BONDING 101:

Ionic Bonding – electrons are transferred between the atoms.

Covalent Bonding – electrons are shared by the nuclei.
Polar Covalent Bond – unequal sharing between the atoms; form partial
positive and partial negative charges on the atoms. Polar molecules: any
lone pairs or if it is not the same atom all the way around it.

Exceptions to the Octet Rule

 Boron tends to form compounds in which the boron atom has fewer than
eight electrons around it. Ex: BF3 – does not form a double bond because
fluorine is much more electronegative than boron.
 Some atoms exceed the octet rule. This is seen only for those elements in
Period 3 and beyond. Ex: SF6. See pg. 359-361

General Comments About the Octet Rule

 C,N,O, and F should always be assumed to obey the octet rule.

 B and Be often have fewer than eight electrons around them in their
compounds. These compounds are very reactive.
 The second-row elements never exceed the octet rule because they only
have 2s and 2p orbitals.
 Third-row and heavier elements often satisfy the octet rule but can
exceed the rule by using their empty valence d orbitals. (SF6)
 When writing Lewis structures, satisfy the octet rule for the atoms first.
If electrons remain after this, then place them on the elements having
available d orbitals (elements in period 3 or beyond)
 Rules for Writing Lewis Dot Structures for Covalent Compounds

1. Count Valence electrons

2. Place least electronegative element in center
3. Give each atom 8 electrons except for hydrogen (only give hydrogen 2
electrons). Hydrogen cannot go between 2 atoms, only around outside.
4. Compare number of dots with total valence electrons. Same number of dots and
valence electrons indicates all single bonds. Two dots too many indicates one
double bond. Four dots too many indicates 2 double bonds or one triple bond.
* Structural formula - draw one line to represent shared electrons
5. All carbon atoms must be bonded to each other
6. In acids with oxygen, hydrogen is bonded to the oxygen

TAKING INTO ACCOUNT RESONANCE STRUCTURE:

Resonance – occurs when more than one valid Lewis structure can be written for a
particular molecule.

The resulting electron structure of the molecule is given by the average of these
resonance structures.

Example:

NO3-
Formal Charge

Sometimes it is possible to have several different Lewis Dot structures. It is

necessary to estimate the charge on each atom in the various possible structures to
decide which structure(s) is/are the best choice.

Formal charge – the difference between the number of valence electrons on the
free atom and the number of valence electrons assigned to the atom in the
molecule.

2 things to know:

1. the number of valence electrons on the free neutral atom (which has zero
net charge since the number of protons and electrons are equal)
2. the number of valence electrons “belonging” to the atom in a molecule.

We then compare these numbers:

Formal charge = (number of valence electrons on free atom) – (number of valence

electrons assigned to the molecule)

In order to assign the valence electrons in the molecule to the atoms, we assume:
1. Lone pair of electrons belong entirely to that atom
2. Shared electrons are divided equally between the two sharing atoms
Other Rules:

1. the sum of the formal charges of all atoms must equal the overall charge on that
species.
2. If nonequivalent Lewis structures exist for a species, those with formal charges
closest to zero and with any negative formal charges on the most
electronegative atoms are considered to best describe the bonding

Example:

1. Sulfate ion – SO42-