General Design Considerations

• Health
• Safety
• Loss prevention
• Environmental considerations
• Plant layout
• Plant location
• Plant operation
• Plant control
• Utility use
• Structural design
• Material handling and storage
• Patent consideration
 Health and Safety Hazards
2

 Inherent toxicity, duration of exposure (short term effect or long term

effect)
 Safety hazard material is the one that makes immediate injury
 Industrial health and hygiene hazard material is the one whose effect is
apparent after long exposure.
 LD50: Lethal dose at which 50% of the test animals do not survive.
 PEL: Permissible exposure limit of consideration for the long term
exposure of humans to toxic materials is set by the Threshold Limit Value
(TLV)
 TLV: upper permissible concentration limit of a material believed to be
safe to human even with an exposure of 8h/d, 5 days/week over a
period of many years. Values of TLV are published by
3

 OSHA: Occupational Safety and Health Administration

 AIHA: American Institute of Hygiene Association

 NIOSH: National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health

 HSE: United Kingdom Health and Safety Executive

 Sources of Exposure
4

 Aim:
 Reduce Exposure
 Limit chemical dosage

Kinds of exposure: Inhalation

 Solution to this lies in regular maintenance of equipment (valves, fittings, pipes,
pumps…etc.).

 In tanks since it might contain vapors of the toxic material. These vapors are displaced
by the incoming feed. So one might think of using floating roof tank or may scrub the
vapors coming out of the tank.

 Clean the equipment before use may reduce hazardous situation.

 Avoid spills
 Exposure Evaluation
5

 Identify feed, product, intermediate products, waste materials,

catalysts, cleaning agents, maintenance material.
 Estimate the toxicity of the materials (OSHA may help in this).
Estimates of toxicity have been developed by EPA. Estimation of
exposure should be based on enough data and averaged over time.
 The limit should be < biological half time of a substance acting on the body.
is the time it takes for a substance (for example a metabolite, drug,
signaling molecule, radioactive nuclide, or other substance) to
lose half of its pharmacologic, physiologic, or radiologic activity,
according to the Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)
 Time for fast acting material: 15 – 30 minutes.
 Substances with half life > 8hrs, 8hrs averaging time is usually used.
 Analysis Equipment
6

 Atomic absorption (AA) for metals

 Gas chromatography (GC) for volatile
organics
 Gravimetric methods for dust

 Particle count for Asbestos

 Ion specific electrode: Halogens, NH3,…

 X-Ray diffraction: Silica

 Coloromitry
Types of standards by the EPA (Environmental
Protection Agency)
Primary: Children and elderly people
Secondary: Public, animals, vegetation
 Control of Exposure Hazards
9

 Note that zero risk situation is not attainable

 When an exposure happens the following control
measures are followed to reduce the risk:
1. Decide to what level should the risk be reduced
(concentration, exposure time..)
2. Control the problem:
a. Source control such as prevent release of toxic
matter…
b. Use transmission barriers by blocking or capture the
hazard
 Personal protection by asking workers to wear gloves,
masks…
 Examples
10

Instead of handling a solid as powder material,

make a slurry.

Ventilation and or dilution ventilation where the

contamination is kept to lower levels. This is used
when low release situation exist and with material
of low toxicity.
 Bhopal Gas Tragedy in India
The Bhopal disaster, also referred to as the Bhopal gas tragedy, was a a gas leak incident
in India, considered the world's worst industrial disaster. It occurred on the night of 2–3
December 1984 at the Union Carbide India Limited (UCIL)pesticide plant in Bhopal, Madhya
Pradesh. Over 500,000 people were exposed to methyl isocyanate gas and other chemicals.
The toxic substance made its way in and around the shanty towns located near the plant.
Estimates vary on the death toll. The official immediate death toll was 2,259. The government
of Madhya Pradesh confirmed a total of 3,787 deaths related to the gas release. Others
estimate 8,000 died within two weeks and another 8,000 or more have since died from gas-
related diseases. A government affidavit in 2006 stated the leak caused 558,125 injuries
including 38,478 temporary partial injuries and approximately 3,900 severely and
permanently disabling injuries.
UCIL was the Indian subsidiary of Union Carbide Corporation (UCC), with Indian Government
controlled banks and the Indian public holding a 49.1 percent stake. In 1994, the Supreme
Court of India allowed UCC to sell its 50.9 percent interest in UCIL to Everready Industries India
Limited(EIIL), which subsequently merged with McLeod Russel (India) Ltd. Eveready Industries
India, Limited, ended clean-up on the site in 1998, when it terminated its 99-year lease and
turned over control of the site to the state government of Madhya Pradesh. Dow Chemicals
Company purchased UCC in 2001, seventeen years after the disaster.
Civil and criminal cases are pending in the District Court of Bhopal, India, involving UCC
and Warren Anderson, UCC CEO at the time of the disaster. In June 2010, seven ex-employees,
including the former UCIL chairman, were convicted in Bhopal of causing death by negligence
and sentenced to two years imprisonment and a fine of about $2,000 each, the maximum
punishment allowed by Indian law. An eighth former employee was also convicted, but died
before the judgment was passed.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_detailpage&v=KaklNxU3MOE
 Fire and Explosion Hazards
12

