RoC ee tort eae eer | rr] Classroom Language syHandbooks for the English Classroom Classroom language Sagrario Salaberri lu lobeteeetern fea eeHEINEMANN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING A division of Heinemann Publishers (Oxford) Utd Halley Court, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 BE) ‘OXFORD MADRID ATHENS PARIS FLORENCE PRAGUE SAO PAULO CHICAGO MELBOURNE AUCKLAND SINGAPORE TOKYO IBADAN GABORONE JOHANNESBURG PORTSMOUTH (NH) ISBN 0 435 28243 3 Text © Sagrario Salaberri Design and illustration © Heinemann Publishers (Oxford) Ltd 1995 First published in International Edition 1995 All rights reserved; no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, transmitted in any form, or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, ar otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publishers. Designed by Mike Brain Layout by Simon Borraugh Cover illustration by Jacky Rough Wlustrated by: Geoff Jones The publishers would like to thank Amanda Maris for her translation of the book into English Printed and bound in Scotland by Thomsan Litho Ltd 959697989910987654321CONTENTS Introduction Chapter 1: Simple instructions Chapter 2: Dealing with the language of spontaneous situations Chapter 3: The language of social interaction Chapter 4: Pair and group work: classroom layout Chapter 5: Question types Chapter 6: Using audio-visual aids Chapter 7: Dealing with errors Chapter 8: Evaluation Glossary of terms Bibliography 12 18 26 32 39 45 53 61 62INTRODUCTION Who is Classroom language for? This book is specifically designed for teachers of English who do not feel confident enough to use English as the main language of communication with their classes. It is also designed for those teachers who do use English as the language of the classroom, but who want to improve their technique or get new ideas. The book has the following aims: @ To provide teachers with a practical guide to the ongoing use of English in the classroom. @ To help teachers to feel confident enough to use English, bearing in mind what counts is the overall exposure to the language that the learners get. @ To provide teachers with the resources and self-instruction techniques they need to develop independently. @ To help teachers evaluate their current classroom practices so that they can improve their use of classroom language while working at their own pace. To give teachers the opportunity to think about how the use of English in the classroom affects teaching methods and vice versa. @ To establish links between using English to communicate with learners and teaching-learning strategies. How is the book organised? The book consists of an introduction and eight chapters. The introduction gives information on the content and the theories which underlie the book and also gives general instructions on how to use each section of the chapters. Each chapter consists of: # The aims of the chapter. @ A chart which acts as a starting point and helps teachers analyse their current approach to the area of classroom language being dealt with and to think about possible areas of change. Teachers can get valuable feedback on their current performance by completing the chart. The recommended teaching practices which follow in each chapter aim to start teachers on a process of change in how they think about and use classroom language. @ Asimple description of the activities, tasks and situations which generate classroom language. @ A detailed breakdown of the relevant classroom language for each chapter and a brief description of how to exploit the situations which lead to the use of classroom language in context. @ Aseries of tasks based on the techniques and classroom language described in the chapter which help teachers put ideas and suggestions into practice and to reflect on the benefits and possible areas of difficulty. Each task has a key with the correct or suggested answers where necessary. This allows teachers to find help and solutions to problems and provides the opportunity to contrast their ideas with the ones in the key. @ A photocopiable progress chart where teachers can record any improvements after a period of time. There is also an observation section where teachers can note down the class’s reactions and particular difficulties or successes.INTRODUCTION What theories support the approach in Classroom language? Some of the theories which support the use of English as the main language in the classroom from primary education onwards are outlined below. They are presented in the form of answers to the key questions that teachers may want answered. What are the processes of learning and acquisition? Both learning and acquisition take place in the foreign language classroom. Learning is a conscious process, whereas acquisition helps the development of knowledge about the language in a spontaneous and unconscious way. The process of acquisition is particularly important in primary education as young learners do not yet have the levels of cognitive development to analyse the foreign language in the way that secondary and adult learners do. Situations which lead to the immersion of learners in the foreign language are of benefit in that they provide learners with an opportunity to understand language at a higher level than they may be able to produce. As the learners progress, they become more and more able to participate actively in the use of the language. Classroom language helps promote acquisition in a variety of ways — the language is highly contextualised with many extra-linguistic clues to help comprehension and it appeals to the young learners’ previous experience. The learners will only start to understand rules about the language when their level of cognitive development is sufficiently high and after exposure to these rules through language in context. What is meant by the silent period? In the early stages of the teaching of a foreign language, it is important not to force the learners to give verbal responses which are beyond their productive competence. This reflects the silent period theary which takes place when a child acquires its first language and comprehension of language is shown by gestures or actions and not by verbal responses. Learners are asked to give non-verbal responses in many situations which use classroom language (preparing materials, organising their work, etc), as much of the language is receptive and aims to develop the comprehension of language in context. This means that a higher degree of teacher input is needed with primary-level learners to allow for this silent period than is necessary with secondary learners who have a greater ability to communicate orally. What is meant by comprehensible input? It is important to provide the learners with comprehensible input (language they can understand but not necessarily produce themselves). This is particularly important when learners are just beginning a language and have a low level of linguistic competence.INTRODUCTION The use of classroom language gives learners comprehensible input which is meaningful to them for the following reasons: @ The language answers the immediate needs of the learners in that it is used for the setting up and carrying out of activities in the classroom and so is of instrumental value, @ The language used is functional in that it can be used in everyday contexts. The language is very highly contextualised and often easily demonstrated physically making comprehension easier. How do you contextualise language? The classroom environment is very important during the compulsory stages of primary and secondary education in that it is the only real language learning context which is common to all learners. The classroom and the language that is practised in it create many opportunities to establish personal relationships and meaningful communication between learners in various situations. Learners can relate the use of the foreign language to problem solving, sharing ideas and opinions and expressing feelings in an immediate and meaningful way. What is learning by doing? Looked at from a cognitive point of view, knowledge is developed through a process of building on meanings. The cognitive development of children is such that they do not usually develop the ability to think in abstract terms until the age of about twelve. This means that they acquire knowledge through the association of meaning with objects, people and actions, etc within an immediate context. It is only after a period of practice with these associations that learners become able to think in abstract terms and use the language independently of the context. A child learns both its first language and a second language in context through referring to the physical environment. This suggests that the foreign language classroom should include teaching activities which promote the systematic use of classroom language which is itself highly contextualised. It is also important to include what could be called routines, that is language and expressions which are closely linked with everyday classroom activities. These routines allow the learners to use language appropriately within a defined context and they can often be learnt through repetition without needing to be explained in language terms. During primary education, it is important to select activities and work contexts that include instrumental language that the learners are already familiar with (the rules in games, recurring aspects of stories, etc). The importance of the classroom itself and what it contains should not be overlooked. The classroom is the place where activities, relationships and patterns of behaviour take place which draw on the learners’ experience of school. A link can be seen between the use of classroom language and certain psycho-pedagogic theories. Amongst these are the theories put forward by Vygotsky, Bruner, Dewey, Stenhouse, etc which relate to the Natura! Approach by Krashen and Terrell in that they consider comprehension and the meaningful use of language as fundamental in languageINTRODUCTION learning. A more direct link can be seen with Asher’s Total Physical Response which recommends that in the early stages of interaction in the classroom learners give non- verbal responses in communicative situations. How can learners become more independent? The goal of the language classroom should not be simply that the class learn English in order to