese new ideas. By 1925 thei efforts paid ff they skilfully welded the various experimental findings as well as Bokr's postulates nto ‘refined theory: quantum mechanics. In sdition to providing an acurat reproduction ofthe esting expermenial data this theory tamed out to possess an astenishingy reliable predic= {ton power which enabled it to explore and unrave! many uncharted aes ofthe microphysical ‘world. This avr theory had put an end to twenty five years (1500-1925) of patchwork which sas dominated by the ideas of Planck and Bokr and which latr becere known asthe old quantum theory. Historically, there ware swo independent formulations of quantum mechanics. The fst formulation, called matrix mechanics, was developed by Hekenberg (1925) t describe stoic. sirture tating from the observed spec ines. Inspired by Planck's quantization of waves, and by Bolu’s model ofthe hydrogen atom, Heisenberg founded his theery on the notin that the only allowed values of crergy exchange between microphysical systems arc those that are scrote: quate. Expressing dynamical quantities such es energy, position, momentum end fngular mementam i terme of matrices, he ebained an eigervalie problem that describes the dynamics of miroscopic systems; the diagonalization of the Hamiltonian matrx ies the energy spectrum ard the state vectors ofthe system. Matrix mecanies was very sucess in accounting fore discrete quanta of light ented and absorbed by atoms, The second formulation, called wave mechanics, was duc to SeluBinge: (1926) itis a gcnenalization of the de Broglie postulate. This methed, more intuitive thaa matrix mechan fee, desrbes the dynamics of microscopic mater by means of wave equation, called the Schraddinger equation: instead of the matrix eigenvalue problem of Heisenberg. Schridinger obiained a differential equation. The solutions ofthis equation veld the energy specttum and the wave funtion of the system under consideration, In 1927 Max Bom proposed his probe ils nterpretation of wave mechanics: he took the square modal of the wave fictions that ar olution othe SchrSdinger oquation and he inerpotd thom as probability densities “Those two ostensibly diffrent formulations —Schrédinger's ware formulation and Heisen- bere’s matric aproach—were shown io be equivalent. Dic then suggested a more general, formulation of uantum mechanics which deals with abstract objcis Such a Kes (state Vec= tors), bras, and operators. The representation of Dirac’ formalism ina coninuous basis—be position oF momentum represcrtations—sives back SchrBdinge’s wave mochanica. As for Heisenberg’ matrix formation, it con be obtsined by rprosenting Dec's formalism in a discrete basis. In this context, the approaches of SeluBdnger and Heiserborg represent, c= Spectivly the wave formulation and the mats formulation ofthe general theory of cuasturn smechanies. Combining spevial wlavty with quantum mechanics, Dire dsived in 1928 an equation which describes the motion of electrons. This equation, known ss Dirac’ equation, predicted {he existence ofan antpaticle the poston, whish has similar proprts, bur opposite chars, withthe electro: the positon was discovered in 1932, four years fir it prodition by quan tum mectanics. Insummary quantum mechanics isthe theory that describes the dynamics of matter at the microscopic cae. Fine! Butisit hat importantt lem? This sno les than anotiose question. for quatum mechanics isthe only valid framowork for describing the micxephysical wodd Its vital for understanding the physics of solids, lasers, semiconductor and superconductor4 (CHAPTER 1. ORIGINS OF QUANTUM PHYSICS devices, plasmas, ct. In short, quantum mechanics isthe founding basis ofall moder physics: solid state, molecular, atomic, nclear, and particle physics optics thermodynamics, statistical ‘mechanics, and so on. Not only thar, it is also considered tobe the foundation of chemistry and biology, 1.2 Particle Aspect of Radiation ‘According to classical physics, a particle is characterized by an energy E and a momentum B. whoreas a wave is characterized by an amplitade and a wave vector & (|| = 2/2) that Specifies the ciection of propagation ofthe wave. Paticles and waves exhibit entirely diffrent behaviors: for instance, the “particle” and“ wave” properties are mutually exclusive. We should sot that waves can exchange any (continuous) amount oF energy with particles. In this section we are going w see how these rigid coacepis of classical physics led wo is failure in explaining a numberof microscopic phenomena such as blackbody radian, the Photosletris effect and the Comoton effect. A it trmed out, those pheromens could cnly bs {explained by ahandoning theigid concepts of classical physics and inrodsing anew concept: the particle aspect of radiation. 