 Fire occurs if fuel, oxidizer and ignition source are

present.
 For air a minimum fuel concentration function of T and P
is necessary for a fire to occur (LFL).
 Lower Flammable Limit (LFL): The minimum concentration
of fuel in air at ambient temperature required to ignite.
 Upper Flammable Limit (UFL): The upper concentration
of fuel in air at ambient temperature required to ignite.
 Lower Oxygen Index (LOI): The concentration of O2
necessary or must present for ignition to occur.
 Fire and Explosion Hazards (continues)
13

𝑦𝑖′
= 1.0,
𝐿𝐹𝐿𝑖
1
𝐿𝐹𝐿 𝑚 = 𝑦𝑖
𝐿𝐹𝐿𝑖
1
𝑈𝐹𝐿 𝑚 = 𝑦𝑖
𝑈𝐹𝐿𝑖

0.75 𝑇 − 25
𝐿𝐹𝐿 𝑇 = (𝐿𝐹𝐿)25 1 −
∆𝐻𝑐
0.75 𝑇 − 25
𝑈𝐹𝐿 𝑇 = (𝑈𝐹𝐿)25 1 −
∆𝐻𝑐
𝑈𝐹𝐿 𝑝 = 𝑈𝐹𝐿 + 20.6 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑝 + 1
Example: Determine LFL and UFL for the following gas mixture?

 𝑦′𝐶6 = 1/(1+3+2.1)=0.1639
 𝑦′𝐶 = 3/(1+3+2.1)=0.4918
 𝑦′𝐶2 = 2.1/(1+3+2.1)=0.3443
1 1
 LFLmix= 𝑦𝑖 =0.1639 0.4918 0.3443 =2.758%
1.2
+ 5
+ 2.7
𝐿𝐹𝐿𝑖
1 1
 UFLmix= 𝑦𝑖 =0.1639 0.4918 0.3443 =15.56%
+ +
𝑈𝐹𝐿𝑖 7.5 15 36
 Fire and Explosion Hazards (continues)
15

Auto Ignition temperature (AIT):

The temperature at which a mixture of gases ignite
without the presence of a spark flame.

Flash Point:
The liquid temperature at which the concentration of
the fuel vapors in air becomes large enough to
ignite.

Radiation of Hydrocarbons ~ 95 kW/m2.

 Classes of Fires
Class A: burning ordinary solids
Class B: burning liquids and gases
Class C: Burns of either A or B
Class D: fire consumes metals

Fire protective is active or passive:

Active: Includes water sprays, foam and dry chemicals
Passive: No action is necessary
 Chevron Movie

 Qubaco movie
Fire and Explosion Hazards (continues)

Detonation:
The chemical reaction propagates at supersonic speed and principal
heat mechanism is shock compression.

