Ground Resistance

and Measurement

Terry Klimchak

Revised 11/19/13
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 Presentation Outline

• Applicable IEEE Standards

• Soil Resistivity
• Measuring Soil Resistivity
• Measuring Ground Resistance
• Lowering Ground Resistance

4
 IEEE Standard

• ANSI/IEEE Std 81-2012

“IEEE Guide for Measuring Earth
Resistivity, Ground Impedance, and Earth
Surface Potentials of a Ground System”

IEEE is a registered trademark of The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.
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 IEEE Std 81-2012
• Scope
– Establishing safe testing conditions
– Measuring earth resistivity
– Measuring the power system frequency resistance or impedance of
the ground system to remote earth
– Measuring the transient (surge) impedance of the ground system
to remote earth
– Measuring step and touch voltages
– Verifying the integrity of the grounding system
– Reviewing common methods and procedures for performing
ground testing
– Reviewing instrumentation characteristics and limitations
– Reviewing various factors that can distort test measurements
IEEE is a registered trademark of The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.
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 IEEE Std 81-2012
• Purpose
– The purpose of this guide is to present practical instrumentation
methods that may be used for measuring soil resistivity, the
impedance to remote earth, step and touch voltages, and current
distributions in ground grids associated with electric utility
facilities.
– These grids typically consist of interconnected grounding systems
ranging in complexity from a few ground rods to large grids with
many ground rods or wells, buried conductors, and external ground
connections. External ground connections may include overhead
shield/ground/neutral wires, underground cable sheaths/neutrals,
counterpoises, grid tie conductors, metallic pipes, and other
connections that provide additional paths to remote earth.

IEEE is a registered trademark of The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.
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 IEEE Std 81-2012 (Cont.)
• Purpose
– This guide is intended to assist the engineer or technician in
obtaining and interpreting accurate, reliable data. The factors that
influence the choice of instruments are discussed along with a
presentation of field techniques for various types of
measurements. These factors include the purpose of the
measurement, the accuracy required, the types of instruments
available, the possible sources of error, and the nature of the
ground or grounding system under test. It also describes test
procedures that promote the safety of personnel and property,
and it seeks to minimize operating interferences with neighboring
facilities."

IEEE is a registered trademark of The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.
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 IEEE Std 81- 2012
• Testing Methods Covered Include:
– Measurement of Earth Resistivity

– Measurement of the Resistance and Impedance to

Earth (From Small Rods and Plates to Large
Substation Grounding Systems Stations)

– Measurement of Step and Touch Voltages and

Potential Contour Surveys

– Integrity of Grounding Systems

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Earth Resistivity
Soil Resistivity - Effect of Moisture

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Soil Resistivity - Effect of Temperature

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Resistance Variation With Seasons
Seasonal Variation of Earth Resistance With an
Electrode of 3/4" Pipe in Stony Clay Soil

100
Resistamce (Ohms)

80
60 Buried 3'
40 Buried 10'
20
0
P
R

R
L

V
N

N
Y

Y
JU

SE

O
A

JA

A
JA

A
M

M
N
M

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Measuring Soil Resistivity
 Wenner’s or Four Pin Method

• Also Known as Equally Spaced Method

• Most Widely Used Method
• Small Test Probes Are Installed in Depth “L” and
Spaced in Intervals “A”
• Test Current is Passed Between the Outer
Electrodes. The Voltage Drop Is Measured With
a High Impedance Volt Meter Connected to the
Inner Electrodes

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Wenner’s or Four Pin Method

4πaR
V ρ= = 2πaR
2a a
R= 1+ −
I a 2 + 4l 2 a2 + l 2 20
 Wenner’s or Four Pin Method
• Test Probes (Pins) Placed in a Straight Line at
Intervals “a” Driven to a Depth “l” (“l” <
0.1”a”)
• Assume “l” = 0 and Formula is Simplified as
Follows:

ρ = 2πaR
• The Formula Provides the Average Soil
Resistivity (Apparent Resistivity) of the Soil to
Depth “a”
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Wenner’s or Four Pin Method

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Measuring Ground

Resistance
 Measuring Ground Resistance
• Purpose:
– To Determine Actual Resistance Ground Connections
– To Check Calculations
– To Determine GPR That Results From Ground a Fault
Current in a Power System
– To Determine the Suitability of a Grounding
Connection for Lightning Protection,
– To Obtain Data Required for the Design of Protection
for Buildings, Equipment and Personnel

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Fall-of-Potential or 3-Point Method

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 FALL OF POTENTIAL TEST

• Must have complete

isolation from utility ground
system
• Measure DIAGONAL length
of ground system (10m x
10m grid would be 14m
diagonal)
• Probe Z is driven at a
distance of 10X diagonal
• Probe Y is driven at 1X
Diagonal, then 2X,3X etc. up
to 9x
• Results are plotted, FALL of
resistance should be 62%
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Fall-of-Potential or 3-Point Method

Plot shows 62% of homogenous soil

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 Stakeless Measurements

• Simple and fast

• No auxiliary rods or
spacing requirements
• Direct reading of
continuity and ground
loop resistance.

