Introduction to Electrodynamics David J. Griffiths Reed College Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458Liar of Congress Caton in Fabian Dat ‘Gatos, Dai (Di ete) Iota tocerdymames/ Das) Gets Sade nom Ips iigapisreeences and ink, ISaNO-13 808506 Teer Tle ocean 1589 Syeda oes Executive Baitor: Aion Reeves Production itor: Kim Delas ‘Manufacturing Manager: Trudy Pisciot! An Directoe: Jane Come Cover Designer: Brace Keselaar Fdicovial Assan Glan Keil Composition: PreTEX, Ine © 1989, 1989, 1981 by remice Mal ne. Upper Sade River, New Hersey 07458 Alig reserved. No pr of tis book may be reproduce in ay form by any means, ‘without permission in iting from te publisher. Reprinted with comectons Sepember, 1999 Printd inthe United States of America looe7 6s ISBN O-13-80532b-X Prentice-Hall lternational (UK) Limited, London Prentice-Hall of Ausala Py, Limit, Sdaey Prentice-Hall Canada ne, Toronto Premice-Hal Hispanoumerican, SA, Mexico Cty Prentice Hal of India Private Limited New Delhi rence Hall f Span, Ine, Tyo Premie-Hall Asia Pte. La, Singapore [sitra Preace Hal do Bris Lit Ri de fncineContents Preface Advertisement 1 Vector Analysis Vector Algebra 1.1.1 Vector Operations 1.1.2 Vector Algebra: Component Form 1.13 Triple Product L14 Position, Displacement, and Separation Vectors L13 How Vectors Transform Differential Caleulus 1.2.1 “Ordinary” Derivatives 1.22 Gradient 1.2.3. The Operator V 1.2.4 The Divergence 1.2.5 The Curl 1.26 Product Rules 1.2.7 Second Derivatives Integral Calculus : 13.1 Line, Surface, and Volume Integrals, 13.2 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus 1.3.3 The Fundamental Theorem for Gradients 1.3.4 The Fundamental Theorem for Divergences 1.3.5 The Fundamental Theorem for Curls 1.3.6 Integration by Parts Curvilinear Coordinates 14.1 Spherical Polar Coordinates 1.42. Cylindrical Coordinates ‘The Dirac Delta Function LS.1 The Divergence of #/7? 15.2. The One-Dimensional Dirac Delta Function . 10 B B 16 7 19 20 ry 24 28 2» 31 37 38 38 8 45 45 461.5.3. The Three-Dimensional Delta Function 1.6 The Theory of Vector Fields 1.6.1 ‘The Helmholtz Theorem 1.6.2 Potentials Electrostaties 2.1 The Electric Field 2.11 Introduction 2.12 Coulomb's Law . 2.1.3 The Blectric Field 2.14 Continuous Charge Distributions . 2.2. Divergence and Curl of Electrostatic Fields 22.1 Field Lines, Flux, and Gauss’s Law 222 The Divergence of E 2.2.3 Applications of Gauss’s Law 2.24 The Curl of E 2.3 Electric Potential. ‘ 2.3.1 Introduction to Potential 2.3.2 Comments on Potential 23.3 Poisson's Equation and Laplace’s Equation 2.34 The Potential of Localized Charge Distribution 2.3.5 Summary: Electrostatic Boundary Conditions 24 Work and Energy in Blectrostatics 24.1 ‘The Work Done to Move a Charge 24.2 The Energy of a Point Charge Distribution 24.3 ‘The Energy of a Continuous Charge Distribution 2.44 Comments on Electrostatic Energy : 25: Conductors 25.1 Basie Properties 9.5.2 Induced Charges eae 25.3 Surface Charge and the Force on a Conductor 254 Capacitors Special Techniques 3.1 Laplace's Equation 3.L1 Introduction 3.1.2 Laplace’s Equation in One Dimension 3.1.3 Laplace's Equation in Two Dimensions 3.1.4 Laplace's Equation in Three Dimensions 3.1.5 Boundary Conditions and Uniqueness Theorems, 3.1.6 Conductors and the Second Uniqueness Theorem 3.2. The Method of Images... 2... 3.2.1 The Classic Image Problem 3.2.2 Induced Surface Charge CONTENTS 50 2 32 3 58 58 38 59 60. 61 65 65 9 70 16 n n ” 83 83 87 90 90, 91 93 95 96, 96 98 102 108 110 10 110 mL 12 1a 116 18 121 2 123CONTENTS 3.23 Force and Energy 3.24 Other Image Problems 3.3. Separation of Variables 3.3.1 Cartesian Coordinates 3.32. Spherical Coordinates 3.4 Multipole Expansion : 3.4.1 Approximate Potentials at Large Distances 3.4.2 The Monopole and Dipole Terms : 3.4.3 Origin of Coordinates in Multipole Expansions, 3.44 The Electric Field of a Dipole 4) Blectrie Fields in Matter 4.4 Polarization 4.11 Dielectrics 4.1.2 Induced Dipoles 4.1.3 Alignment of Polar Molecules 4.14. Polarization 4.2 The Field of a Polarized Object 4.2.1 Bound Charges 4.22. Physical Interpretation of Bound Charges. 42.3. The Field Inside a Dielectric 43. The Electric Displacement 43.1 Gauss’s Law in the Presence of Dielectrics 432 A Deceptive Parallel. 4.3.3. Boundary Conditions 44° Linear Dielectries : : 44.1 Susceptibility, Permitivity, Dielectric Constant 44.2 Boundary Value Problems with Linear Dielectrics 44.3 Energy in Dielectric Systems 444 Forces on Diclectries 3 Magnetostatics S.A The Lorentz Force Law 5.1.1 Magnetic Fields 5.1.2. Magnetic Forces 5.13 Currents 5.2. The Biot-Savart Law 5.2.1 Steady Currents 5.2.2 The Magnetic Field of a Steady Current 5.3. The Divergence and Curl of B 53.1 Straight-Line Currents 5.3.2 The Divergence and Curl of B 5.33. Applications of Ampere’s Law 5.34 Comparison of Magnetostatics and Electrostaties 123 124 127 127 137 146 146 149 151 153 160 160 160 160 163 166 166 166 170 173 175 175 178 178 19 I 186 191 193 202 202 202 204 208 215 215 215 221 21 22 25 23254 61 62 63 64 Magnetie Vector Potential SA.I The Vector Potential 54.2 Summary; Magnetostaic Boundary Conditions 5.4.3. Multipole Expansion of the Vector Potential ‘Magnetic Fields in Matter Magnetization . 6.1.1 Diamagnets, Paramagnets, Ferromagnets 6.1.2 Torques and Forces on Magnetic Dipoles 6.1.3 Effect of a Magnetic Field on Atomic Orbits 6.1.4 Magnetization “The Feld of a Magnetized Object 62.1 Bound Currents 62.2 Physical Imerpretation of Bound Currents 6.23 The Magnetic Field Inside Matter ‘The Auxiliary Field H 63.1 Ampére’s law in Magnetized Materials 632 A Deceptive Parallel. 