1.2.1 Blackbody Radiation At issue here is how rodiation interacts with matter. When hated, a solid cbject glows and ‘mits thermal radiation. As the temperature increasos, the object becomes red, then yellow, then white. ‘The thermal radiation emitted by glowing solid objects consis's of a continuous distribution of srecuencies ranging ftom infrared to uliraviolet. The continuous patter of the dlistibuion spectrum isin sharp conus wo the radiation emived by heated ase; the radiation ‘mitted by gases has a discrete distribution spectrum: a few sharp (narrow), colored lines with to light (2, darkness) in between, Understanding the continuous character ofthe radiation emitted by a glowing solid object ‘constituted one of the major unsalved problems during the second half ofthe nineteenth century. All atempts to explain this pheromenon by means ofthe available theories of classical physics (statistical thermodynamics and classical electromagnetic theory) ended up in miserable failure. This problem consisted in essence of specifying the proper theory of thermodynamics that deseribos how encrgy gots exchanged betwoon radiation and matter. When rediaton falls on an object, some of it might be absorbed and some relectsd. An ideslized “blackbody” is a material objact that absorbs all af the radiation falling om it, and hence appears as black under reflection when ilkiminated from outside. When an abject is heated, it radiaes electromagnetic energy a8 a result of the thermal agitation of the electrons in its surface. The intesity of ths radiation depends on is frequency and on the temperature the light it emits ranges over the enti spectnim. An abject in thermal equilibrium with its surroundings radiates ac mach energy a it absorbs. It thus follows that a blackbody isa perfect absorber as well as perfect emitier of radiation. A practical blackbody can be constructed by taking a hollow cavity whose intemal walls perfectly reflect electromagnetic radiation (¢.g.. metallic walls) and which has a very small hole on its surface, Radiation that enters through the hole will be tapped inside the eavity ara gets completcly absorbed afer successive reflections on the inner surfaces ofthe cavity. The1.2. PARTICLE ASPECT OF RADIATION 5 a0" rm" 2809 90. 10008 50. 20 olen me Figure 1 Spoctral energy deasity uv, 7) of blackbody radiatcn at different temperatures as 1 function of the frequency v. hole thus absorts radiation lke a blackbody. On the other han, wien this cavity is heated? 4 temperature 7 te radiation hat eaves the bok is blackbody radiation, fo the hole behaves asa perfect emir a the temperature increases, de hole wil eveataly begin t gion. To ‘undcrtard the radiation inside the cavity, one needs simply to analyz the spectral dstebution ofthe radiation coming out of the hol. In what follows, th term Alackhady radiation wil ten refer to the aiaton leaving the hoe ofa heated hollow cavity: the ragiaton emitted by a blackbedy when hots called blackbody raitin, By the mid1800s, » wealth of experimental data about blackbody radiation was obtained for various objects. All these rests show that, at cqulorium, the radiation emit has a well Siang «ae cans Ip att.8 (CHAPTER 1. ORIGINS OF QUANTUM PHYSICS oscillating with a frequency v) mast bean inegral multiple of hy; note that hy isnot the same forall oscillators, because it depends on the frequency ofeach oscillator. Classical mechanics, however, puts no restrictions whatsoever on the equency, and hence on the energy an oscilla tor can have, The energy of oscillators, such as pendulums, mass-spring systems, and elecic oscillators, varios continuously in terms of the frequency. Equation (1.7) is known as Planck's ‘quanization rule for energy ot Planck's postulate. 