Transfer Functions

• Convenient representation of a linear, dynamic model.

• A transfer function (TF) relates one input and one output:

x t  y t 
 system 
X  s Y s

The following terminology is used:

x y

input output

forcing function response

“cause” “effect”

Process Control 2
Definition of the transfer function:
Let G(s) denote the transfer function between an input, x,
and an output, y. Then, by definition

Y s
G s 
X  s
where:
Y  s   L  y  t  
X  s   L  x  t  

Process Control 3
 Development of Transfer Functions

Example: Stirred Tank Heating System

Ti
wi
T
V w

Q
Heater

Stirred-tank heating process with constant holdup, V.

Process Control 4
Recall the previous dynamic model, assuming constant
liquid holdup and flow rates:
dT
V C  wC Ti  T   Q (1)
dt
Suppose the process is initially at steady state:

T  0   T , Ti  0   Ti , Q  0   Q  2
where T is the steady-state value of T, etc. For steady-
state conditions:
0  wC Ti  T   Q (3)

Subtract (3) from (1):

dT
V C  wC Ti  Ti   T  T     Q  Q  (4)
dt

Process Control 5
 dT d T  T 
But,  because T is a constant (5)
dt dt

Thus we can substitute into (2) to get,

dT 
V C  wC Ti  T    Q (6)
dt
where we have introduced the following “deviation
variables”, also called “perturbation variables”:

T   T  T , Ti  Ti  Ti , Q  Q  Q (7)
Take L of (6):
V  C  sT   s   T   t  0   wC Ti s   T   s    Q  s  (8)

Process Control 6
By definition,T   T  T . Thus at time, t = 0,
T   0  T  0  T (9)
But since our assumed initial condition was that the
process was initially at steady state, i.e., T  0   T it
follows from (9) that T   0   0.
Note: The advantage of using deviation variables is that
the initial condition term becomes zero. This simplifies
the later analysis. Rearrange (8) to solve for
V  C. sT   s   wC. T   s   wC . Ti s   Q  s 
T   s [V  C. s  wC ]  wC . Ti s   Q  s  ,
T  s :
divide by ( wC )
V 1
T   s [ s  1]  Ti s   Q  s 
w wC
Process Control 7
 1
V 1 wC
T   s [ s  1]  Ti s   Q  s 
w V V
s 1 s 1
w w

 K    1  
T  s    Q  s     Ti  s  (10)
  s 1    s 1 
1 V
where two new symbols are defined: K  and  
wC w
Transfer Function Between QandT 
Suppose Ti is constant at the steady-state value. Then,
Ti  t   Ti  Ti t   0  Ti s   0. Then we can substitute into
(10) and rearrange to get the desired TF:

1st T  s K
order  (12)
TF Q  s   s  1

Process Control 8
Transfer Function Between T and Ti :
Suppose that Q is constant at its steady-state value:

Q  t   Q  Q  t   0  Q   s   0

Thus, rearranging

T  s 1
 (13)
Ti s   s  1

Comments:
1.The TFs in (12) and (13) show the individual effects of Q
and Ti on T. What about simultaneous changes in both
Q and Ti ?

Process Control 9
 • Answer: See (10). The same TFs are valid for
simultaneous changes.

1 Note that (10) shows that the effects of changes in both

Q and Ti are additive. This always occurs for linear,
dynamic models (like TFs) because the Principle of
Superposition is valid.
F(a1x1 + a2x2) = a1F(x1) + a2F(x2)
2. The TF model enables us to determine the output
response to any change in an input.
3. Use deviation variables to eliminate initial conditions
for TF models.

Process Control 10
 Properties of Transfer Function Models

1. Steady-State Gain (How far the process may reach?)

The steady-state of a TF can be used to calculate the
steady-state change in an output due to a steady-state
change in the input. For example, suppose we know two
steady states for an input, u, and an output, y. Then we
can calculate the steady-state gain, K, from:

y2  y1
K (14)
u2  u1

For a linear system, K is a constant. But for a nonlinear

system, K will depend on the operating condition  u , y  .

