Basic terms and concepts

The Formation and Transmission of the Biblical Text

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The Hebrew Bible – ‫ תנ"ך‬or ‫מקרא‬
• The name ‫ תנ"ך‬is an abbreviation of ‫ כתובים‬,‫ נביאים‬,‫תורה‬, the names
of the three parts of the book: Torah (the teachings, the Pentateuch),
Prophets and Writings (scriptures, hagiographa).
• The name ‫ מקרא‬from the root ‫א‬-‫ר‬-‫ק‬, Mikra, meaning “what is read”.
• Other names: ‫כתבי הקדש‬, the Holy Scriptures; ‫עשרים וארבעה ספרים‬,
the 24 books or just ‫הספר‬, The Book.
• The version we use is the Masoretic text, ‫נוסח המסורה‬, the Bible
version transformed and standardized by the Masoretes.

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The Formation of the Masoretic Text
• About 1000 years of scribal activities.
• The oldest versions known today: The Dead Sea scrolls, The Samaritan
Torah, and The Septuagint derive from the last centuries B.C. and
prove that during that time different editions of the Bible existed.
• The mainstream Judaism struggled to standardize one authorized
version of the Bible. Once this version was chosen it was carefully
kept in the hands of authorized persons only and other versions were
gradually sidelined.
• Josephus (Against Apion 1:6):”… these records have been written all
along down to our own times, with the utmost accuracy; nay if it be
not too bold for me to say it, our history will be so written hereafter.”
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Ancient sources bear witness of the
standardizing of the text
• The Jerusalem Talmud, Ta’anit 4:2 [68a]: Three authorized books were kept
in the Temple. If there was a difference of text between them – the version
of the majority (2) was accepted and the version of the minority (1) was
rejected.
• On the heavy responsibility of the scribe: “Did not Rab Judah in fact state in
the name of Samuel who had it from R. Meir: When I…came to R. Ishmael
the latter said to me, ‘My son, what is your occupation?’ I told him, ‘I am a
scribe’, and he said to me, ‘Be meticulous in your work, for your occupation
is a sacred one; should you perchance omit or add one single letter, you
would thereby destroy all the universe’.” (Eiruvin 13a)
• Sages mentioned two manuscripts including unusual readings: ‫תורת רבי‬
‫ מאיר‬and the Severus Scroll (a scroll supposedly taken to Rome after the
fall of 70 CE).

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Scrolls and Codex(‫(מגילה ומצחף‬
• The ancient texts of the Torah were written on scrolls, strips of parchment,
written on one side and sewn together with threads made from the sinews
of animals. Every strip of parchment contained several columns. See
examples in the Dead Sea scrolls.
• On the 8th-9th century, the codex (a bound book with pages written on both
sides) started to take the place of the scrolls. It became common on the
10th century.
• The vocalization, cantillation marks and Masoretic notes were added only
to the margins of a codex.
• According to the Jewish halakha, a codex form is not acceptable for the
public reading of the Torah, only scrolls are used (without vocalization and
cantillation marks). The codex is used to preserve and study the reading
tradition.

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Scribes and Masoretes (‫(סופרים ובעלי מסורה‬
• Only authorized and professional individuals copied the biblical text.
• In the ancient times these were the scribes ( see Ezra the scribe, Ezra
7:6 ‫נ ַָתן ה' אֱ ֹלהֵ י‬-‫ֹשה אֲ ֶשר‬
ֶ ‫תֹורת מ‬
ַ ‫סֹ פֵ ר ָמ ִהיר ְב‬-‫הּוא עֶ זְ ָרא עָ לָ ה ִמבָ בֶ ל וְהּוא‬,
‫י ְִש ָראֵ ל‬, Neh 8:1 ‫ֹשה‬ ֶ ‫ּתֹורת מ‬
ַ ‫סֵ פֶ ר‬-‫ֹאמרּו ְלעֶ זְ ָרא ַהסֹ פֵ ר ְלהָ ִביא אֶ ת‬
ְ ‫)וַי‬.
• The Masoretes guarded and preserved the text handed down from
generation to generation, stated the proper way of writing and
reading the biblical text, and if they found differences, they decided
which version is correct.

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The activities of the soferim (scribes) and
Masoretes in standardizing the biblical text
1. Scribal emendations (Tiqqune soferim).
2. Qere and ketiv.
3. Vocalization and accentuation.
4. Masora magna and masora parva.
5. Others: the open parasha and the closed parasha.

The scribes were active from about the time of Ezra (the 5th century BC)
until the time of the masoretes (about 500-1000 CE).

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Scribal emendations or ‫כינה הכתוב‬
• In several rabbinic sources seven/eleven/thirteen/eighteen emendations
are mentioned and listed.
• Most of the emendations are tiny changes made by the scribes in order to
avoid contempt or malediction of the divine [name]. Examples of such
tiqqune soferim: Jer 2:11, Zech 2:12.
• In other cases, the emendation is more radical: for example Gen 18:22.
Probably based on another textual tradition.
• ‫כינה הכתוב‬: The scribes did not change; “the text used a substitute”: 1 Ki
21:10, 13; Job 1:11, 2:9.
• There are many other readings which look like emendations though not
listed as such: 2 Sam 12:13-14; Jud 9:1, compare to 2 Sam 11:21; Ps 42-83
(the change of '‫ ה‬to ‫)אלהים‬.