9. assuming that the energy of an oscillator is quantized, Planck showed that the cor- zect thermodynamic relation forthe average energy can be obtained by merely replacing the ‘negation of (.5}—that eoespont toa energy continuusr—by a discrete suman c= responding to the discrcteness ofthe oscillators’ encrgis!: thar gy hve Se T= Ty and hence, by inserting (1.8) into (1.4, the energy density per unit ftequency of the radiation ‘mitted from the hole ofa cavity is given by « (ay Bee 10.7) = as ‘This isknown as Planck's distribution gives an cxac tt the variows experimental radiation distibutons, as displayed in Figure 1.2. The numerical vale of h: obtained by Biting (1.9) with the experimental data ie h = 6,626 x 107. We should note that, ax showin (1.12), we can rewrite Planck's energy density (19) obtain the energy density per unit wavelength aa way Let us now look atthe behavior of Planck's distribution (1.9) in the limits of both Tow and high frequencies, and then try 10 establish its connection to the rlaions of RaylcighJeans, Stefam-Roltzmann, and Wien, First, inthe case of very low frequencies hy kT, we can show that (1.9) reduces to the Rayleigh-Jeans law (1.6), since exp(liv/kT) ~ 1 + h/t Moreover, if We integrate Planck's distribution (1.9) over the whole specirum (where we use a change of variable x = hv/AT and make use ofa special integral’), we obvain the oral energy density which is expressed in torms of Stefan-Bolizmann’s total power por unit surface orca (11) as follows: = Sch wv Sekt 74 Sekt 4 f wo iten SP [ye Sor [a wot gaat = eT fay where ¢ = 2854/1392 = 367 x 10-* Woe? te Sttan-Bolzmann const It Us way, Planck's cain (L9) leas toa nde tal energy density of he radon ented fom bacbody,and hence avid th leat etnnephe Sond tho lnit of igh fFequncien we can easly ascent Planets dsrbaton (19) ies Wiens le (12), In summary. he specu ofthe blackbody radiation reveals the quantization of adition, scary the particle behavior of eleewomagnetic waves. Five jamais TAI=a) Ey afta = FE wis AMT Stwineguing (1.1) me od make weer sina1.2. PARTICLE ASPECT OF RADIATION 9 ‘The introduction ofthe constant bs ha indoed heralded the end of classical physies and the dawn of @ new era: physies of the microphysical world. Stimulated by the success of Planck's ‘quuntization of radiation, other physicisis, notably Einstein, Compton, de Broglie, and Baby, skilfully adapted it w explain a host of oder outsianding problems that ad been unanswered for decades. Example 1.1 (Wien’s displacement law) (a) Show that the maximum ofthe Planck energy density (1.9) occurs for a wavelengih of the fo1m iyeay = b/ 7. where T isthe temperature nd hs 2 constart that needs to be estimated, (©) Use the relation derived in (a) to estimate the surface temperature of atari the radiation ‘emis has ¢ maximum intensity ata wavelength of 446 nm, What isthe intensity radiated by the star? () Estimate the wavelength and the intensity ofthe radiation emitted by a glowing tungsten filament whose surface temperatare is 3300 K, Solution (a) Since v = /2, we have dv = |dv/(da)|d2 = (e/?)d i; we can thus write Planck's energy density (1.9) in toms ofthe wavelength as follows ‘ Jao] Saket ran =wo.ne| = «sz “The maximam of (2, 7) somesondso 2, 7/94 = 0, which yak sche ie )_ dope ws (1 ort) 4 HE Se s(t )earl aay (13) and ence a A osu), ay wherea = Ae/(AT). We en sve ths tanscendontal qustion ctr graphically oF aumer= cally by writing a/2 — 5 ~. Inserting thie valve into (Id) we obiain S — = 5— Se—*", which leads to.a siggestive approximate solttion © © Se — 0.0387 and hence «/2 500387 = 4.9663. Sine « = he/(ET) and using te values h = 6.626 x 10" J sand 4 = 1.3807 x 10 JK", we can write dhe wavelength shat comespons tothe maxinum of the Planck energy density (1.9) as follows: Te 1 _ 29x mK ime = TT = as, This relation, which shows that Jyar decreases with increasing temperature ofthe body, is called Wien displacement law. 1 can be used to determine the wavelength corresponding 9 the maximum intensity fe temperature of te body is known oF, conversely, 1 determine the temperature of the radiating body if the wavelength of greatest intensity is known. This law ‘canbe used, in particular, to estimate the temperature of stars (or of glowing objects) from their "radiation, 2s shone in part (b). From (1.15) we obtain = 16