Process Control 11
Calculation of K from the TF Model:
If a TF model has a steady-state gain K, then:

 1 
K  lim  sY ( s)   lim  sU ( s )G ( s)   lim  s G ( s )   lim G ( s )
s 0 s 0 s 0  s  s 0

• This important result is a consequence of the Final

Value Theorem

• Note: Some TF models do not have a steady-state gain

(e.g., integrating process like variation of liquid level in
a tank, variation of pressure in a distillation column)

Process Control 12
2. Order of a TF Model
Consider a general n-th order, linear ODE:
dny dy n 1 dy
an  an 1   a1  a0 y
dt n
dt n1 dt
d mu d m1u du
 bm m
 bm1 m1
   b1  b0u (16)
dt dt dt
Take L, assuming the initial conditions are all zero.
Rearranging gives the TF:
m

Y s
i
b s i

G s   i 0
(17)
U s n
i
a s i

i 0

Process Control 13
Definition:
The order of the TF is defined to be the order of the
denominator polynomial.
Note: The order of the TF is equal to the order of the ODE.

Physical Realizability:
For any physical system, n  m in (16). Otherwise, the
system response to a step input will be an impulse. This
can’t happen.
du
Example: a0 y  b1  b0u and step change in u (18)
1
dt
Y (s )  [b sU(s)  b0 U(s)]
a0 1
Y (s ) 1 b b
G (s )   (b1s b0 )  1 s  0
U (s ) a 0 a0 a0
b b 1 b1 b0
Assuming a unit step input: Y (s )  G (s )U(s)  ( 1 s  0 )  y (t )  (t ) 
a0 a0 s a0 a0

Process Control 14
3. Additive Property
Suppose that an output is influenced by two inputs and
that the transfer functions are known:
Y s Y s
 G1  s  and  G2  s 
U1  s  U2 s

Then the response to changes in both U1 andU 2 can be

written as:

Y  s   G1  s U1  s   G2  s U 2  s 
The graphical representation (or block diagram)
is:
U1(s) G1(s)
Y(s)

U2(s) G2(s)

Process Control 15
4. Multiplicative Property
Suppose that,
U 2 s  Y s 
 G1  s  and  G 2 s 
U 1 s  U 2 s 
Then,
U 2  s   G1  s U 1  s  and Y  s   G 2  s U 2  s 
Substitute,
Y  s   G1  s G 2  s U 1  s 
Or,

Y s 
 G1  s G 2  s  U 1 s  G1  s  G 2 s  Y s 
U 1 s 

Process Control 16
 Exercise: non-interacting tanks

 In the two (non-interacting tanks)

shown, the outflow of each tank is a
function of the liquid level in that tank.
Derive the TF relating changes in
flowrate from the second tank q’2 to
changes in flowrate into the first tank
q’i.
 Assume that the tanks have cross-
sectional areas of A1 and A2
respectively. R1 and R2 are the
resistances of the two exit valves.
1 1
 i.e. q1  h1 and q2  h2
R1 R2

Process Control 17
 Exercise: non-interacting tanks

 MB for tank 1 and tank 2

dh1 1
A1  q  q1  q  h1
dt R1
dh2 1
A2  q1  q2  q1  h2
dt R2

 Putting in deviation form and taking Laplace Transforms:

dh1' 1 1 '
A1  q '  h1' A1sH 1' (s )  Q ' (s )  H 1 (s )
dt R1 R1
dh2' ' 1 ' 1
A2  q1  h2 A 2sH 2' (s )  Q1' (s )  H 2' (s )
dt R2 R2

Process Control 18
 Tank 1 Tank 2

1 1
A1sH 1' (s )  Q (s )  H 1' (s )
' A 2sH 2' (s )  Q1' (s )  H 2' (s )
R1 R2

1 ' 1
A1sH 1' (s )  H 1 (s )  Q ' (s ) A 2sH 2' (s )  H 2' (s )  Q1' (s )
R1 R2

1 1 1 1 '
sH 1' (s )  H 1' (s )  Q ' (s ) sH 2' (s )  H 2' (s )  Q1 (s )
A1R1 A1 A2R 2 A2
1 1 ' 1 1 '
[s
H 1' (s ) ]  Q (s ) [s
H 2' (s ) ]  Q1 (s )
A1R1 A1 A2R 2 A2
H 1' (s ) R1 K1 H 2' (s ) R2 K2
   
Q (s ) A1R1s  1 1s  1
'
Q1 (s ) A 2 R 2s  1  2s  1
'

Process Control 19
 Exercise: non-interacting tanks
G1
G2

G4
G3

Q’(s)
G1 (s ) G 2 (s ) G 3 (s ) G 4 (s )

