Advanced

High-Strength
Steels
Science, Technology, and Applications

Mahmoud Y. Demeri

ASM International®
Materials Park, Ohio 44073-0002
www.asminternational.org
 Copyright © 2013
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ASM International®
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Printed in the United States of America

Advanced High-Strength Steels—Science, Technology, and Application Copyright © 2013 ASM International®
M.Y. Demeri All rights reserved
www.asminternational.org

Contents

Preface������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������vii

Acknowledgments�������������������������������������������������������������������������ix

CHAPTER 1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Drivers and Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Importance of Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.3 Advanced Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.4 Significance of High Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

CHAPTER 2
Steel Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.1 Compositions and Metallurgical Phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.2 Microstructure and Heat Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.3 Structure-Property Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.4 Categories of Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.5 Deformation Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.6 Strengthening Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.7 Deformation Processing and Annealing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

CHAPTER 3
Advanced High-Strength Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.2 Generations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.3 Thermomechanical Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.4 Microstructure Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.5 Property Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

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iv / Advanced High-Strength Steels—Science, Technology, and Application

CHAPTER 4
Attributes of Advanced High-Strength Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.1 Stiffness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.2 Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.3 Strain Hardening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.4 Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.5 Crashworthiness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.6 Formability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.7 Toughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.8 Bake Hardening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

CHAPTER 5
Dual-Phase Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
5.1 Composition and Microstructure of Dual-Phase Steels . . . . . . . . 95
5.2 Processing of Dual-Phase Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
5.3 Deformation Mechanism of Dual-Phase Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5.4 Mechanical Properties of Dual-Phase Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5.5 Formability of Dual-Phase Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
5.6 Special Attributes of Dual-Phase Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

CHAPTER 6
Complex-Phase Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
6.1 Compositions and Microstructures of Complex-Phase Steels . . 107
6.2 Processing of Complex-Phase Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
6.3 Deformation Mechanism of Complex-Phase Steels . . . . . . . . . . 108
6.4 Mechanical Properties of Complex-Phase Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
6.5 Formability of Complex-Phase Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
6.6 Special Attributes of Complex-Phase Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

CHAPTER 7
Transformation-Induced Plasticity Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
7.1 Composition and Microstructure of Transformation-Induced
Plasticity Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
7.2 Processing of Transformation-Induced Plasticity Steels . . . . . . . 117
7.3 Deformation Mechanism of Transformation-Induced Plasticity
Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
7.4 Mechanical Properties of Transformation-Induced Plasticity
Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
7.5 Formability of Transformation-Induced Plasticity Steels . . . . . . 123
7.6 Special Attributes of Transformation-Induced Plasticity
Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

CHAPTER 8
Martensitic Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
8.1 Compositions and Microstructures of Martensitic Steels . . . . . 127
 Contents / v

8.2 Processing of Martensitic Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

8.3 Deformation Mechanism of Martensitic Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
8.4 Mechanical Properties of Martensitic Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
8.5 Hot Forming of Martensitic Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
8.6 Tempering Martensite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
8.7 Special Attributes of Martensitic Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

CHAPTER 9
Twinning-Induced Plasticity Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
9.1 Twins and Stacking Faults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
9.2 Compositions and Microstructures of Twinning-Induced
Plasticity Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
9.3 Thermodynamics of Twinning-Induced Plasticity Steels . . . . . 138
9.4 Processing of Twinning-Induced Plasticity Steels . . . . . . . . . . . 139
9.5 Deformation Mechanism of Twinning-Induced Plasticity
Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
9.6 Mechanical Properties of Twinning-Induced Plasticity
Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
9.7 Formability of Twinning-Induced Plasticity Steels . . . . . . . . . . 148
9.8 Special Attributes of Twinning-Induced Plasticity Steels . . . . . . 148

CHAPTER 10
Austenitic Stainless Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
10.1 Compositions and Microstructures of Austenitic
Stainless Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
10.2 Processing of Austenitic Stainless Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
10.3 Deformation Mechanism of Austenitic Stainless Steels . . . . . . 153
10.4 Mechanical Properties of Austenitic Stainless Steels . . . . . . . . 153
10.5 Formability of Austenitic Stainless Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
10.6 Special Attributes of Austenitic Stainless Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

CHAPTER 11
Applications of Advanced High-Strength Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
11.1 Automotive Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
11.2 Nonautomotive Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
11.3 Utilization and Trend . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

CHAPTER 12
Consequences of Using Advanced High-Strength Steels . . . . . . . 177
12.1 Press Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
12.2 Springback and Residual Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
12.3 Binders and Draw Beads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
12.4 Tool Material and Die Wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
12.5 Hot Forming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
vi / Advanced High-Strength Steels—Science, Technology, and Application

12.6 Downgaging Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

12.7 Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194

CHAPTER 13
Global Projects on Advanced High-Strength Steels . . . . . . . . . . 199
13.1 Steel Industry Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
13.2 Government/Industry/Academia Collaboration . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
13.3 Academic Research and Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