communicate, but they communicate in order to develop their own learning. The activities in the classroom should be seen as generating language, rather than the language dictating different activities. In other words, the language should derive naturally from doing the activities. Different learners will process information and react to it in different ways. This means recognising that learners have different styles and ways of learning which become apparent when they start to learn a foreign language. One of the reasons for using classroom language is that it allows learners to control and evaluate their own successes, respect the learning styles of others and encourages them to learn from their peers. The act of sharing information in the classroom and helping others to understand creates a feeling of success and reduces inhibition. The use of classroom language can also play a part in the principle of learning to /earn, in that it helps learners control their learning environment, encourages pair and group work and helps learners access information and resources, etc. The aim of this book is to help develop learner independence by setting up or increasing the number of situations in which learners can use classroom language which in turn will broaden their experience of using the foreign language. This book provides resources and information about eight common areas of classroom communication. It aims to help teachers think about their current classroom practice and their use of classroom language, to work at their own pace and to make any changes they think appropriate.Aims Starting point Simple instructions 1 To familiarise the class with the use of English in the classroom so that they see it as something natural and do not feel inhibited by it. 2 To establish the use of common expressions which are part of the routine of daily classroom activities. 3 To start eliciting non-verbal responses from the class. Tick (“) how often you use the following techniques in the classroom. NEVER SOMETIMES USUALLY in _ _ —_ —_ Introduce yourself to the class in English on the first day 'B Give basic instructions in English that require only non- verbal responses Cc | Give instructions in English to set up class work or different activities D Give instructions in English to bring the class to an end E Give instructions in English to tell the class the order in which _ to do things Describe the class’s reaction both if you started the first session speaking English or speaking the learners’ own language. | What are the advantages of the two different approaches? | What reasons are there for teachers to improve their level of confidence to talk to the class in English?CHAPTER 1 Using simple instructions from the start Procedure and key language Simple instructions It is important that the class accept the use of English in the classroom as something normal right from the start. The idea that a foreign language is not only an area of learning but is also above all a means of communication should be made clear from the first session. In order to achieve this, it is important not to delay the use of English for classroom language and take advantage of the contextualised situations which exist in the classroom from day one. This chapter deals with everyday classroom situations including marking the beginning and end of the class, talking about classroom materials, talking about the sequence of activities and eliciting non-verbal responses. Try to use English in a natural way and avoid forcing the class to give verbal responses from the beginning. Non-verbal responses are just as good in showing how much the class have understood. Make full use of gesture, mime, actions or any other extra-linguistic aid to make yourself understood and to give meaning to what is being said as far as the activity or language itself will allow. The use of non-verbal responses also fits in well with the key language in this chapter. If you start to use English in the way outlined above, it may have the following positive effects on the learners’ attitude: @ They will react in a normal way and not be surprised when a member of the class talks to them in English during the session. @ They will get used to decoding messages and understanding from context. @ They will recognise that English has a true communicative value. In all of the following suggested procedures, allow the learners to use their own language if they want to or if it is necessary. A Start by introducing yourself to the class, making the situation seem as natural as possible and using any contextual aid to help you get the meaning across: My name's (Christine / Paul) and I'm your teacher of English. I've got (four) lessons with you. B The following list contains a set of common instructions which the class can easily understand: Come in. Stand by... Go out. Put your hands up. Stand up. Put your hands down. Sit down. Hold your (books/pens) up. Come out to the front of the class. Show me your (pencil/rubber).CHAPTER 1 Simple instructions TASK 1 Choose some of these instructions and do a 7PR (Total Physical Response) activity with the class for a few minutes during each session. It can be used as a warm-up activity to start the class or be done as a Simon says type game where the learners who do not follow the instructions are out of the game. There are other common instructions that tell the class what to do with materials. TASK 2 Complete the following instructions so that they could be given to the learners when using classroom materials: Work... Listen and... Ask. Colour.. Play... Act out... Look at any published or teacher-produced material that you are using in class and write a list of instructions based on the activities. Look at the key on page 10 to check your ideas. C There are several instructions which are often used at the beginning of a session and as the session develops. Now, pay attention, everybody. Listen to (the tape/me). You need (coloured pencils/a ruler). Now, repeat after (me/the tape). We'll learn how to... Again, please. Are you ready? Everybody/This row... Open your books at page (twenty). You have (five) minutes to do this. Turn to page (seven), please. Who's next? Look at Activity (five). Like this, not like that. Take this copy. D In the same way, there are several expressions used when drawing the session to a close. It’s time to finish. Any questions? Have you finished? Collect your work, please. Let's stop. Pack your (books/notebooks) up. Stop now. Are your desks tidy? Let's check the answers. Don't forget to bring your... on (Friday).CHAPTER 1 Simple instructions E It is also often necessary to give instructions for the order of stages in an activity. These instructions require linking adverbs such as: First, ... Then, ... Next, ... Finally, ... TASK 3 Think of a classroom activity and note down the sequence of instructions you would give to the class. See the example on page 10. TASK 4 Complete the following flashcards with instructions which correspond to the symbols. Check your answers in the key on page 10. You can also get the class to produce flashcards showing symbols and common instructions that are used in class and get them to choose the ones which are most relevant to them. When the class are having problems understanding, point to the appropriate card to help with comprehension. This activity is also useful in getting the class to read basic instructions. Be quiet! “) PA Are. your desks tidy? Everybody | | cae hp A Le sw |CHAPTER 1 Simple instructions Possible answers TASK 2 These suggested answers are examples of how to complete the instructions: Work in pairs/groups. Listen and find the answers to these questions. Ask your partner about his/her favourite sports. Colour the pictures. Play a number game. Act out your play. These instructions or combinations of them often appear in published materials for primary school children: Listen... Look... Draw... Point to... Circle... Play... Underline... Match... Cross out... Make... Do... Find... Talk... Read... Write... Possible answers TASK 3 First, listen to the tape. Next, | say the words and you point to the pictures. Then, listen and repeat after me. Finally, | point to the pictures and you say the words. Key TASK 4 The instructions are as follows: Stand up. Sit down. Open your books. Cross out. Look. Write. Aw AWN msCHAPTER 1 Progress chart the class to an end Simple instructions Write down the expressions you have used in class. You can use the Procedures section to check the language. DATE EXPRESSIONS A Introduce yourself to the class in English on the first day B Give basic instructions in English that require only non-verbal responses Cc Give instructions in English to set up class work or different activities D Give instructions in English to bring E Give instructions in English to tell the class the order in which to do things Observations Did the learners react in a natural way when you spoke to them in English? — a Did the class understand the instructions and give non-verbal responses? Which instructions did they find most difficult? Did you use gestures, mime or actions to help get the meaning across? Write down how you demonstrated meaning and write down the relevant instructions. Did you use flashcards to help clarify meaning?Aims Starting point Dealing with the language of spontaneous situations 1 To relate the target language to the learners’ immediate environment. 2 To take advantage of any spontaneous situation to use the target language. 3 To exploit contexts which are not directly linked to the language syllabus. | Tick (“) how often you use the following techniques in the classroom. | | | NEVER SOMETIMES USUALLY | 1A | | Use English to take the register | B Use English to ask learners what happened to them or how they are after being away from school ie Explain to the class in English why you have to leave the classroom for any reason D ‘Talk briefly with learners who arrive late E Other situations: _ Make a list of three other spontaneous situations which you have noticed in class and which could be used as a framework for talking to the class in English. 