 The TF is expressed as:

Q 2' (s )  G (s )Q ' (s )
H 1' (s ) Q1' (s ) H 2' (s ) Q 2' (s )
G (s )  G1 (s )G 2 (s )G 3 (s )G 4 (s ) 
Q ' (s ) H 1' (s ) Q1' (s ) H 2' (s )
 The individual TFs are:
H 1' (s ) R1 K1 Q1' (s ) 1 1
G1 (s )  '   G 2 (s )   
Q (s ) A1R1s  1 1s  1 H 1' (s ) R1 K 1

Process Control 20
 Exercise: non-interacting tanks
H 2' (s )
R2 K2
G 3 (s )  '  
Q1 (s ) A 2 R 2s  1  2s  1
Q 2' (s )
1 1
G 4 (s )  '  
H 2 (s ) R 2 K 2
Q’(s)

The overall TFs will be:

Q 2' (s ) K1 1 K 2 1
 G1 (s )G 2 (s )G 3 (s )G 4 (s ) 
Q ' (s ) 1s  1 K 1  2s  1 K 2 2nd order
1 TF

1s  1 2 s  1
Process Control 21
 Dynamic Model of An Interacting Process

1
q1   h1  h2 
R1

A similar analysis for the interacting system suggests the

following transfer function: Q2  s  1

Qi  s 
τ 2 s 2  2ζτs  1
τ  τ  R2 A1
where : τ= τ1τ 2 , ζ  1 2
2 τ1τ 2
Factorizing the transfer function reveals a similar TF to the non-interacting
tanks), however, the two time constants will be different.

Putting proper assumptions, the TF can be written as:

22
 Effect of Interaction
Effective time const.:

1 
 1
Non-Interacting: 2 

1 2.62
  6.9
Interacting: 2 0.38

In general, the effect of interaction on a system containing two first-order

lags is to change the ratio of effective time constants in the interacting
system. In terms of the transient response, this means that the interacting
system is more sluggish than the non-interacting system.

Process Control 23
Linearization of Nonlinear Models
• So far, we have emphasized linear models which can be
transformed into TF models.
• But most physical processes and physical models are
nonlinear.
- But over a small range of operating conditions, the
behavior may be approximately linear.
- Linear approximations can be useful, especially for
purpose of analysis.
• Approximate linear models can be obtained analytically
by a method called “linearization”. It is based on a Taylor
series expansion of a nonlinear function about a specified
operating point.

Process Control 24
 Basis of Linearization
For the Ordinary Differential Equation f(x)

dx df

f (a )  f (x )
 f (x ) dx a x
dt
df
f (x )  f (a )  (x  a )
dx

Taylor Series Expansion f(a)

f(x)

0 x a

dx df (a )
 f (x )  f (a )  (x  a )
dt dt
Using perturbation variables

dx df dx  df
 f (x )  (x  x )  x
dt dx x dt dx x

Process Control 25
Consider a nonlinear, dynamic model relating two process
variables, u and y:
dy
 f  y ,u  (19)
dt
Perform a Taylor Series Expansion about u  u and y  y
and truncate after the first order terms,
f f
f  u, y   f  u , y   u  y (20)
u y ,u y y ,u
where u   u  u and y  y  y . Note that the partial
derivative terms are actually constants because they have
been evaluated at the nominal operating point,  u , y  .
Substitute (20) into (19) gives:
dy f f
 f u , y   u  y (21)
dt u y ,u y y ,u

Process Control 26
 The steady-state version of (19) is:
0  f u , y 
dy dy
Substitute into (21) and recall that  ,
dt dt
Linearized dy f f
 u  y (4-62)
model dt u y ,u y y ,u qi

Example: Liquid Storage System

dh
Mass balance: A  qi  q (1)
dt
Valve relation: q  Cv h (2)
A = area, Cv = constant
dh 1 CV q
 f (q i , h )  q i  h
dt A A

Process Control 27
Method (1): Linearizing the whole ODE

Using equ: 4-62 we can approximate the ODE on the S.S. (h , qi )

dh  f f dh 
 q i'  h '
 a11q i'  a12 h '
dt q i h ,q i h h ,q i dt

f 1 f Cv
a11   , a12  
q i h ,q i A h h ,q i 2A h
dh 1 Cv
 qi   h
dt A 2A h
dh 1 1 CV
A  qi  h
 where 
dt R R 2 h