63.3 Boundary Conditions Linear and Nonlinear Media. 6.4.1 Magnetic Susceptibility and Permeability 64.2. Ferromagnetism : 7 Blectrodynamies a 72 Eleciromotive Force 711 Ohm's Law 7.1.2 Electromotive Force. 7.1.3 Motional emf Electromagnetic Induction 7.2.1 Paraday’s Law 722 The Induced Electric Field 7.2.3. Inductance 7.2.4 Energy in Magnetic Fields Maxwell's Equations 73.1 Electrodynamics Before Maxwell 7.3.2 How Maxwell Fixed Ampére's Law . 733° Maxwell’s Equations 734 Magnetic Charge 7.35 Maxwell's Equations in Matter 73.6 Boundary Conditions CONTENTS 234 234 240 242 255 255 285 255 260 262 263 263 266 268 269 23 23 274 4 78 285 285 285 292 294 301 301 305 310 317 32 321 323 326 327 328 331CONTENTS 8 Conservation Laws 81 ‘Charge and Energy 8.1.1 The Continuity Equation 8.1.2 Poynting’s Theorem Momentum 8.2.1 Newton's Third Law in Electrodynamics 82.2 Maxwell's Stress Tensor 823 Conservation of Momentum 82.4 Angular Momentum Electromagnetic Waves on 92 93 94 95 ‘Waves in One Dimension 9.1.1 The Wave Equation 9.1.2 Sinusoidal Waves 9.13 Boundary Conditions: Reflection and Transmission 9.14 Polarization cee Electromagnetic Waves in Vacuum 9.2.1 The Wave Equation for E and B 9.22 Monochromatic Plane Waves 9.2.3 Energy and Momentum in Electromagnetic W Electromagnetic Waves in Matter 9.3.1 Propagation in Linear Media 9.3.2 Reflection and Transmission at Normal Incidence . 9.3.3. Reflection and Transmission at Oblique Incidence . Absorption and Dispersion 94.1 Electromagnetic Waves in Conductors , 94.2. Reflection at a Conducting Surface 94.3 ‘The Frequency Dependence of Permitiivity iuided Waves 9.5.1 Wave Guides : 952 TE Waves ina Rectangular Wave Guide 95.3 The Coaxial Transmission Line Potentials and Fields 10.1 The Potential Formulation 10.1.1. Scalar and Vector Potentials 10.1.2 Gauge Transformations 10.1.3 Coulomb Gauge and Lorentz" Gauge 10.2. Continuous Distributions 10.2.1. Retarded Potentials 10.2.2 _Jefimenko's Equations 10.3 Point Charges 10.3.1 Lignard-Wiechert Potentials 10.32 The Fields of a Moving Point Charge 345 345 346 349) 349, 351 355 358 364 364 367 370 373 375 378 376 380 382 382 384 386, 392 392 396, 398 405 405 408, aul 416 416 416 419 421 422 422 427 429 429 435,LL Radiation 11.1. Dipole Radiation 11.1.1 Whatis Radiation? 11.1.2 Electric Dipole Radiation 11.1.3 Magnetic Dipole Radiation 11.1.4 Radiation from an Arbitrary Source 11.2 Point Charges 11.2.1. Power Radiated by a Point Charge 11.2.2 Radiation Reaction 11.2.3 “The Physical Bass ofthe Radiation Reaction 12. Electrodynamics and Relativi 12.1 The Special Theory of Relativity 12.1.1 Einstein's Postulates 12.1.2 The Geometry of Relativity 12.13 The Loreate Transformations 12.1.4 The Structure of Spacetime 122 Relativistic Mechanics 12.2.1. Proper Time and Proper Velocity 12.2.2. Relativistic Energy and Momentum 12.2.3. Relativistic Kinematics 12.24 Relativistic Dynamics 123 Relativistic Electrodynamics 12.3.1, Magnetism asa Relativistic Phenomenon 12.3.2. How the Fields Transform 12.3.3 The Field Tensor 12.34 Electrodynamics in Tensor Notation 12.3.5. Relativistic Potentials A Vector Caleulus in Curvilinear Coordinates AL Introduction A2 Notation AB. Gradient A4 Divergence AS Cutt AG Laplacian B_ The Helmholtz Theorem C Units Index CONTENTS 443 443 443, 444 451 454 460 460 465 469 477 an 47 483, 493 500 507 507 509 su 516 522 537 Sar 347 547 547 54s. 549, 552 554 355 S58 562Preface This isa textbook on electricity and magnetism, designed for an undergraduate course at the junior or senior level. It can be covered comfortably in two semesters, maybe even with room t0 spare for special topies (AC circuits, numerical methods, plasma physics, transmission lines, antenna theory, etc.) A one-semester course could reasonably stop ater Chapter 7. Unlike quantum mechanics or thermal physics (for example), there is 8 fairly general consensus with respect tothe teaching of electrodynamics; the subjects 10 be included, and even their order of presentation, are not particularly controversial, and textbooks differ mainly in style and tone. My approach is perhaps less formal than most; [ think tis makes dificult ideas more interesting and accessible. For the third edition T have made a large number of small changes, inthe interests of clarity and grace, Ihave also modified some notation to avoid inconsistencies or ambiguities. ‘Thus the Cartesian unit vectors , j, and & have been replaced with X, 9, and 2, so that all Xectors are bold, and all unit vectors inherit the letter of the corresponding coordinate (This also frees up kto be the propagation vector for electromagnetic waves.) Ithas always bothered me to use the same letter r for the spherical coordinate (distance from the origin) and the cylindrical coordinate (distance from the = axis). A common alternative for the latter isp, bu that has more important business in electrodynamics, and after an exhaustive seatch I settled on the underemployed letter s: I hope this unoethodox usage will not be confusing Some readers have urged me to abandon the script letter the vector from a source point to the field point r) in favor of the more explicit r — x’. But this makes many equations disiractingly cumbersome, especially when the unit vector is involved. I know from my ‘own teaching experience that unwary students are tempted to read as it certainly makes the integrals