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Lowering Ground Resistance
 Lowering Ground Resistance

• What Affects the Grounding

Resistance?
– Diameter of the Ground Electrode
– Length / Depth of the Ground Electrode
– Number of Ground Electrodes
– Ground System Design / Electrode
Placement

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 Lowering Ground Resistance
Resistance vs. Rod Depth

120%

100%

80%

60% Resistance (%)

40%

20%

0%
0.50 0.63 0.75 0.88 1.00 1.13 1.25 1.38 1.50

Rod Diameter Has Minor Effect On Resistance

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 Lowering Ground Resistance

Resistance vs. Rod Depth

600

500
Resistance (ohms)

400
1/2" Rod (ohms)
300
1" Rod (ohms)
200

100

0
60
65
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55

70
75
80
85
90
95
100
Rod Depth (ft)

Doubling Rod Depth Reduces Resistance 40% In Uniform Soil

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Lowering Ground Resistance

Radius (r ) in Percent of
r Meters Resistance
0.03 25%
0.06 38%
0.09 46%
l 0.15 52%
0.3 68%
1.5 86%
3 94%

Effective Resistance Area

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Lowering Ground Resistance

Concentric Shell
Overlap Decreases
Efficiency of
Ground Rod
Resistance

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 Lowering Ground Resistance

• Add More Rods

• Deep Driven Rods
– Threaded Couplings
– Compression Couplings
– Exothermic Ground Rod
Splice

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 Lowering Ground Resistance

• Ground Enhancement
– Chemical Ground Rods
– Bentonite Clay
– Ground Enhancement Material

41
 Ground Enhancement

• Chemicals (Salts) and Chemical Ground Rods

– Expensive
– May Need to Be Periodically Recharged
– Typically Need Bentonite
– May Have Environmental Concerns Depending
on Materials Used

42
Chemical Ground Rods

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 Bentonite Clay

• Advantages
– Effective When Wet
– Low Initial Cost
• Disadvantage
– May Shrink and Pull Away From Rod or Soil
When It Dries

44
Ground Enhancement Materials
• Permanent, Stable, Low
Resistivity Backfill
Material Used to
Improve Grounding
Effectiveness Regardless
of Soil Conditions
• Composed of Chemically
Stable Materials

45
New IEC 62561-7 Standard for Ground
Enhancement Materials

• Leaching test requirements

• Sulfur determination requirements
• Resistivity determination results
• Additional corrosion testing

IEC is a registered trademark of The International Electrotechnical Commission

46
 IEC 62561-7

5.2 Leaching Test

5.2.3 Passing Criteria:
The criteria are given by national or international regulations.
(GEM25A was tested to Environmental Protection Agency)

5.3 Sulfur Determination

5.3.2 Passing Criteria:
The material is deemed to have passed the test if all measured
values are less than 2%. The recorded value resulting from
this test shall be indicated within the product
documentation.

IEC is a registered trademark of The International Electrotechnical Commission 47

 IEC 62561-7

5.4 Determination of Resistivity

5.4.4 Passing Criteria:
Specimens are deemed to have passed the test if the
obtained resistivity value from the three samples are equal or
less than the resistivity value claimed by the manufacturer

IEC is a registered trademark of The International Electrotechnical Commission 48

 IEC 62561-7

5.5.5 Passing Criteria:

• For copper-plated earth electrodes, the polarization
resistance shall be: > 4Ω x m2 for non-aggressive environments
and > 8Ω x m2 for aggressive environments

• For galvanized earth electrodes, the polarization resistance

shall be: > 3Ω x m2 for non-aggressive environments and >
7.6Ω x m2 for aggressive environments

IEC is a registered trademark of The International Electrotechnical Commission 49

 IEC 62561-7

5.6 Marking and Indication

Each package unit shall be marked in an indelible way
1.The name of the manufacturer or his trademark
2.The type or serial number of the batch of ground enhancing
compound
3.The installation instructions
4.The resistivity value and test apparatus used
5.The conformity statement to the present standard

IEC is a registered trademark of The International Electrotechnical Commission 50

 Ground Enhancement Material
Specification
Ground enhancement material must be compliant to IEC
62561-7, must be permanent and maintenance-free (no
recharging with salts or chemicals, which may be corrosive)
and maintain its earth resistance with time. It must set up
firmly and not dissolve or decompose, or otherwise pollute
the soil or the local water table. It should not depend on the
continuous presence of water to maintain its conductivity,
and in its set form will have a resistivity of not more than 2
ohm-cm.

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