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Qere and ketiv and its variations
• Qere ve ktiv – instead reading the form written in the text one is supposed
to read the form written in the margin. Gen 8:17, 14:3, 27:3.
• Qere ve lo ktiv – one has to read a word written only in the margin but not
in the text - as if it were part of the text. 2 Sam 8:3 / 1 Chro 18:3.
• Ktiv ve lo qere- one does not read at all a word in the text written but not
vocalized. Jer 51:3
• A perpetual Qere: A common word that occurs in the text and its ktiv form
has the vowels of the qere form. This is not indicated by a marginal note.
God’s private name '‫ה‬, is read as if it were vocalized as ‫ אדני‬or as ‫אלהים‬.
See Jer 1:4, 6, 7. For ‫ ירושלם‬see Joshua 10: 1,13. (‫ ירושלים‬only in Jer 26:18,
Ester 2:6, 1 Chro 3:5, 2 Chro 25:1, 32:9.)
• Sevirin: A note that reflects uncertainty about the reading and tells to read
the written form. For example Jud 11:34.

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Examples of qere ve ktiv
• Corruptions of scribes: 1 Sam 17:7, Josh 5:1, 2 Ki 3:24.
• Changes in the grammar: 2 Ki 4:2, 1 Ki 22:49, Deut 21:7.
• Euphemism: Deut 28:30, 2 Ki 6:25, 2 Ki 18:27, Is 36:12.

• Some of these notes are known already in the Talmud, others were
inserted together with the vocalization in the 9th century.

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Vocalization and accentuation.

• Needed to ensure the correct reading in a consonantal text.

• The systems of vocalization and accentuation were developed until
the 9th century.
• Three systems: Palestinian, Babylonian and Tiberian.
• The Tiberian system was developed by the Ben Asher family, a family
of five generations engaged in Masoretic activities. Their work on the
Masora, vocalization and accentuation of the biblical text gained final
authority.

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The Masora
• In order to safeguard the accuracy of the transmission of the biblical
text, the Masorites devised mechanisms which developed into
detailed notes concerning the text.
• The Masora comprises everything outside the biblical text and
concerns its correct reading.
• The masora was marked on the margins.

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Masora magna and masora parva
• Masora parva was written between the columns of the biblical text.
(In modern editions on the right margin.)
• A small circle was put over the word the note refers to.
• The notes are very brief, sometimes in abbreviations, some of them in
Aramaic .
• The notes refer to letters or words which could give rise to
misunderstandings; in some cases they contain descriptive or
comparative information, for example Gen 22:19 on the combination
‫ אל באר שבע‬there is a note ‫ ל‬meaning that this exact form does not
appear in any other place in the Bible.
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Masora magna and masora finalis

• Many of the notes of the masora parva return in the masora magna
in greater detail. For example Mp records how often a form occurs
but not where, which Mm does.
• Mm is written at the top or bottom of the page.
• Mm contains all the words or parts of verses which show an unusual
form.
• Masora finalis contains lists for which there was no space in the Mm.

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The open parasha and the closed parasha
• For the reading of the Torah in the synagogue the text is divided into
sections (parashiot).
• According to the Babylonian system the reading of the whole Torah in the
synagogue took one year and the Torah was divided to 54 sections.
• The text is also divided into periscopes (not for liturgical needs):
Open parasha (‫ פ‬,‫)פרשה פתוחה‬- always starts at the beginning of a [new]
line and thus the preceding line remains partially blank.
Closed parasha )‫ ס‬,‫(פרשה סתומה‬- starts at any other point than the
beginning of a line provided that there remains a blank space of app. nine
letters on the line between it and the preceding parasha.

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Important ancient manuscripts of ‫נוסח המסורה‬

• ‫כתר ארם צובא‬- the most ancient manuscript for the whole ‫( תנ"ך‬until
1947 when parts of it disappeared) from 935. The importance of the
Aleppo Codex stems from the fact that it is believed that Aaron Ben
Asher (the most famous grammarian and an expert Masorite from
Tiberias, 10th cent.) himself proofread the text and penned the vowel
points and the accentuation signs and wrote the Masorah notations
in this manuscript. (The evidence by Maimonides in Egypt, the
beginning of the 13th century.)As a consequence, it has high accuracy
of vocalization, accentuation and Masorah notes.
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Important ancient manuscripts of ‫נוסח המסורה‬
• ‫כתב יד לנינגרד‬- The Leningrad codex, from 1009.
Written in Cairo, then taken to Damascus and to Leningrad (St.
Petersburg), in the Russian National Library from 1863. Contains all the
books of the Hebrew Bible with Tiberian punctuation and cantillation
marks, Masorite notes and scholarly notes and includes 16 decorative
(illuminated) pages. Written on parchment and bound in leather.
• ‫ – כתב יד קהיר לנביאים‬from 895 (maybe later?). Was found in the
Cairo Geniza. Includes only the books of the prophets.

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