easier! I have inserted a section in Chapter | explaining this notation, and I hope that will help. f you area student, please take note: 2 =r —2", whichis mor the same asr, Ifyou're a teacher, please war your students to pay close attention to the meaning of 4 [think i's good notation, but it does have to be handled with care. ‘The main structural change is that Ihave removed the conservation laws and potentials from Chapter 7, creating two new short chapters (8 and 10). This should more smoothly accommodate one-semester courses, and it gives a tighter focus to Chapter 7. have added some problems and examples (and removed a few that were not effective). And T have included more references tothe accessible literature (particularly the American Journal of Physies), Trealize, of course, that most readers will not have the time or ineli-x PREFACE nation to consult these resources, but I think it is worthwhile anyway, if only to emphasize that electrodynamics, notwithstanding its venerable age, is very much alive, and intriguing new discoveries are being made all the time. I hope that occasionally a problem will pique your curiosity, and you will be inspired to Took up the reference—some of them are real ‘gems. As in the previous editions, I distinguish two kinds of problems, Some have a specific pedagogical purpose, and should be worked immediately alter reading the section to which they pertain; these I have placed at the pertinent point within the chapter. (In a few cases the solution to a problem is used later in the text; these are indicated by a bullet (e) in the left margin.) Longer problems, or those of a more general nature, will be found at the end ofeach chapter. When T teach the subject I assign some of these, and work a few of them in class. Unusually challenging problems are flagged by an exclamation point (2) in the ‘margin. Many readers have asked that the answers to problems be provided at the buck of the book; unfortunately, just as many are strenuously opposed. 1 have compromised, supplying answers when this seems particularly appropriate. A complete solution manual is available (to instructors) from the publisher. have benefitted from the comments of many colleagues—I cannot list them all bere. But I would like to thank the following people for suggestions that contributed specifically to the third edition: Burton Brody (Bard), Steven Grimes (Ohio), Mark Heald (Swarth- ‘more), Jim MeTavish (Liverpool), Matthew Moelter (Puget Sound), Paul Nachman (New Mexico State), Gigi Quartapelle (Milan), Carl A. Rotter (West Vitginia), Daniel Schroeder (Weber State), Juri Silmberg (Ryerson Polytechnic), Walther N. Spjeldvik (Weber State), Larry Tankersley (Naval Academy), and Dudley Towne (Amherst), Practically everything 1 know about electrodynamics —certainly about teaching electrodynamics—I owe to Edward Purcell David J. GriffithsAdvertisement What is electrodynamics, and how does it fit into the general scheme of physics? Four Realms of Mechanics In the diagram below Ihave sketched out the four great realms of mechanics ii Mechanics | Quantum Mechanics (Newton) | (Bohr, Heisenberg, | Feynman, special Relativity | Quantum | (Einstein) Newtonian mechanics was found to be inadequate in the early years of this century—it's all right in “everyday life.” but for objects moving at high speeds (near the speed of light) itis incorrect, and must be replaced by special relativity (introduced by Einstein in 1905): for objects that are extremely small (near the size of atoms) it fails for different reasons and is superseded by quantum mechanics (developed by Bohr, Schrikdinger, Heisenberg and many others, in the twenties, mostly). For objects that are both very fast and very small (as is common in modern particle physics), a mechanics that combines relativity and quantum principles is in order: this relativistic quantum mechanics is known as quantum field theory—it was worked out in the thirties and forties, but even today it cannot claim to be a completely satisfactory system. In this book, save for the last chapter, we shall work exclusively in the domain of classical mechanics, although electrodynamics extends with unique simplicity to the other three realms. (In fact, the theory is in most respects ‘automatically consistent with special relativity, for which it was, historically, the main stimulus.)ii ADVERTISEMENT Four Kinds of Forces Mechanics tclls us how a system will behave when subjected to a given force, There are Just four basic forces known (presently) to physics: 1 list them in the order of decreasing strength: 1. Song 2. Electromagnetic 3. Weak 4, Gravitational ‘The brevity of this list may surprise you. Where is friction? Whereis the “normal” force that keeps you from falling through the floor? Where are the chemical forces that bind ‘molecules together? Whereis the force of impact between two colliding billiard balls? The answer is that all these forces are electromagnetic. Indeed, itis searcely an exaggeration to say that we live in an electromagnetic world—for virtually every force we experience in everyday life, withthe exception of gravity, is electromagnetic in origin, ‘The strong forces, which hold protons and neutrons together in the atomic nucleus, have extremely short range, so we do not “feel” them, in spite of the fact that they are a hhundred times more powerful than electrical forces. The weak forces, which account for certain kinds of radioactive decay, are not only of short range: they are far weaker than electromagnetic ones to begin with. As for gravity itis so pitifully feeble (compared to all ‘ofthe others) that itis only by virtue of huge mass concentrations (like the earth and the sun) that we ever notice it at all. The electrical repulsion between two electrons is 10% times as large as their gravitational attraction, and if atoms were held together by gravitational {instead of electrical forces, a single hydrogen atom would be much larger than the known Not only are electromagnetic forces overwhelmingly the dominant ones in everyday life, they are also, at present, the only ones that are completely understood. There is, of ‘course, a classical theory of gravity (Newton's law of universal gravitation) and arelativistic ‘one (Einstein’s general relativity), but no entirely satisfactory quantum mechanical theory of gravity has been constructed (though many people are working on it). At the present time there is a very successful (if cumbersome) theory for the weak interactions, and a strikingly attractive candidate (called ehromodynamies) for the strong interactions. All these theories draw their inspiration from electrodynamics; none can claim conclusive experimental verification at this stage. So electrodynamics, a beautifully complete and suecessful theory, has become a kind of paradigm for physicists: an ideal model that other theories strive to emulate ‘The laws of classical electrodynamics were discovered in bits and pieces by Frankli Coulomb, Ampére, Faraday, and others, but the person who completed the job, and packaged all in the compact and consistent form it has today, was James Clerk Maxwell. The theory is now a litle over a hundred years old‘he Unification of Physical Theories In the beginning, electricity and magnetism were entirely separate subjects. The one dealt ‘with glass rods and cat's fur, pith balls, batteries, currents, electrolysis, and lightning: the other with bar magnets, iron filings, compass needles, and the North Pole, But in 1820 Cersted noticed that an electric current could deflect a magnetic compass needle. Soon afterward, Ampére correctly postulated that ail magnetic phenomena are due to electric charges in motion. Then, in 1831, Faraday discovered that a moving magnet generates an electric current. By the time Maxwell and Lorentz put the finishing touches on the theory, cloctricity and magnetism were inextricably intertwined. They could no longer be regarded as separate subjects, but rather as two aspects of a single subject: electromagnetism, Faraday had speculated that light, too, iselectrical in nature. Maxwell's theory provided spectacular justification for this hypothesis, and soon optics—the study of lenses, mirrors, prisms, interference, and diffraction—was incorporated into electromagnetism, Hertz, who presented the decisive experimental confirmation for Maxwell’s theory in 1888, put it this Way: “The connection between light and clectrcity is now established ,.. In every flame, in every luminous particle, we seo an electrical process .... Thus, the domain of electricity extends over the whole of nature. It even affects ourselves intimately: we perceive that we possess ... an electrical organ—the eye.” By 1900, then, three great branches of physics, electricity, magnetism, and optics, had merged into a single unified theory. (And it was soon apparent that visible light represents only a tiny “window” in the vast spectrum of electromagnetic radiation, from radio though microwaves, infrared and ultraviolet, to x rays and gamma rays.) Einstein dreamed ofa further unification, which would combine gravity and electrody- namics, in much the same way as electricity and magnetism had been combined a century earlier. His unified field theory was not particularly successful, but in recent years the same impulse has spawned a hierarchy of increasingly ambitious (and speculative) unification schemes, beginning in the 1960s with the electroweak theory of Glashow, Weinberg, and Salam (which joins the weak and electromagnetic forces), and culminating i the 1980s with the superstring theory (which, according to its proponents, incorporates al four forces ina single “theory of everything”). At each step in this hierarchy the mathematical difficulties ‘mount, and the gap between inspired conjecture and experimental test widens: nevertheless, it is clear that the unification of forces initiated by electrodynamics has bocome a major theme in the progress of physies. The Field Formulation of Electrodynamics The fundamental problem a theory of electromagnetism hopes to solve is this: I hold up bunch of electric charges here (and maybe shake them around)—what happens to some other charge, over there? The classical solution takes the form of afield theory: We say that the space around an electric charge is permeated by electric and magnetic fields (the electromagnetic “odor,” as it were, of the charge). A second charge, in the presence ofthese fields, experiences a force; the fields, then, transmit the influence from one charge to the ‘other they mediate the interaction,xiv ADVERTISEMENT When a charge undergoes acceleration, a portion of the field “detaches” itself, in a sense, and travels off atthe speed of light, carrying with it energy, momentum, and angular ‘momentum. We call this electromagnetic radiation. Its existence invites (if not compels) tu to regard the ficlds as independent dynamical entities in their own tight, every bit as “real” as atoms or