CHAPTER 14
Design Guidelines for Advanced High-Strength Steels . . . . . . . . 215
14.1 Forming Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
14.2 Welding Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
14.3 Performance Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221

CHAPTER 15
Innovative Forming Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
15.1 Real-Time Process Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
15.2 Active Drawbeads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
15.3 Active Binders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
15.4 Flexible Binders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
15.5 Flexible Rolling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243

CHAPTER 16
Sustainability and Economics of Advanced High-Strength
Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
16.1 Advanced High-Strength Steels and the Environment . . . . . . . 250
16.2 Life Cycle Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
16.3 Recycling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
16.4 Economics of Advanced High-Strength Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261

CHAPTER 17
Evolving Advanced High-Strength Steel Grades . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
17.1 Third-Generation Advanced High-Strength Steels . . . . . . . . . . 263
17.2 Microstructure Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
17.3 Novel Processing Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
17.4 Nanosteels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
17.5 Integrated Computational Materials Engineering Approach . . . 273

Index����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 275
Advanced High-Strength Steels—Science, Technology, and Application Copyright © 2013 ASM International®
M.Y. Demeri All rights reserved
www.asminternational.org

Preface

Steel is used in many industries because of its favorable attributes and low
cost relative to other materials. It is a globally dominant material and is a
key driver of the world’s economy. The auto industry is one of the biggest
markets for steel products. In an era of weight reduction, steel was not
perceived as a lightweight or a high-tech material because of its high den-
sity. This perception has changed with the introduction of new grades of
high-specific-strength steels. The steel industry continues to develop new
steel grades and innovative design concepts to meet challenges related
to vehicle performance, affordability, safety, fuel efficiency, and the
environment.
One key driver for steel development is the continuing increase in Cor-
porate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) standards from the current 27.5
mpg to 34.1 mpg by 2016 and to 54.5 mpg by 2025. A number of advanced
high-strength steels (AHSS) that are highly formable and possess an ex-
cellent combination of strength, ductility, and strain hardening have been
produced or are under development. Advanced high-strength steels are not
lighter than traditional steels, but their high strength permits the use of
thinner gages to reduce vehicle weight. The new steels extend the tensile
strength limit of 800 MPa (116 ksi) provided by traditional high-strength
steels (HSS) to over 1600 MPa (232 ksi). The superior properties of
AHSS result from microstructural design that utilizes complex deforma-
tion and/or phase transformation processes.
The auto industry has adopted lightweighting as a greenhouse gas re-
duction strategy and automakers are now employing more AHSS in their
vehicles to maintain affordability, reduce weight, lower emissions, and
improve crash safety. Currently, AHSS account for 80 kg (175 lb) per ve-
hicle and this is projected to double by 2020. Advanced high-strength steel
panels and structures are becoming thinner, lighter, tougher, and stronger
than those made from mild steel and traditional HSS. Studies have indi-
cated that the economic and performance targets of automakers cannot be
met without the significant use of steel. Advanced high-strength steels are

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viii / Advanced High-Strength Steels—Science, Technology, and Application

currently the fastest growing class of materials offering solutions for cur-
rent and future vehicles. It is believed that steel will continue to be the
dominant material for the automotive market.
This book is a comprehensive guide to the grades, types, microstruc-
tures, thermal processing, deformation mechanisms, properties, perfor-
mance, and applications of AHSS. The first objective of the book is to
understand the drivers and solutions for building lighter, safer, efficient,
and affordable cars. The second objective is to develop a rationale for
using AHSS to accomplish weight reduction, fuel economy, crash safety,
cost savings, and decrease in greenhouse gases. The third objective is to
examine the complex interrelationship between composition, processing,
microstructure, and mechanical properties. The fourth objective is to re-
view the design guidelines, manufacturing hurdles, advanced forming,
sustainability, and evolving grades of AHSS. The book is an essential ref-
erence/text for those who teach, study, develop, produce, use, design, or
specify AHSS. A compelling and unique feature of the book is the exten-
sive use of charts, figures, tables, and micrographs to provide a good per-
spective of the structure-property relationships and performance attributes
of AHSS.
Advanced High-Strength Steels—Science, Technology, and Application Copyright © 2013 ASM International®
M.Y. Demeri All rights reserved
www.asminternational.org

Acknowledgments

A number of figures and charts from sources whose permissions are ac-
knowledged and appreciated are used at no cost. Special thanks are ex-
tended to WorldAutoSteel and Steel Market Development Institute for al-
lowing the use of information and charts from their websites and photo
galleries in the preparation of this book. Thanks are also due to William D.
Callister, Jr. and David G. Rethwisch, authors of the 8th edition of the
textbook Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction, published in
2010 by Wiley & Sons. Their photos and figures are an essential part of
Chapter 2, “Steel Fundamentals.” I would also like to acknowledge the
efforts of the following ASM International staff in the preparation of this
book: Karen Marken, Senior Managing Editor; Sue Sellers, Product and
Project Administrator; and Diane Whitelaw, Production Coordinator.

ix