1) 2) 3)CHAPTER 2 The importance of spontaneous situations Dealing with the lanquage of spontaneous situations There are many different opportunities to use the target language which are part of daily classroom life but are not part of the language syllabus itself. It would be nearly impossible to include them all in this chapter, but the aim is to feature the most common ones here and then for teachers to use this as a basis for other appropriate situations. Most of the expressions in this section can be used as routine or formulaic language without any grammatical explanation. The class should normally grasp their meaning easily as the context will help them understand and they will become progressively more able to use these expressions as part of their productive competence. Some of the exchanges require short answers although the majority of them require non- verbal responses where the class show they have understood by actions. TASK 1 Match the situations to the expressions. Look at the key on page 16 to check your answers. Situations Expressions 1 The class or one learner has A Do you fee/ better today? competed in something and won, How are you today? What was the matter? 2 There is noise coming into the class B Open the window. from the street. it’s very hot/stuffy. 3 Amember of the class comes back C Can you close the window, please? after being ill. It’s very noisy. 4 The teacher checks who is not D Congratulations! present in class. 5 The teacher says goodbye to the E Why are you late? class before the weekend. 6 A member of the class arrives late. F Can you put the light on? It’s very dark. | 7 It is hot or stuffy in the classroom. G Have a good weekend. 8 The teacher needs to leave the H Who's not here today? classroom for a few minutes. 9 There is not enough light in the I I'll be back in a moment. classroom. |CHAPTER 2 Procedure and key language Dealing with the language of spontaneous situations This section focuses first on the most common spontaneous situations in the classroom and then on those which are less frequent. A You are likely to want to check who is not present at the beginning of the class. Although it is possible to do this just by looking, it is sometimes a good idea to do the checking orally in English. This is because it is a daily activity which only takes a few minutes and you can add in new expressions each time so that the class get exposure to a range of language. The following examples can be used: Who's not here/away/missing today? Where's (Maria)? Who isn’t here? What's wrong with (Peter) today? Who was away on (Monday/Tuesday)? Questions two and four require the class to give short answers (At home. He's ill, etc), or you can let learners answer in their own language. It is a good idea to ask follow-up questions to elicit more detailed answers or to reformulate and paraphrase the learners’ answers to give them exposure ta a range of language and to correct possible mistakes (See Chapter 8). TASK 2 Imagine that you have asked the class Where’s Maria? and they have replied At home. How can you elicit more information from the class and how can you reformulate their answers? Look at the key on page 16 for possible answers. B When someone has been away ill, you can ask them questions about what happened when they return to class. You can also use this type of question when someone feels ill in class: Do you feel better today, (Peter)? Are you better now? How are you today, (Maria)? Have you been ill? What was the matter? C You yourself may feel unwell during the class and may need to go out for a few minutes. In cases like this, you can use the following expressions: Excuse me. I don't feel very well today. I've got a (headache/cold). Ill be back in a moment. Carry on with that activity. © Sagrario Salaberri 1995 Published by Macmillan Heinemann ELTCHAPTER 2 Dealing with the language of spontaneous situations If you make the most of these spontaneous situations as they occur and talk in English to the class, they should soon understand the language you use. You can also use mime and the learners’ own language to help comprehension when necessary. If some of the vocabulary is too difficult for beginner classes, it can be used later in the course when the class is more able to cope with it. D With members of the class who arrive late, it is best to ask them Yes/No questions after asking them a few general questions to get them used to hearing English. They can respond in their own language at first and then use English to reply to the later questions. Use mime and gesture to help the learners understand the meaning: Come in and close the door. Where have you been? Did you miss the bus? Why are you late? Did you oversleep? It's the second time this week. Did you oversleep? E Look at the list of situations below which can also be used for classroom language. Try the task first and then check the answers. TASK 3 Write an appropriate sentence for each of the following situations: 1 There is a special reason to congratulate the class or one learner in particular. 2 Itis cold. 3 The class go to the dining room. 4 Amember of the class sneezes. 5 A group of learners or the whole class are going to take part in a competition. 6 A member of the class drops their things on the floor. Look at the suggestions on page 16 to check your answers.CHAPTER 2 Dealing with the language of spontaneous situations Key TASK 1 1D 2c 3A 4H 5G 6E 78 8 | OF Possible answers TASK 2 Teacher Learner Where's Maria? 4 At home. , » Ah, she’s at home today. ill? Is she ill 4 Yes. ; » Oh! She doesn't feel very well. ? os Has she got (flu/a cold): 4 No. a Has she got a headache? «4 Yes. Possible answers TASK 3 1 It’s (Maria’s) birthday today. (Peter) is nine today. Happy Birthday. Merry Christmas. Can you close the window, please? It’s very cold. Wash your hands before lunch. Bless you! Good luck! | hope you win. (Elizabeth ), can you help (Maria) pick her things up? Rm KW NO 16CHAPTER 2 Progress chart Dealing with the language of spontaneous situations Write down the expressions you have used in class. You can use the Procedures section to check the language. DATE EXPRESSIONS A Use English to take the register B Use English to ask learners what happened to them or how they are after being away from school Cc Explain to the class in English why you have to leave the classroom for any reason D Talk briefly with the learners who arrive late E Other situations: Observations Did the class have a problem in understanding any of the sentences? Give an example. Did the class give short answers? ___ Did you reformulate or paraphrase any of the learners’ answers. If so, which ones? Did the class give long answers? If so, which ones? When did the class use their own language to answer?Aims Starting point The language of social interaction 1 To relate the use of English to situations outside the language syllabus. 2 To create a relaxed atmosphere and good relationship between all the members of the class, including the teacher. 3 To recreate situations in the classroom which encourage social interaction as it happens in daily life. Tick (“) how often you use the following techniques in the classroom. NEVER SOMETIMES USUALLY A Say hello and goodbye to the class in English B Use English to focus the class on finishing an activity Cc Use English to ask the class for help, offer to do something, say thank you and try and get the class to perform these functions D Encourage the class’s efforts in English E | Take the opportunity to talk about what interests the class in English | Do you think it is difficult to predict the language of these situations? | Are these routine classroom situations? Do you think that it is a waste of class time to talk about things that are not directly linked to the language syllabus?CHAPTER 3 The language of social interaction Classroom Using a foreign language allows the speaker to access different ways of seeing the world situations = and of interpreting social and personal relationships. Languages contain socio-cultural which eect aspects which have to be learnt in the same way as any other type of content. For that snteraction 25°": it is important to try and encourage good relationships, not only from a teaching point of view, but also from a social and personal perspective. The classroom constitutes a learning context which is common to the whole class and so it is important that it becomes a microcosm of life outside school with the same patterns of interaction. The following patterns feature in both contexts: saying hello, saying goodbye, lending and borrowing, giving encouragement, expressing opinions and desires, talking about personal experiences, etc. Incorporating these situations into daily classroom life can bring the following benefits. @ The input given to the class also contains examples of natural social interaction. @ The learners can experience new patterns of social interaction in a direct way. @ The language of the classroom becomes closer to the language of daily life outside school and to personal interaction. Procedure and This chapter focuses on the language of saying hello and goodbye, getting attention, key language asking for help or for things, saying thank you, encouraging the class's efforts and talking about what interests them. This language corresponds to functions which we perform often in everyday life but which also apply to the classroom. It is therefore in many cases a question of transferring situations from one context to another. rc SS ———— ———_. ee | TASK 1 Write down the appropriate exponents for the following functions and then check the suggested answers on page 23. Saying hello | Saying goodbye Getting other people's attention Requesting Replying to requests | Saying thank you A One of the routines which can be practised every day is saying hello and goodbye at the beginning and the end of the class. The class will become able to produce these expressions in a natural and spontaneous way: Good morning, everyone. See you tomorrow. Good afternoon. See you tomorrow morning/afternoon. Hello, everybody. See you on (Monday/Tuesday). Bye-bye, everybody/children.CHAPTER 3 20 The lanquage of social interaction B It is useful to get the learners’ attention either if they have just finished coming into class or if they have been working on something else. You can use the following examples: Be quiet! Don't talk. Stop talking! Pay attention, please. Stop doing that? Listen. Silence, please. CA very common classroom situation is when people offer or request something. This can be both you requesting something from the learners or from learner to learner. This is a good time to stress the importance of saying please and thank you in English as a first step in