baseballs. Our interest accordingly shifts from the study of forces between charges to the theory of the fields themselves. But it takes a charge to produce an electromagnetic field, and it takes another charge to detect one, so we had best begin by reviewing the essential properties of electric charge. Electric Charge 1. Charge comes in two varieties, which we call “plus” and “minus,” because their effects tend to cancel (if you have +q and —g atthe same point, electrically itis the same as having tno charge there at all). This may seem too obvious to warrant comment, but [encourage you to contemplate other possibilities: what if there were 8 of 10 different species of charge? (In chromodynamics there are, in fact, three quantities analogous to electric charge, each ‘of which may be positive or negative.) Or what if the two kinds did not tend to cancel?” ‘The extraordinary fact is that plus and minus charges occur in exactly equal amounts, to fantastic precision, in bulk matter, so that their effects are almost completely neutralized, ‘Were it not for this, we would be subjected to enormous forces: a potato would explode violently ifthe cancellation were imperfect by as litle as one part in 10", 2. Charge is conserved: it cannot be created or destroyed-—what there is now has always been, (Apluschargecan “annihilate” anequal minus charge, buta plus charge cannot simply B| isthe area of the parallelogram generated by A and B (Fig, 1.8). If ‘wo vectors are parallel, their cross product is zero, In particular, AxA=0 for any vector A. Problem 1.1 Using the definitions in Eqs. 11 and 1.4, and appropriate diagrams, show that the dot product and cross produet are distributive, 8) when the three vectors are coplanar; bin the genera case. Problem 1.2 Is the cross product associative? (AxBy <4 x BxO), Iso, prove it if not, provide a counterexample, 1.12. Vector Algebra: Component Form In the previous section I defined the four vector operations (addition, scalar muhiplication, dot product, and cross product) in “abstract” form—that is, without reference to any partic= tular coordinate system. In practice, itis often easier to set up Cartesian coordinates x, y, 2 and work with vector “components.” Let &, 9, and # be unit vectors parallel to the x, y, and 2 axes, respectively (Fig. 1-9(a)). An arbitrary vector A can be expanded in terms of these basis veetors (Fig. 1.9(b)): ASARHAG HAD1.1. VECTOR ALGEBRA Figure 1.9) ‘The numbers Ay, Ay, and A., are called components of A; geometrically, they are the projections of A along the three coordinate axes, We can now reformulate each of the four vector operations as a rule for manipulating components: AG B= (AR 4 AS + AD) + (BA + BY + BA) = (Ag + BOR + (Ay + BS + (As + Bo. a ( Rule: To add vectors, add like components GA = GAR + AY) + (ADE 8) i) Rule: To multiply by a scalar; multiply each component. Because, and # are mutually perpendicular unit vectors, eee ‘ 0 a9) Accordingly, A-B = (Ayt+ Ayf + Ard): (Br + By + BB) = ABs + AB, +A (1.10) (i) Rates To calculate the dot product, multiply like components, and add In particular AASAD LAL AR Aa F RR aap (Thisis, if you like, the three-dimensional generalization of the Pythagorean theorem.) Note that the dot product of A with any unit vector is the component of A along that direction (thus A+ = Ay AG = Ay, and AZ =A.6 CHAPTER |. VECTOR ANALYSIS Simitarly,! g a2) ‘Therefore, AB = (ARHAS +A) x (BR + BG + BA ai) (AyBe ~ A-By)R 4 (AcBy ~ AQB2S + (Ay By ~ Ay BoA. ‘This cumbersome expression can be written more neatly as a determinant Ay aay By iv) Rule: Tu calculate the eross product, form the determinant whose frst row is whose second row is A (in component form), and whose third row is B. Example 1.2 Find the angle between the face diagonals ofa cube. Solution: We might as well use a cube of side 1, and place it as shown in Fig. 1.10, with one {comer atthe origin. The fice diagonals A and B ASIR4OFs1e B=ORHIV HIE 0.0.1) a g x 0.1.0) 50,0) Figure 1.10 These signs pertain to igh handed cooeinate system (¥-anis ou ofthe page, ano the ht ‘or an routed version thereat) In ehonde syste (ans daw the signs are reversed: & x9 fon. We shal use ight handed systems excise.1.1. VECTOR ALGEBRA 7 So, in component form, AB ‘On the other hand, in “abstract” Form, O+0-141 A-B = ABcos6 = V2v2cos# = 2088. “Therefore, cost = 1/2, or 9 = 60" (Of course, you can get the answer more easily by drawing in a diggonal across the top ofthe cube, completing the equilateral wiangle. But in cases where the geomelry isnot so simple, this device of comparing the abstract and component forms ofthe dot product can be a very clficient means of finding angles. Problem 1.3 Find the angle between the body didgonals ofa cube. Problem 1.4 Use the cross product tind the cdmponens ofthe unit vector peependicular tothe plane shown in Fig. 111 1.1.3 Triple Products Since the cross product of two vectors is itself a vector, it can be dotted or crossed with a third vector to form a triple product. @ Scalar triple product: A - (Bx C). Geometrically, [A (B x €)| is the volume of the patallelepiped generated by A, B, and C, since |B > C| is the area of the base, and |A.cos6| is the altitude (Fig. 1.12). Evidently, As(B x ©) =B.