Deflagration:
The reaction propagates at subsonic speed experiencing slow pressure
build up.
𝑘−1
𝑃𝑎 𝑘
𝑃𝑏 𝑉𝐺 1−
𝑃𝑏
𝐸= , VG=Gas vol., Pa and Pb are
𝑘−1
atmospheric and burst pressure
1 kg TNT → 4.5 MJ
Fire and Explosion Hazards (continues)

Kinds of Explosions
Boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion (BLEVE)

Unconfined vapor cloud explosion (UVCE)

𝑳
Explosion yield = 𝟏/𝟑
𝑴𝑻𝑵𝑻
Equipment should be located at distance > L
 Safety Regulations
Standards directed to workers:
Toxic hazardous substances; It is wise that Engineers
review the health and safety regulations before
starting the design of a plant

Occupational noise exposure: requires a well –

planned timely execution of steps to conform to 90
dBA rule.
PERMISSIBLE NOISE EXPOSURES

Duration per day, Sound level dBA slow

hours response
8 90
6 92
4 95
3 97
2 100
1.5 102
1 105
0.5 110
0.25 or less 115
 Loss Prevention
financial loss:
 loss of property,
 loss of earnings from the lost product.

What to do:
 Identification and assessment of the major hazards
 Control the hazards by the most appropriate means
 Control of the process (operating variables, T, P..)
 Limitations of the loss when an incident occurs

What if is a question that should be asked when reviewing or designing.

 Hazard Assessment Techniques

HAZOP: Hazard and Operability Study

FTA: Fault – Free Analysis

FMEA: Failure Mode – and – Effect Analysis

SI: Safety Index

SU: Safety Audit

 HAZOP Study
Guide Meaning Example
No or not No part of the intent is achieved and No flow when production is
nothing else occurs expected
More Quantitative increase Higher temperature than
designed
Less quantitative decrease Lower pressure than normal
As well as qualitative increase Other valves closed at the
same time (logic fault or
human error)
Part of qualitative decrease Only part of the system is
shut down
Reverse Opposite Back-flow when the system
shuts down
Other than No part of the intent is achieved, and Liquid in the gas piping
something is completely different occurs
 To atmosphere To Flare
Nitrogen

PICA-1 PV-1
RV-1

PV-2
V-8

V-7

From Tank
TIA-1
trucks V-5

T-1

LIA-1
V-1

PI-1 FICA-1

V-2
To Process

V-4 FV-1
V-3 P-1
 Environmental Protection
Development of a pollution control requires:
 Investigation of a pollution source
 Determination of the properties of the pollutant

 Design of the treatment system

 Selection of the control device

 Dispersion of the exhaust to meet regulations

Environmental Protection (continues)

Solid Handling:
 Cyclones
 Wet scrubbing
 Electrostatic precipitators
 Air bags
See Table 2-7, pp. 43
 Air filters

Gas Separation
 Absorption
 Adsorption
 Condensation
 Incineration
Environmental Protection (continues)
Water Treatment
 Physical treatments:
 Flotation
 Gravity settling
 Centrifugal settling
 Filtration
 Cyclones…etc
 Chemical treatments:
 Removal of colloidal matter by adding coagulant
 Removal of colors
 Removal of heavy metals
 Oil removal
 Acid…
 Biological treatment
Environmental Protection (continues)

Solid waste disposal methods

 Recycling Always remember the 3-R rule
 Chemical conversion Reduce
Reuse
 Incineration
Recycle
 Pyrolysis
 Landfill  Thermal pollution control
 Biogas production  Noise control
 Plant Operation and Control
 Instrumentation
 Maintenance
 Utilities (energy and its sources)
 Water
 Structural design (heavy equipment, vibrating
equipment..)
 Soil examination.
 Storage:
 Gases are stored in horizontal or spherical well sealed tanks.
 Solids are stored in bins.
 Safety Issues
Toxic Releases
34

1st RULE:

From the very beginning TRY to avoid processes

containing toxic chemicals

Constraint:
In most cases it is difficult to avoid toxic chemicals
 Safety Issues
Toxic Releases
35

2nd Rule
Identify all possible causes for toxic releases
 Pressure Build-up
 Collision
 Natural disasters
 Human errors
 Process failure
 Etc

3rd Rule
Prepare an inventory for all chemicals in the process:
 Feed, product, intermediate,
 catalyst, additives, cleaning agents,…
 www.msds.com (or contact the producer)
 Safety Issues
Toxic Releases
36

4th rule

Consider in your design the worst possible case for

toxic materials release

5th rule
Asses the possible damage based on the worst toxic
release scenario and prepare all required
emergency procedures