exposing the class to the socio-cultural aspects of communication. Could you share with (Sara), please? Could you (plug the cassette recorder in/come to the board), please? Could | have (another photocopy)? May I go to the toilet? Can I help? Shall I...? Request Response Can I have/borrow your..., please? “ Here you are. Help yourself. Yes, of course. » Yes, all right. Thank you (very much). # Thanks for your help. Thank you for... TASK 2 Make a list of the situations in which you can ask the class for help. Get the class themselves to give you some ideas to add to the list. Look at the suggested ideas on page 23. It is also useful for the class to know how to ask you or the other members of the class for help with language: How do you spell...? How do you say...? What does... mean? Is that right? What's the meaning of...?CHAPTER 3 The language of social interaction D Try to give the class positive reinforcement and recognise the effort they have made: Right. That's right. Good. That's fine. Fine. Very good. OK. ! like that. Quite right. Excellent. That's it. That's correct. It is also important to give feedback when the learners’ work or answers have not been satisfactory or correct. Give them an opportunity to try again and make an improvement. Giving feedback: Not really. I'm afraid you can't say that. Not quite, really. That's not right. To get the class to make more effort: Try again. There’s no hurry. Come on. Don't worry. That's better. Try harder. Have a go. Can anyone help? Almost right. TASK 3 Describe a situation in which a learner has not achieved good enough marks but can improve them. Write down what you say to try and get more effort from the learner and his/her responses. Look at the suggested answers on page 23. LL ee ————— E It is also a good idea to take every opportunity to talk to the class about what interests them. For example: Teacher Learner(s) Did you play a football match yesterday? 4 Yes. Who played? » “ Riverside and Woodhall. Who were the winners? 4 So, you won the match. - Congratulations! Riverside. 21CHAPTER 3 22 The language of social interaction Yes. Teacher Learner(s) Did you have a good weekend? «Yes. Where did you go? a *% To (the cinema/a birthday party). Really? > 4 - That's nice. TASK 4 Write down some topics that you could use to generate short conversations with the class. Then look at the suggested answers on page 24. Holidays | ‘yy a Co Weekends Co Ce » D OO CO COCHAPTER 3 The language of social interaction Possible answers TASK 1 The following exponents could be used for the functions listed: Saying hello Hello. Good morning/afternoon/evening. Saying goodbye Bye-bye. See you tomorrow. See you on Monday. Getting other people's attention. Pay attention, please. Listen. Making requests Can | have your book, please? Can | borrow your pen? Could you come to the front? Responding to requests Here you are. Yes, of course. Help yourself. Saying thank you Thank you (very much). Thanks for your help. Possible answers TASK 2 These are some of the situations where you could ask for the class's help: handing out photocopies, collecting notebooks or work, writing the date on the board, cleaning the board, tidying up classroom materials, taking something to another teacher, etc. Possible answers TASK 3 See also the expressions in section D of this chapter. The following expressions could be used to indicate that the learner should try again That's not right. Try again. That's better Not guite. Try harder. Almost right. Have a go. There’s no hurry Don't worry. 23CHAPTER 3 The language of social interaction Possible answers TASK 4 These are some of the topics that you can talk about with the class: C Weekends S ——— rT, NN a Nj ee Extra curricularactivities +; ——_—Kmmmmemc—mi_—_ _ / A a ss Anewfilm/TV programme ee \—-—--—— / Aschool event ( The News J Se _ fn ~ < Competitions } yar —_—CHAPTER 3 The language of social interaction Progress | Write down the expressions you have used in class. You can use the chart = Procedures section to check the language. DATE EXPRESSIONS A Say hello and goodbye to the class in English B Use English to focus the class on finishing an activity Cc Use English to ask the class for help, offer to do something, say thank you and try and get the class to perform these functions D Encourage the class’s efforts in English E Take the opportunity to talk about what interests the class in English Observations Did the class have any problems understanding? If so, when? Did you notice changes in the level of motivation in the learners? What happened in particular to cause this? Did the class manage to produce language about the aspects featured in this chapter? Write down the sentences they were able to produce.Pair and group work: classroom layout Aims 1 To help teachers to use English to set up pair and group work, both in small and large groups. 2 To show teachers how to encourage communication between learners, getting them to spend time talking to each other and carrying out activities together. 3 To develop strategies designed to get the class to take part in activities and interact with others. Starting Tick (“) how often you use the following techniques in the point | classroom. NEVER SOMETIMES USUALLY A Give instructions in English to focus | the class’s attention on what to do B Give a model for the class to practise before doing an activity Cc Give instructions in English to start an activity D Give instructions in English to finish an activity E Do some sort of post-activity checking Do your learners work co-operatively with each other? | Are there any problems when the class work in pairs or groups? What are they?CHAPTER 4 Pair and group work Procedure and key language Pair and group work: classroom layout During the last few years, pair and group work have become regular practice in the foreign language classroom, particularly in games and problem-solving activities. This is because they provide opportunities for real communication which allow for greater learner participation, collaborative work and learning from others. It is not only the way of working that is important, but also the exchange of information. The basic principle of communication is that both speakers have different information which is of interest to the other which they need to exchange or that the speakers possess different skills which when shared with others allow the carrying out of tasks and activities. These ways of working affect the layout of the classroom and the fact that instructions are given in English make it a way of learning through action, irrespective of the language content of the activity itself. At first, it is necessary to use gestures, mime and actions to help the class get used to the new way of working. After a while they will get used to the language used which is presented to then in context and respond easily to it. In pair work, each learner works with a partner. In group work, the learners get into small groups of four, five, six, etc and work together. In both cases the learners work simultaneously, not only to exchange information but also to work together in problem- solving activities. The advantages of the class working in these ways are: @ They spend more time communicating. @ They help each other to work out meaning, share ideas and knowledge. @ The whole class participates which helps the learners feel less inhibited, TASK 1 Draw a simple plan showing how the desks in your classroom are organised. Does this layout promote pair and group work? Look at page 30 for examples of types of layout. Bear in mind that the way an activity is organised determines to a large extent what the class learns. There are some key moments in the development of an activity which influence the language used. TASK 2 Complete the following sentences so that they can be used to organise classroom activities: We are going ...... activity number 3. Who ...... come to the front? Get....... groups of four. Has ...... got a partner? Go...... to your seats. StOp ...... when you finish. aaCHAPTER 4 28 Pair and group work: classroom layout The following general steps can be followed when setting up pair and group work: A The first step is to focus the class‘s attention on the activity they are going to carry out. This is true when using published material, teacher-produced material or when the class themselves are going to carry out a task. The following expressions and questions are designed to focus the class’s attention and to check if they know the basic vocabulary they are going to use: We are going to do activity number... You are going to do... Look at page number... What questions can you ask? You are going to talk about... Which questions can you answer? B The next step is to demonstrate the activity to the class with a mode! because different classes use different strategies and levels of language. If they are eager to participate, you can ask: Who wants to come to the front? Put your hand up. If the class are less eager, or if you want particular learners to participate, you can suggest their names after asking the general question: Who wants to come to the front? Alex? Maria? Alex, Maria, please come to the front. Then start to give clear instructions and assign roles to each of the learners: Alex, you're student A. Maria, you're student B. Alex, you start. Now, change round. Maria, you start. It is important to give the class positive feedback while they are asking and answering. See Chapter 7 for suggestions on error correction. C Once a few pairs of learners have practised in front of the class and the rest know what they have to do, the class can begin the activity. It is sometimes necessary to re-group the learners because someone is without a partner or there is no one sitting nearby for them to work with. You can use the following examples to group the learners: Work in pairs/groups. Work in groups of (four/five/six). Has everybody got a partner? Maria, turn round and work with... First, one person asks the questions, then change round. Are you ready? Start now.CHAPTER 4 Pair and group work: classroom layout TASK 3 Imagine that the class are doing an activity in pairs and that one learner has not got a partner. How can you solve the problem? Look at page 30 for possible | answers. Once the class have got used to working in this way, organising the class becomes easier and less contextual support is needed. You can also extend the range of expressions used: Get into your groups. Do this in (pairs/groups). D While the class are carrying out the activity and before they get tired, it is important to give instructions to bring the activity to a close. You can use gestures along with the instructions so that the class get to recognise a symbol and what it means. For example, you can hold up your hand to show that the activity is over and as the class notice they turn their attention back to you; or you can sit down when the class are doing a walkabout activity and then they also sit down as they finish. As well as using gestures, you can also use the following expressions: Stop talking when you finish. Sit down when you finish. (If the class are standing up.) Go back to your seats. Stop now! E While the class are doing the activity, your role is to walk around checking what the class are saying in English and giving help where necessary. Try not to interrupt the communication to correct errors if the class are doing a fluency based activity. The learners will also need a range of expressions to overcome breaks in the communication: Sorry? What? Pardon? Can you repeat that, please? Can you say it again? 