(Cx A) = C-(A xB), ls) for they all correspond to the same figure. Note that “alphabetical” order is preserved—in view of Eq. 1.6, the “nohalphabetical” triple products, A-(CxB)=B(AxC)=C.BxA), Figure 1.11 Figure 1.128 CHAPTER 1. VECTOR ANALYSIS hhave the opposite sign. In component form, Ay Ay Az ABxO)=| Be BB. 16) Gc [Note thatthe dot and cross ean be interchanged: ABxO (Ax B)-C (this follows immediately from Eq, 1.15); however, the placement of the parentheses is critical: (A.B) x C is a meaningless expression—you can't make a cross product from a sealar and a vector. i) Vector triple product: A x (B x C). The vector triple product can be simplified by the so-called BAC-CAB rule: Ax (Bx C) = B(A-C) — CAB), aay Notice that (AxB) x= -AB-C) + BAC) is an entirely different vector. Incidentally, all higher vector products can be similarly reduced, often by repeated application of Eq. 1.17, so itis never necessary for an expression {0 contain more than one cross product in any term. For instance, Cx (A xB) (AxB)(CxD) = (A-OB-D)— (A. DVB-C) Ax(Bx(CxD) = BA-(C xD) (ABYC xD), ans) Problem 1. Prove the BAC-CAB rule by writing out both sides in component form. Problem 1.6 Prove that TA x Bx ©) + Bx (Cx ANF IC x (Ax BI =O, Under what conditions does A x (B x C) =(A x B) x C2 1.1.4 Position, Displacement, and Separation Vectors The location of a point in three dimensions can be described by listing its Cartesian coor dinates (x, y,z). ‘The vector to that point from the origin (Fig. 1.13) i called the position vector rexittyytee (1.19)1.1. VECTOR ALGEBRA 9 source point \ etd point Figure 1.13 Figure 1.14 1 will reserve the letter r for this purpose, throughout the book. Its magnitude, rae 1.20) is the distance from the origin, and a2n is a unit vector pointing radially outward, ‘The infinitesimal displacement vector, from (4,2) 0+ dx, ytdy, 24 da)is d= dri +dy§ + dea, (1.22) (We could call this dr, since that’s what itis, but it is useful to reserve a special letter for infinitesimal displacements.) Inelectrodynamics one frequently encounters problems involving rwo points—typically. 4 source point, r’. where an electric charge is located, and a field point, r, at which you are calculating the electric or magnetic field (Fig. 1.14). It pays to adopt right from the start some short-hand notation for the separation veetor from the source point to the field point. I shall use for this purpose the script leter a: aere (1.23) Its magnitude is ay and a unit vector in the direction from r’ to ris aoe (125) o> orl10 CHAPTER |. VECTOR ANALYSIS In Cartesian coordinates, B= WHE, 1.26) (ext -YP HER, (27) = BANE YIP E28 Ve—xP $0 ¥P FGF (from which you can begin to appreciate the advantage of the script-+ notation), a a a OO ‘Problem 1.7 Find the separation vector fom the source point (2,8,7)40 the field point (4.6.8) Determine its magnitude (2), and construct the unit vector (1.28) 1.1.5 How Vectors Transform ‘The definition of a vector as “a quantity with a magnitude and direction” is not altogether satisfactory: What precisely does “ditectjon’” mean?® This may seem a pedantic question, ‘but we shall shortly encounter a species of derivative that looks rather like a vector, and ‘we'll want to know for sure whether it is one. You might be inclined to say that a vector is anything that has three components that combine properly under addition. Well, how about this: We have a barrel of fruit that contains Ny pears, Ny apples, and N. bananas. ISN = Nui + Nig + N-Z a vector? It has three components, and when you add another barrel with My pears, M, apple, and Mz bananas the result is (Ny +My) pears, (My + My) apples, (Nz + Mz) bananas. So it does add like a vector. Yet it’s obviously not a vector, in the physicis’s sense ofthe word, because it doesnt really have a direction, What exactly is wrong with it? ‘The answer is that N does not transform property when you change coordinates, The coordinate frame we use fo describe positions in space is of course entirely arbitrary, but there i a specifi geometrical transformation law for converting vector comportents from one frame to another, Suppose, for instance, the, F, Zsystemis rotated by angle @ relative tox, y,z, about the comimon x = ¥ axes. From Fig. 1.15, Ay=Acos#, A: = Asind, while Acosd = A cos(6 — ¢) = A(cos# cos + sind sing) cospAy + sings, Asin = A sin(@ — $) = A(sin8 cos — cos sind) singAy + cos GA: is section canbe skipped without os of continuity.1.1. VECTOR ALGEBRA " Figure 1.15 ‘We might express this conclusion in matrix notation: Fy) _( ese sing (Ay (Q)= (2m 8) (2): a More generally, for rotation about an arbimary axis in three dimensions, the transfor- mation law takes the form (2)-( 1.30) ‘or, more compactly, a3 where the index 1 stands for x2 for, and 3 for z. The elements ofthe matrix R canbe ascertained, fora given rotation, by the same sr of geometrical arguments a5 we used for 8 rotation about the x axis, Now: Do the components ofN uansform inthis way? Of course not—it doesnt matter what coordinates you use to represent postions in space thee is tl the same number of apples in the barrel, You cant convert a pear into a banana by choosing a different st of xe, but you can tem A into Ay. Formally then ectr Is any sero three components that transforms inthe same manner axa displacement when you change coordinates. As allays, displacement isthe mode! forthe behavior of all vectors. By the way, a (second.rank) tensor isa quantity with nine componeots, Ty, Tay T Tysons Te, which transforms with no factors of 8 Tay = Rex(ReyTex + RayTay + RocTee) 4 Ray(Rex Tyr + ReyTyy + Rese) Rec ReeTex + Rey Toy + Re2 CHAPTER I. VECTOR A VALYSIS, or, more compactly, 13 y= OD Ra RT (1.22) fetter In general, an mth-rank tensor has m indices and 