Process Control 28
Method (2): Linearizing the nonlinear terms only

We can also solve the same problem by linearizing the

nonlinear terms only.
Combine (1) and (2), A dh  qi  Cv h (3)
dt

Linearize term in the ODE,

d( h) 1
h  h 
dh
 h h  h   h h  (4)
h 2 h
Or 1
h  h (5)
where: 2 h
h  h  h

Process Control 29
Substitute linearized expression (5) into (3):
dh  1 
A  q i  Cv  h  h (6)
dt  2 h 
The steady-state version of (3) is:

0  qi  Cv h (7)

 dh dh
Subtract (7) from (6) and let qi  qi  qi , noting that 
gives the linearized model: dt dt
dh 1
A  qi  h
 (8)
dt R
1 CV
where 
R 2 h

Process Control 30
 Examples
E /RT k (T )
Linearize k (T )  Ae  k (T )  (T  T )
T T
E /RT E
 k (T )  Ae T T 
RT 2

Ek (T )
 k (T )  T  T 
RT 2

 E 

 k (T ) 1  T  T 

 RT 2

Linearize y=xz
y y
y  y(x , z ) 
x
x  x   z z  z 
y y

 x z  z x  x   x z  z 

Process Control 31
 Summary:
In order to linearize a nonlinear, dynamic model:

•Perform a first order Taylor Series

Expansion of each nonlinear term.
1
•Subtract the steady-state version of the
equation.
2

• Introduce deviation variables

3

Process Control 32
 Exercise

The first-order reaction:

A 
k
B
is occurring in a non-isothermal CSTR
constant volume V (L). Construct the
nonlinear model for this process, as well
as a local linear approximation.

Process Control 33
 Linearizing a non-isothermal CSTR

The model of a non-isothermal CSTR can be written as:

Assuming :
V : constant
Tw : constant
and ρ , Cp : constant

dC A E /RT
V  F (C Ao  C A ) V e CA
dt

dT E /RT
C pV  C p F (To  T )  H rnV e C A  UA(Tw  T )
dt
The only nonlinear term is: eE /RTC A

Linearizing this term around the steady state point (T ,C A)

Using the equations of linearizing systems of two variables:

 E/RT   E/RT 
d CAe  d CAe 
CAe
E/RT
 CAe
E/RT
 
dT


T


,CA

T T  
dCA


T,CA





C
A
CA 
   

 
e
E/RT  E E/RT 
CA   2 e
 RT
CA  T T e


E/RT
CA CA  

 a0  a1(T T )  a3 (CA CA )

 Substituting linearization into the original ODE and using
suitable deviation variable:

dC A F '
 (C Ao  C A )   [a 0  a1 (T  T )  a 3 (C A  C A )]
dt V

dT F ' H rn  UA
 (To  T ) 
'
[a 0  a1 (T  T )  a 3 (C A  C A )]  (Tw'  T ' )
dt V C p C pV
 Example:
 Consider a CSTR example with a second order
reaction.

r A  kC A2 Assuming constant reaction rate constant (k)

Mathematical modelling for the tank gives;

dC A
V  F (C A0  C A ) VkC A2
dt
The non linear term can be linearized as;

C A2  C A2  2C A (C A  C A )
The linearized model equation is obtained as;

dC A
V  F (C A0  C A )  VkC A2  2VkC A (C A  C A )
dt  
 Assignment

From your text book, solve the following:

 P-4.3

 P-4.5

 P-4.10

 P-4.13

 P-4-17

Process Control 38
 Derivation of exit flow relation
Bernoulli's principle states that:
Point “A”
where v is fluid speed, g is the gravitational acceleration z1=h
p1=1 atm
(9.81 m/s2), z is the fluid's height above a reference point “B”, p v1=0

is pressure, and ρ is density. At the top of the tank (point “A”), p

Point “B”
is equal to the atmospheric pressure. v can be considered 0 z2=0
because the fluid surface drops in height extremely slowly p2=1 atm
v2=v
compared to the speed at which fluid exits the tank. Point “B” at
z=0 and p is again atmospheric pressure. Eliminating the
constant and solving gives:

z is equivalent to the h in the first paragraph of this article, so:

With a pipe cross sectional area of (a), the exit flowrate is given as:
Qout  av  a 2g h
k h

Process Control 39