29CHAPTER 4 NOUUUO o 30 LH Pair and group work: classroom layout Possible answers TASK 1 The plans below exemplify classroom layouts which lend themselves to pair and group work. - : Possible answers TASK 2 The sentences can be completed in the following way: We are going to do activity number three. Who wants to come to the front? Get into groups of four. Has everybody got a partner? Go back to your seats. Stop talking when you finish. Possible answers TASK 3 There are different solutions in this situation, depending on the type of activity being done: @ Make a group of three learners. @ Get the learner who does not have a partner to act as observer of what is happening in the class. @ Change the interaction pattern of the activity from pair work to small groups. @ Work with this learner yourself. This is the least successful solution because it stops you monitoring and helping the rest of the class, © Sagrario Salaberri 1995 Published by Macmillan Heinemann ELTCHAPTER 4 Progress chart Pair and group work: classroom layout Write down the expressions you have used in class. You can use the Procedures section to check the language. DATE EXPRESSION A Give instructions in English to focus the class’s attention on what to do B Give a model for the class to practise before doing an activity Cc Give instructions in English to start an activity D Give instructions in English to finish an activity E Do some sort of post-activity checking Observations What was your role while the class did the activity? —___ What strategies did the learners use to overcome breakdowns in communication? Did the class show a low, medium or high level of comprehension? Did you use gesture or mime to help them with comprehension? Did you change the classroom layout? If so, how?5 Question types Aims 1 To provide teachers with different types of questions which can be used to check how much learners have understood or to elicit inforrnation from them 2 To establish a link between the questions asked by the teacher and the answers expected from the class. 3 To analyse question techniques which can generate verbal or non-verbal responses. Starting point = Tick (“) how often you use the following techniques in the classroom. NEVER SOMETIMES USUALLY OA Give instructions which generate non-verbal responses to check how much the class have | understood B Ask Yes/No questions Cc Ask or questions (X or Y) D Ask Wh- questions E | Ask questions to confirm that the class have understood or to | clarify the situation Have you noticed that the class have more difficulty in answering one | type of question than others? | Give an example of a question that the class found difficult and one that the class found easy. 32CHAPTER 5 Question types Types of = The aim of this chapter is to establish links between the types of questions yau can ask questions and and the types of answers that the class can give, both to check if the class have types of answers understood what has been presented to them and also to elicit more information from therm. One of the teacher's roles in the classroom is to create learning situations and patterns of interaction by asking questions or giving instructions. However, some techniques are more useful than others in eliciting successful learner responses. The fact that certain techniques are used in preference to others has an effect on what the learners produce, their learning style and their progress. Bear in mind that when you ask a question, you are setting up a chain of questions and patterns of interaction in the classroom It is not only important to get away from the idea that the class need to give verbal responses to show what they have understood, but also to create an ongoing strategy, starting with questions which require simple verbal responses and moving to those which require more complex responses. TASK 1 Put the following teacher questions in order of difficulty, bearing in mind the different answers the class would give. If appropriate, you can ask the questions | in class and note down the answers. Look at page 37 to check the order and read the following paragraph for an explanation. Where do you live? Where do you live, in a house or a flat? Do you live in a house or a flat? Point to the house. Point to the flat. Do you live in a house?/Do you live in a flat? Procedure and __ This section starts with a simple classification of the types of questions you can ask and key language = which affect the responses requested from the class. In general terms, we can say that there are closed questions (to which there is only one answer) and open questions (to which there are several possible answers). Both types are used in the language classroom, but it is better to use closed questions in the early stages of learning and open ones once the class have had greater exposure to the language bearing in mind that open questions help promote fluency and generate a range of language. There is another classification of teacher input consisting of questions, instructions or a combination of the two which require verbal or non-verbal responses. A This section focuses on the importance of non-verbal responses in the early stages of language learning and its usefulness in checking how much the class have understood. Remember that it is possible to respond in a non-verbal way to verbal instructions and 33CHAPTER 5 34 Question types that non-verbal responses are easier than verbal ones. The following list shows a series of common classroom instructions which can be used to generate a non-verbal response: Point to... Show me... Go to... Touch... Draw... Put...in the right order. Label... Match... Do actions. (Sit down, Stand up, Close your books, Make a..., etc) Where’s the door. Point to the door. TASK 2 Choose an area of vocabulary that you are studying in class (clothes, classroom objects, family, etc). Write down five sentences that can be used to check if the class have understood certain words and which generate non-verbal responses. You can use visuals, realia, etc here. Look at page 37 to check your answers. B The easiest type of question which generates a verbal response is the Yes/No type. If you want to avoid getting the class to give verbal responses in the early stages, you can get them to write Yes and No on two separate pieces of paper and then hold one of them up depending on their answer. Another way is to create a link between an answer and a physical action: Yes = Put your hands up. No = Put your hands down. Although the range of Yes/No questions that can be used is very broad, a few have been listed below as examples: Are you tired? Is it hot? Is there a parrot in the picture? Are there any computers? Do you like lions? Have you got a stamp collection? C Another type of question which is usually slightly more difficult but which generates simple answers from the class is the or type. Examples of this type of question are listed below: Are you eight or nine? Do you like songs or jazz chants? Are they lions or giraffes? Can you draw or colour?CHAPTER 5 Question types D Another type of question, more difficult still is the Wh- type. With this type, it is important to start with questions which only require proper names as answers: Who's not here? Who lost this? Who is speaking? Then you can start to use questions which require more complex answers: Where's your book? Which day is it? What time is it? How many desks are there? Finally, you can start to use even more complex questions where the answers cannot be predicted: Why do you like watching TV? What do you do in your free time? You can also combine Wh- and or questions to help the class with comprehension. For example: Who arrived late, Maria or Peter? Who is the winner, Paul or Christine? Whose pencil is this, Anna’s or Tony’s? Which do you prefer, songs or games? This type of question can be used both to check if the class have understood and to elicit more information from them. It is important to be aware of the intonation of these questions so that the class pick it up in a natural and spontaneous way. TASK 3 Mark the intonation as rising or falling on the following sentences: | Are they ill? What's that? Who knows the answer? Where's Anna? Is it a living room or a dining room? Are you bored? E There are situations where the answers given by the class are not very clear and you have to interpret what they have said and negotiate the meaning with the learner. In other words, you have to confirm and clarify the situation. Here are some examples of teacher-learner exchanges where the aim is to confirm or clarify something: Teacher Learner What activities do you like best? ~ I sing. Do you prefer songs or jazz chants? « ™ Songs. So, you like singing then? =a ™~ Yes. 35CHAPTER 5 Question types Teacher Learner (talking about free-time activities) What do you like doing in your free time? Si Tread. Do you read comics or stories? | read stories. TASK 4 Complete the following list of questions, adding examples that you are using in class. 1 Yes/No questions Is this your ruler? Do you come to school by bus? 2 Or questions Are you happy or sad? Do you like tennis or football? 3 Wh- questions Which month is it? Where's your coat? 36CHAPTER 5 Question types Possible answers TASK 1 Point to the house. Point to the flat. Do you live in a house?