3 components, and transforms with n factors of R. In this hierarchy, a vector is a tensor of rank 1, and a scalar isa tensor of rank Problem 1.8 (a) Prove that the two-dimensional rotation matrix (1.29) preserves dot products. (That i, show diat AyBy + AB: = AyBy + A:Be.) (&) What constraints must the elements (Rj) ofthe three-dimensional rotation mattx (1.30) satisfy in ord to preserve the length of A (fo all vectors A)? Problem 1.9 Find the transformation matrix R that describes a rotation by 120° about an axis from the origin through the point (1,1, 1). The rotation is clockwise as you Took dawn the axis toward the origin, Problem 1.10 (@) How do the componenis ofa vector transform under a translation of coordinates (F Peyna tas, Fig. 1160)? () How do the components ofa vector transform under an inversion of coordinates ya ny,2= 2, Fig. 1166)? (6) How does the cross product (1.13) of two vectors transform under inversion? [The cross product of two vectors is properly called a pseudovector because of this “anomalous” be- havior] Is the cross product of two pseudovectors a vector, oF a pseudovector? Name two Pseudovector quantities in classical mechanics, (4) How does the scalar tripe product of tree vector transform under inversions? (Sueh an ‘object is called a pseudoscalar)1.2. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS 2B 1.2 Differential Calculus 1.2.1 “Ordinary” Derivatives Question: Suppose we have a function of one variable: f(x). What does the derivative, 4 ffdx, 60 for us? Answer: Ittells us how rapidly the function f(x) varies when we change the argument x by atiny amount, dx ay 1) ax 133 (@) on In words: If we change x by an amount dr, then f changes by an amount df; the derivative is the proportionality factor. For example, in Fig. 1.17(a), the function varies slowly with x, and the derivative is correspondingly small. In Fig. 1.17(b), f inereases rapidly with x, and the derivative is large, as you move away from x = 0. Geometrical interpretation: The derivatived fd. isthe slope ofthe graph of f versus. df f ty ® Figure 1.17 1.2.2. Gradient ‘Suppose, now, that we have a function of shree variables—say, the temperature T(x, y,) ina room. (Start out in one comer, and set up a system of axes; then for each point (x, v. 2) in the room, T gives the temperature at that spot.) We want to generalize the notion of “derivative” to functions like T°, which depend not on one but on three variables Now a derivative is supposed to tell us how fast the function varies, if we move a little distance, But this time the situation is more complicated, because it depends on what direction we move: If we go straight up, then the temperature will probably inerease fairly rapidly, but if we move horizontally, it may not change much at all. In fact, the question “How fast does T vary?” has an infinite number of answers, one for each direction we ‘might choose to explore. Fortunately, the problem is not as bad asit looks, A theorem on partial derivatives states 7 (es (Z)o+(2) ar aaa)4 CHAPTER |, VECTOR ANALYSIS This tells us how changes when we alter al three variables by the infinitesimal amounts dx, dy,dz. Notice that we do nor require an infinite number of dervatives—shvee will suffice: the partial derivatives along each ofthe three coordinate directions. Equation 1.34 is reminiscent of a dot product ae es) eg eaven acs ar = Sree To 4 Ze) (dx tdyy + dea) = Ta. (135) where fe or ee (136) is the gradient of T. VT’ is a vector quantity, with three components; itis the generi derivative we have been looking for. Equation 1.35 is the three-dimensional version of Eq. 1.33. Geometrical Interpretation ofthe Gradiem: Like any vector, the gradienthas magnitude and direction, To determine its geometrical meaning, let’s rewrite the dot product (1.35) in abstract form: aT = VT -dl = |VTIidlicose, «37 where # is the angle between VT and dl. Now, if we fix the magnitude [dl and search around in various directions (that is, vary 0), the maxinum change in T evidentally occurs ‘when @ = 0 (for then cos# = 1). That is, fora fixed distance [dil, dT is greatest when 1 ‘move in the same direction as VT. Thus: The gradient VT points in the direction of maximum increase of the function 7 Moreover: The magnitude |VT| gives the slope (rate of increase) along this maximal direction. Imagine you are standing on a hillside, Look all around you, and find the direction ‘of steepest ascent. ‘That is the direction of the gradient. Now measure the slope in that direction (rise over run). That is the magnitude of the gradient. (Here the function we're talking about is the height of the hill, and the coordinates it depends on are positions— latitude and longitude, say. This function depends on only two variables, not hree, but the geometrical meaning of the gradient is easier to grasp in two dimensions.) Notice from [Bq, 1.37 that the direction of maximum descent is opposite to the direction of maximum ‘ascent, while at right angles (@ = 90°) the slope is zero (the gradient is perpendicular 10 the contour lines). You can conceive of surfaces that do not have these properties, but they always have “kinks” in them and correspond to nondifferemtiable functions, What would it mean for the gradient to vanish? If VT = 0 at (x,y. 2), then dT = 0 for small displacements about the point (x, y, 2). This is, then, a stationary point of the function T(x, y.2). It could be a maximum (a summit), a minimum (a valley), a saddle1.2. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS 15 point (a pass), or a “shoulder” ‘This is analogous to the situation for functions of one variable, where a vanishing derivative signals a maximum, a minimum, or an inflection, In particular, if you want to locate the extrema of a function of three variables, set its gradient equal (0 zero, Example 13 Find the pradient ofr = V2)? + 2 (the magnitude ofthe position vecton, Solution; are Vem Hanya e =a - Peerae Vetere Veer ee Does this make sense? Well it says thatthe distance from the origin increases most rapidly in the radial direction, and that its rae of inctease in that direction is I.just What you'd expect Problem 1.11 Find the gradients of the Following functions @ fay deere ee. Soy =A, (©) Fe y.2) =e sin(y) ine) IBe + 28y +12), here y isthe distance (in miles) north «the distance eat of South Hadley (a) Where isthe top ofthe hill Ioated? (6) How high is the butt? (6) How steep iste lope in feet per mie at point mile north and one mie eas oF South Haley? In what detion is the slope steepest a that pot? + Problem 1.13 Let be she separation veto from fixed pit 9, and eb length. Show hat V2) = (Vay = 4 (©) What isthe general formal for We"? 2')tothe point (x,y, 2),16 CHAPTER I, VECTOR ANALYSIS Problem 1.14 Suppose that / is function of two variables (y and 2) only. Show thatthe gradient Vf = (84/29) + (/4c)% transforms as a vector under rotations. Eq. 1.29. (Hint (ap /08) = (AF/Ay)(A¥/9¥) + (BF/42)(02/ 9), and the analogous formula for 2//02. We know that = y eos -+esing and z = ~ysing +zcosd; “solve” these equations for y and tas functions of F and 2) and compote the needed derivatives dy /@, 8/93, et] 1.2.3. The Operator V ‘The gradient has the formal appearance of a vector, V, “multiplying” a scalar T: vr=(has2 aad) an (For once 1 write the unit vectors to the lef, just so no one wil think this means 08 /2x, and so on—which would be zero, since x is constant.) ‘The term in parentheses is called “del 2.39) Of course, del is nor a vector, in the usuil sense. Indeed. its without specific meaning until we provide it with a function to act upon. Furthermore, it does not “multiply” 7; rather, is an instruction to differentiate what follows. To be precise, then, we should say that V is vector operator that acts upon T', not a vector that multiplies T. With this qualification, though, V mimics the behavior of an ordinary vector in virtually every way; almost anything that can be done with other vectors can also be done with V. if ‘we merely translate “multiply” by “act upon.” So by all means take the vector appearance of ¥ seriously: itis a marvelous piece of notational simplification, as you will appreciate if ‘you ever consult Maxwell’ original work on electromagnetism, written without the benefit ofv. Now an ordi wary vector A can multiply in three ways: 1. Multiply a sealara : Aa; 2. Multiply another vector B, via the dot product: A: B; 3, Multiply another vector via the cross product: Ax B. ‘Correspondingly, there are three ways the operator W can act: 1. Ona scalar function 7 : WT (the gradient): 2. Ona vector function v, via the dot product: W -v (the divergence); 3. On a vector function v, via the cross product: V x v (the curl). We have already discussed the gradient. In the following sections we examine the other ‘wo vector derivatives: divergence and curl1.2. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS 7 1.2.4 The Divergence From the definition of V we construct the divergence: (1.40) Observe that the divergence of a vector function v is itself a scalar V + v. (You can't have the divergence of a scalar: that's meaningless.) Geometrical Interpretation: ‘The name divergenceis well chosen, for V-vis ameasure ‘of how much the vector v spreads out (diverges) from the point in question. For example, the vector function in Fig. 1.18a has a large (positive) divergence (ifthe arrows pointed in, it would be a large negative divergence), the function in Fig. 1.18b has zero divergence, and the function in Fig. 1.18¢ again has @ postive divergence. (Please understand that ¥ here is afienetion—there'sa different vector associated with every point in space. In the diagrams, NU AA IN AY @ o | Figure 118,18 CHAPTER 1, VECTOR ANALYSIS of course, [can only draw the arrows at a few representative locations.) Imagine standing atthe edge of a pond, Sprinkle some sawdust or pine needles on the surface. IF the material spreads out, then you dropped it at point of positive divergence: if it collects together, ‘you dropped it at a point of negative divergence. (The vector function v in this mode! isthe velocity of the water—this isa two-dimensional example, but it helps give one a “feel” for what the divergence means. A point of positive divergence is source, or “faucet”; a point of negative divergence is a sink, or “drain.”) Example 1.4 ‘Suppose the functions in Fig, 1.18 are Yo Calculate their divergences. Solution: rit y§tekw a 3 Vow = 4 OES As anticipate, tis function has a positive divergence a ay +04 a a HOF FO HED as expected. ed OT ROe 40+ Problem 1.15 Calculate the divergence ofthe following vector lunctions: Problem 1-16 Sketch the vector function and compute ts divergence. The answer may surprise you. ..can you explain it? Problem 1.17 In wo dimensions, show that dhe divergence transform as scalar under rte tions, [ints Use Eq, 1.29 to determine ty and V, and the method of Prob, 1.14 to calculate ‘the derivatives. Your aim is to show that 0 /@¥ + 8T,/82 = Buy/By + Av/ 21