/Do you live in a flat? Do you live in a house or a flat? Where do you live, in a house or a flat? Where do you live? Possible answers TASK 2 When talking about clothes, for example, you could use the following examples: Where are the shoes? Point to the shoes. (for example, in a picture) Show me your socks. Touch your jumper. Draw a skirt. Put your jumper on. Take your jumper off. Key TASK 3 The sentences have the following intonation patterns: Are they ill? 4% What's that? Who knows the answer? > 4 Where’s Anna? 4 Is it a living room or a dining room? — ~« Are you bored? _- ¢ 37CHAPTER 5 Question types Progress chart | Write down the types of questions and answers you have used in class. 38 You can use the Procedures section to check the language. DATE A | Give instructions which generate non-verbal responses to check how much the class have understood B Ask Yes/No questions Cc Ask or questions (X or Y) 'D Ask Wh- questions E Ask questions to confirm that the class have understood or to clarify the situation Observations QUESTIONS Were you able to check how much the class understood by getting of questions used. responses? them to give non-verbal responses? Give an example. Did the class show greater confidence and participate more when you changed one type of question for a simpler one? Write down the types What techniques did you use to confirm or clarify the class’s6 Using audio-visual aids Aims Starting point 1 To relate the use of classroom audio-visual aids (board, posters, cassette player, video, computer, CD player, etc) to the language needed at each stage of their use. 2 To check the different difficulties the learners may have and help them express these difficulties in English. 3 To develop strategies and techniques to make the best use of audio-visual aids in class. Tick (/) how often you use the following techniques in the classroom. NEVER SOMETIMES A Use English to talk through the stages when using audio- visual aids B Use English when putting audio-visual aids into operation Cc Give the learners instructions in English on the use of audio- visual aids so that they can help with their use in class D Check that the learners can all see/hear from where they are sitting USUALLY E Use the board to give precise descriptions of the position | of pictures, sentences, etc. Draw an outline of the classroom board and sketch a diagram of how it is organised. 'Do you leave a space for the date? Do you use the board for drawing pictures, writing sentences, etc? 39CHAPTER 6 Using audio- visual aids in class Procedure and key language 40 Using audio-visual aids This chapter focuses both on technological aids such as cassette player, video, etc and also on other teaching aids which give visual support such as the board, posters, etc. The chapter focuses on the most common aids as the techniques used with them can be transferred to others. So, any techniques which are described for the use of the board, also apply to the use of overhead projectors, flashcards and posters produced by the class for permanent display, or the use of big visuals for drawing or writing on. The description of how to use the cassette player also applies to the use of records, videos and certain acting out activities in the classroom. Bear in mind that the majority of learners will be familiar with the use of technological aids at home and so know how to use them without difficulty, If this is not the case, allow the class time to look at the controls and get used to how they are organised. Task 1 Get the class to look closely at the technological aids that they have in class or at home (video, cassette, TV, computer etc) and to note down the words which appear in English on the controls including any abbreviations. Look at page 43 for possible answers. Check the meaning of the abbreviations and explain any as necessary. The use of these resources brings the following advantages: @ They give contextual support which is essential in helping the class understand the language, particularly during the early stages of learning. @ The information transmitted through the images and the order of the images themselves, the different intonation patterns, the rhythm and the pauses and the variations in language all provide essential clues to the understanding of linguistic and non-linguistic features. Thinking aloud is something most people do on occasions in everyday life. It can be used consciously as a teaching technique to increase the learners’ exposure to classroom language. When the class listen to you talking aloud, they get more language input which will help them to develop their future productive competence. A When using audio-visual aids, you can combine the following expressions with the appropriate actions: I'm going to plug in the cassette. I’m going to draw a picture. Where’s the cassette? I need a piece of chalk. Ah, here it is! Where is it? Then, | turn it on. This one is too short. And | push the play button. I'm going to use another colour. That's right. This type of language will be very useful to the class when they use audio-visual aids themselves or to help them understand instructions on how to use them.CHAPTER 6 Using audio-visual aids TASK 2 Match the expressions in the left-hand column with the audio-visual aids listed on the right. Check your answers on page 43. 1 Can you turn it on? A Board 2 What can you see? B Tape recorder 3 Put the tape in, please. C Video recorder 4 Switch it off. D Flashcards 5 Can you see at the back? E Overhead projector 6 I'll turn the volume down. 7 Look at the figure at the bottom. 8 Can you press the pause button, please? B This section focuses on how the class can participate in the use of audio-visual aids. In the early stages of learning, they can follow your instructions by doing this phase as a Total Physical Response activity. When using the board and the other visual aids mentioned above, you can give the following instructions: Who wants to come to the board, please? Paul, Anna, come to the board, please. Take a piece of chalk/coloured chalk. Is there any chalk/coloured chalk? Write...on the board. Draw...on the board. Write/Draw it next to/above/below the... Clean the board, please. Rub ouvoff (the first word). C Many of the words that the class noted for Task 1 will be of use when understanding the instructions for using cassettes, videos, etc. TASK 3 Complete the sentences in the left-hand column with the correct word from the list on the right, using each word only once. Look at page 43 to check the answers, 1 Press the ...... button, please. A up 2 TUM Wecen B tape 3 Can you turn the volume ......? C rewind 4 Put the...... in, please. D forward 5 Can you ..... the tape? E on | 6 the video recorder, please. F stop | 7 Can you fast...... the tape? G unplug | 41CHAPTER 6 42 Using audio-visual aids There are several combinations of instructions for the use of technological aids. For example: Can you plug in/unplug the tape/video recorder? Can you turn it on/off? Switch it on/off? Put the tape in, please. Can you rewind the tape? Can you fast forward the tape? Can you press the play/stop/pause button, please? Can you turn the volume down? D Once an activity is in progress and an audio-visual aid is in use, it is important to check if the class can see or hear clearly and also to focus their attention on what you are going to do next. You can use expressions such as: Can you all hear/see? Can you hear/see at the back? Is that better? Wait a minute, I'll rewind the tape/'ll start again.A'll turn the volume up. Let's listen to the... Let's listen to it again. Just listen. Now, listen and repeat. Listen and complete/do... Point to the... Show me where... is (in the picture). What can you see (in the picture)? E It is also important to give the class the language they need to precisely locate words and pictures and to understand how to describe space. The following expressions may be useful: Write...on the left/right of... Point to the left-hand side/right-hand side of... Look at the top/bottom of... it’s in the centre/middle.CHAPTER 6 Using audio-visual aids Possible answers TASK 1 Stop Play Pause/Still Rew: Rewind FF: Fast forward Rec: Record Clock Day Memory Eject Start On/Off vol: volume Key TASK 2 Can you turn it on? (B-C-E) What can you see? (A-C-D-E) Put the tape in, please. (B-C) Switch it off. (B-C-E) Can you see at the back. (A-C-D-E) Ill turn the volume down. (B-C) Look at the figure at the bottom. (A-C-D-E) Can you press the pause button, please? (B-C) wm~nwanrnaunbpwNnN — Key TASK 3 F NOU BWN = Ua 0oF rm 43CHAPTER 6 Using audio-visual aids Progress | Write down the expressions you have used in class. You can use the chart | Procedures section to check the language. DATE EXPRESSIONS A | Use English to talk through the stages when using audio-visual aids B | Use English when putting audio- visual aids into operation Cc | Give the learners instructions in English on the use of audio-visual aids so that they can help with their use in class D Check that the learners can all see/hear from where they are sitting E Use the board to give precise descriptions of the position of pictures, sentences, etc Observations Were the class surprised to see you thinking aloud? Did the class have any problems understanding? If so, when? Did they use the language themselves in a productive way? Which sentences were most difficult to understand or produce? 44/ Aims Starting point Dealing with errors 1 To get teachers to think about the importance of learners’ errors 2 To help teachers to develop positive strategies for error correction. 3 To provide teachers with different techniques and language for correcting errors in speaking and writing. Tick (“) how often you use the following techniques in the classroom. A Ask the class questions which draw on their previous knowledge B @ Paraphrase the learners’ utterances which contain errors to provide a correct model # Use gestures to show an error has been made @ Stress the words or part of the utterance which is wrong to help the class correct themselves @ Expand sentences to clarify meaning Cc Get other learners to provide a correct model D Use a correction code when marking written work Which correction method has proved to be the most effective up to now? NEVER SOMETIMES USUALLY What are the most common errors made by different groups?CHAPTER 7 Dealing with errors Dealing with For many years errors were seen as evidence of failure in the learner and in the teaching- errors = jearning process. However, more recently they have become viewed as an inevitable part of the learning and acquisition of a language and as signs that the learners are making progress. Research into this area has shown that anyone who is learning a foreign lanquage passes through a stage known as /nterlanguage. This is characterised by the learner producing a set of interim language rules which are very often incorrect but which show that the learner is hypothesising about the way the foreign language works. Learning a foreign language is not simply a question of learning new habits, but depends on the use of cognitive abilities. Therefore, it is not enough to use the simple repetition of correct models to help learners deal with and overcome errors. There are stages during the development of a unit, activity or task which require different treatment of errors. The presentation stage (a story, an anecdote, a game, etc) should focus on giving the learners correct language models. These models can be provided by recorded materials but the role of the teacher is very important here in providing extra help with understanding through gestures, mime or actions. It is important to ask questions to check how much the class have understood and to check if they need help. The controlled practice stage should also focus on correct language and requires some teacher intervention because the learners are still dealing with recently presented language. The next section provides different models of the language to do this. The freer stage of practice should focus on fluency and you should not intervene unless asked to do so by the learners. Any common errors should be noted and dealt with at the end of the activity with the whole class. TASK 1 Look at the teaching material you are using at the moment and write down two presentation activities, two controlled practice activities and two which focus on freer practice. When you use these activities in class, make notes on how you deal with correcting the learners’ errors in each of them. Procedure = The stages in a unit of work require different techniques for error correction and written and key | and spoken errors also have to be treated differently. The following paragraphs look at language these techniques in detail. A When presenting new language, it is important to draw on the class's previous knowledge to establish what they already know and what you need to focus on. Get the class to look at the overall context and visual aspects of the input: 46 © Sagrario Salaborri 1995 Published by Macmillan Heinemann ELTCHAPTER 7 Dealing with errors Look at the title. Look at the pictures/illustrations. What is it about?/What are they about? Is it (a dialogue/story/song)? What is going to happen? Depending on the material you are using, you can also ask more specific questions at this point about the characters, illustrations, information in the title, etc. You can use the following expressions at regular intervals to check if the class have understood and to provide more information: Let's listen/read again. Do you know the meaning of...? Do you understand? Do you want to listen/read again? B The next stage still focuses on controlled practice although the class use the language in some sort of context. It is important to extend the correction techniques you use beyond simple repetition to include, for example, paraphrasing, gestures, symbols, etc. Give the learner the opportunity to self-correct before providing the correction yourself. You can use a series of gestures to do this, as below. However, if the learner still does not understand what the error is, give a verbal model of the correct language. x wv She play tennis She plays tennis Years ago there ave dinosaurs. were dinosaurs. a 7 Years ago there lve gor a shirt ble.CHAPTER 7 48 Dealing with errors It is also possible to paraphrase the learners’ utterances by giving corrected or completed versions or completing what the learners were unable to say in English. For example: Learner says in 1: Teacher It's difficult. | dont know. Oh, you think it's difficult. Let's try again. [like xxxxx. Oh, you like songs, | like songs, too. | like not football. So you don’t like football. Juan, do you like football? | haven't got a blue. Ah! You haven't got a blue pencil. Who has got a blue one? Another technique is to stress the word or part of the utterance which needs correcting so that the learner knows what to focus on. For example: Teacher Learner What can you do? yo ™ He can swim. Ea ail What can you do? What can you do? y 1 a ™ Ican swimming. What can you do? H ball: here? ow many bails are there ™ There is three. Oo How many balls are there? = ~ ath What has David got? ae uES te ded She's got a car. What has he got? It is also important to expand the learners’ utterances, providing necessary information to allow the learner to self-correct. For example: Teacher Learner What sport do you like best? yp [he learner does not respond or makes a mistake. What's your favourite sport? 4» Football. What subject do you like best? » / like... Do you prefer maths or science? “_» | prefer maths. What's your favourite pet? » / don't know. it’s an animal that you usually » it’s a hamster. keep at home. It’s your friend. You clean it and feed it...CHAPTER 7 Dealing with errors C In addition to dealing with individual errors made by learners, it is also important to use the potential of the rest of the class and let learners use their classmates for help so that you are not the only source of correct language. The language that the classmates produce helps to act as a bridge between the teacher and the individual knowledge of each learner. Here are some example situations where classmates can offer help: Teacher Mark John What do you like best? No answer John, can you answer? What do you like best? ! like TV best. What do you like best, Mark? ! like sports best. TASK 2 Write a list of techniques and expressions you have used in class to correct errors or overcome the following situations: The learner: does not answer. starts a sentence and does not continue. makes a pronunciation error. gets a tense wrong. gives the wrong answer. D With written errors, it is a good idea to use a correction code which you update as the learners progress. The use of these codes allows the learners to correct their own written work. If you give back learners’ work fully corrected, it takes away the stimulus they need to overcome difficulties. It is a good idea to get them to correct their own rough draft before they write up the activity as a final piece of work. At this stage in the learning process, it is important to highlight where the errors are in a piece of work rather than getting the class to try and look at their work without knowing what is right and what needs correcting. You can give information about written errors in the following ways: 1 Underline the errors and specify what type they are, based on the code the class is farniliar with. 2 Underline the errors without specifying what type they are. 3 Classify the errors in the margin based on the code you use, without underlining them. You can use abbreviations or other symbols in the corrections codes but try to limit the types of errors you include in the early stages as you can always add in more as the class progress. It is also important to highlight positive aspects of the learners’ work both in its content and in other aspects such as presentation, organisation of the work, etc. 49CHAPTER 7 50 Dealing with errors TASK 3 Prepare your own set of symbols and agree on a correction code with the class for the errors listed below. See page 51 for an example. spelling incorrect punctuation vocabulary neat work something missing word order correct punctuation Get the class to do the following questionnaire and put their correction techniques in order of preference. This will give you useful information on the techniques the class respond to best and which in turn will produce the best results. Delete any techniques that you have not used from the list. Note that this can be translated into L1. | Learner questionnaire | How do you prefer your teacher to deal with your errors? Put the | following techniques in order of preference: Use gestures. Repeat your sentence correctly. Ask your classmates to help you. | Accent the part of the sentence which is wrong. | Use an agreed correction code to highlight errors in your written work. | | | | | | | | |CHAPTER 7 Dealing with errors Possible answers TASK 3 Examples of the symbols that can be used in a correction code are listed below: spelling 5P something missing incorrect punctuation px word order 4—> vocabulary ¥ correct punctuation pw neat work “Ww 51CHAPTER 7 52 Progress chart Dealing with errors Write down the expressions or techniques you have used to correct the learners. DATE EXPRESSIONS A Ask the class questions which draw on their previous knowledge —— B Paraphrase the learners’ utterances which contain errors to provide a correct model @ Use gestures to show an error has been made Stress the words or part of the utterance which is wrong to help the class correct themselves Expand sentences to clarify meaning Cc Get other learners to provide a correct model D Use a correction code when marking written work Observations Put the correction techniques you used in order of difficulty for the learners. Note down any other important information such as the level of the class, types of error, etc.3 Aims Starting point Evaluation 1 To relate the use of English in the classroom to different evaluation techniques. 2 To get the learners to take part in the process of evaluation. 3 To familiarise the class with the language they need to evaluate the progress they are making in their learning. Tick (“) how often you use the following techniques in the classroom. NEVER SOMETIMES USUALLY A Use self-evaluation sheets with the class B Use class diaries Cc Negotiate possible areas of change with the learners D Write short personal reports on the learners’ progress Others Write down what other evaluation techniques teachers often use with learners. In which ones is English used? Which techniques do the learners prefer? Which techniques seem to be the most effective? 53CHAPTER 8 Evaluation Factors to = Evaluation should be integrated into the teaching-learning process in a systematic way, bear in mind | giving information to both teacher and learner on their successes and also on changes about | that need to be made. Many of the tasks and activities in the classroom can have an evaluation evaluation phase in them and so it is possible to choose the work of certain learners to give information about their progress at any given moment. It is important to include the learners themselves in the process of evaluation and to get them used to giving and receiving feedback about their performance in English as it is a necessary part of the general running of the class. There are many techniques that can be used in evaluation and many aspects to be considered, but this book aims to focus on the following: learner self-evaluation, class diaries, teacher—learner negotiation and short reports which allow the teacher to give regular feedback on classwork. All these aspects are interdependent and there are, of course, many other aspects within the process of evaluation. The reasons for the choice of areas in this book are as follows: @ They help the learners think about their own progress and get them involved in the process of evaluation. @ They are part of the approach that sees evaluation as integral to the teaching-learning process. TASK 1 Compare this approach to evaluation with how you deal with evaluation now in class and, if appropriate, note down any differences. Look at the key on page 59 to check the main characteristics of the approach to evaluation suggested here. Procedure The fact that the class use English to give and receive information about their own and key learning can be a very motivating factor, as well as getting them used to a different language language area in a systematic way. The techniques and lanquage used will depend on the age and the level of the learners and this does not exclude the use of the learners’ own language in the early stages. This chapter focuses on only a few of these techniques but they are representative of an overall approach which allow the learner to take an active role. A As well as a means of recording individual progress, self-evaluation sheets also help the class to see in advance the type of learning that is going to take place in the classroom. They also provide the teacher with valuable information an how effective different classroom practices are and so in turn help to highlight the need for change. Self-evaluation does not need to be limited to structures and vocabulary, but can also be used to monitor the development of skills, strategies and attitudinal factors as all of these are part of the learning process in class. The following self-evaluation sheets have examples of these three aspects of language. Once you have drawn up sheets for your class, then make photocopies of them and give out one to each learner. The following examples are models which can be adapted to the relevant language you are using in class. 54CHAPTER 8 Evaluation Talking about language: Self-evaluation sheet How are you doing? Tick (“) the right columns. | | | | Excellent Very good Good Poor | Ican... | ...identify objects/animals/colours | ...describe objects/animals | ...give my opinion about | ...say the names of | I also know how to: | | | | DATE: SIGNATURE: ee a eee eee Talking about skills and strategies: a a Self-evaluation sheet | | Always Sometimes Never | I sing the songs. | I listen to the stories. | T look at the pictures. | I understand the teacher. | I understand the cassette. | | DATE: SIGNATURE: — Talking about attitudinal factors: ee Self-evaluation sheet | | Always Sometimes Never | I try to speak English. | ] listen to the tape/teacher/pupils. | I don’t interrupt. l I work with other children l to solve problems. l I don’t cheat at the games. l I like to check my answers. | I look after my work and | materials. | | DATE: SIGNATURE: LLCHAPTER 8 56 Evaluation TASK 2 Prepare self-evaluation sheets for the unit that your class is working on at the moment, remembering to include language, skills and strategies and attitudinal factors. Base your examples on the models on page 55. B Using class diaries allows the learners and the teacher to look back at what has happened in the classroom over a period of time. The information in the diaries should be looked at by the whole group so that any changes to classroom practice can be agreed by everyone. With low-level learners, the diaries can be very structured so that the learners use their own language or symbols to record information. A very simple diary in English can be created by getting the class to simply complete sentence cues. For example: I'm good at... I like... ! don't like... You can add more senvences as the learners progress until they are able to write their own diary completely in English. For example: ! understand... Ican... I can't... My work is... Today I've learned... C Including learners in the process of evaluation helps you set up a framework of negotiation so that short and long-term changes and aims can be decided with the learners. An example of agreed priorities and changes is shown on the next page. Prepare the model in English but allow the learners to complete it in their own language if they prefer. If you have time, you can work with learners individually to help them complete their example after you have agreed on the aims.CHAPTER 8 Evaluation SUL OP Of quem 1 pus zxi0om Aus AN0ge panje, ahey | pue say2ea, hyCHAPTER 8 Evaluation TASK 3 Write down some examples of aims you agreed with learners, showing how you helped them express themselves in English. Look at the suggested answers on page 59, D With secondary-level learners, it is a good idea to periodically give a personalised report in English. Here are some examples: Name: Alex Francis Age: = Fourteen Topic: Describing a picture You described your picture in a clear voice, Your pronunciation was good and you tried to use varied language. In future, try to use some more verbs. You answered most of the questions well, but remember that the question often helps you with the answer. Name: Caroline Young Age: Twelve Topic: Conversation You were able to name lots of things in your house and because of your good pronunciation It was easy to understand you. Your sentences were quite well formed but be careful with this: é.g: Not curtain reds carpet blue But red curtains blue carpet Questions were fairly well anewered. You gave correct, but rather short answers. Keen. You asked a lot of questions. TASK 4 Use the information in the following table to write a report on this learner in English. spelling poor pronunciation good vocabulary poor interest very good co-operation excellent 58CHAPTER 8 Evaluation Key TASK 1 These are the basic principles underlying the approach to evaluation in this book: 1 It focuses on the process of learning and not simply on the product. It promotes changes in the planning of classwork. The learner takes an active part in the process. It encourages both teachers and learners to think about the process. The learners know what they are going to be evaluated on beforehand. It promotes negotiation in the classroom. The evaluation focuses more on quality than quantity. It respects individual rates of progress. 9 It stimulates and motivates learners in a positive way. 10 It increases the learners’ contact with English. 11 It focuses more on learner progress than on errors. on nauw& WwW Nw Possible answers TASK 3 It is important to establish aims for language, skills and strategies and attitudinal factors. Language: Revise numbers, the alphabet, names of objects and animals, and the words for family relationships, etc. Ask and say my name and age, the time, dates, what | can/can't do, say what | like/don’t like, ete. Skills and strategies and attitudinal factors: See the examples in the Procedures section on page 54.CHAPTER 8 Progress chart 60 Evaluation Write down the evaluation techniques you have used in class, giving examples. DATE TECHNIQUES A Use self-evaluation sheets with the class B Use class diaries Cc Negotiate possible areas of change with the learners D Write short personal reports on the learners’ progress Others Observations Which techniques were new to the learners? Did the class need much explanation in their own language? What happened after a time? Which of the techniques proved easiest to use in English? Which proved most difficult? Did you change any basic techniques to help the learners understand? If so, which?Glossary Comprehensible input: roughly-tuned input which is slightly above the students’ own productive language level. Interaction: the exchange of information which takes place between the teacher and the Students or between the students themselves. Procedures: the operations and strategies necessary for students to use English in the classroom. Strategy: a skill or technique which enables the student to learn. Task: an activity or series of activities to achieve a pre-established objective. Total Physical Response (TPR): this refers both to the theory and to the suggested activities which require the students to give non-verbal responses to spoken or written stimuli. 6162 Bibliography books Asher, J. (1982), Learning Another Language through Actions: The Complete Teacher's Guidebook, 2nd ed (Los Gatos, California: Sky Oaks Productions, Inc.) Brumfit, C., Moon, J. and Tongue, R. (Eds.) (1991), Teaching English to Children. From Practice to Principle (London: Collins). Chaudron, C. (1988), Second Language Classroams: Research on Teaching and Learning (Cambridge: CUP), Clark, ILL. (1987), Curriculum Renewel in School Foreign Language Learning (Oxford:OUP) Doff, A. 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Chamot, A. (1990), Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition (Cambridge CUP). Parveen Adams (Ed.) (1972), Language in Thinking (Harmondsworth: Penquin). Richards, J. and Nunan, D. (1990), Second Language Teacher Education (Cambridge: CUP). Wertsch, J.V. (Ed) (1985), Culture, Communication and Cognition. Vygotskian Perspectives (Cambridge:CUP) Willis, J. (1981) Teaching English through English (London: Longman). articles Ausubel, D. (1985), ‘Learning as Constructing Meanings’, Entwistle, NJ. (Ed.) New Directions in Educational Psychology, (London: The Palmer Press). Rubin, J. (1981), ‘Study of Cognitive Processes in Second Language Learning’, Applied Linguistics, vol.11, no.2, pp.117-131 © Sagrario Salaberri 1995 Published by Macmillan Heinemann ELT