ee of Materiak , _ Pa oa —s ed Pe. ae —- PyTata McGraw-Hill Published by the Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited, 7 West Patel Nagar, New Delhi 110 008. Copyright © 2008 by Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited. First reprint RZLQCDDXRCYLQ No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise or stored in a database of retrieval system without the prior written permission of the publishers. The program listings (if any) may be entered, stored and executed in a computer system, but they may not be reproduced for publication, This edition can be exported from India only by the publishers, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited. 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If such services are required. the assistance of an appropriate professional should be sought. ‘Typeset at Bukprint India, B-I80A, Guru Nanak Pura, Laxmi Nagar 110 092 and printed at Rashtriya Printers, M-135, Panchsheet Garden, Naveen Sbahdara, Delhiel1 032 Cover: Rashtriya Leona keeCONTENTS Preface Visual Walkthrough List of Symbols 1, Simple Stress and Strain L1_Introduction J L2__Stress_2 L3__Shear Stress 3 L4__Strain 4 1.5__ Modulus of Elasticity and Modulus _of Rigidity 4 16 Elongation of A Bar_5 1.7 __ Principle of Superposition 5 1.8 Bars of Tapering Section 7 1.9 Elongation Due to Self Weight 9 1.10 Column of Uniform Strength 9 L.11_ Statically Indeterminate Systems _/0 1,12 Temperature Stresses 27 1.13 Shrinking on 29 114 Strain Analysis 30 1.15 Tensile Test Diagram 35 1.16 Factor of Safety 36 L17_ Elastic Constants 36 8 Relation B Elastic C 7 Summary 39 Review Questions 40 Compound Stress and Strain 2.1__Introduction_44 2.2 Stress Analysis 44 2.3 Principal Stresses 53 2.4 _Mohr's Stress Circle 55 2.5 Three Coplanar Stresses 68 2.6 Ellipse of Stress 70 2.7 __ Principal Stresses From Principle Strains _7/ 2.8 Strain Analysis 72 Summary 75 Review Questions 76 Strain Energy and Theories of Failures 31 ion 79 . 3.2 Strain Energy 80 44 793.3__ Strain Energy (Three-dimensional Stress System) _.8/ 3.4 Shear Strain Energy 82 . 3.5__ Shear Strain Energy (Three-dimensional Stress System) 82 3.6 Stresses Duc to Various Types of Loading 88 3.8 ical Rey mtation of Theories of Failures 95 Summary 97 Review Questions 97 4, Shear Force and Bending Moment 99 4.1__Introduction _99 - 4.2__ Types of Supports and Beams _99 43 Shear Force JOJ 44 Bending Moment __/0] 4.5 Relation Between W, F and M__102 4.6 Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams for Cantilevers 03 4.7__ Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams for Simply Supported Beams _/08 48 ling and Bending Moment Dit From Shear Force Diagram 125 Summary 126 Review Questions 127, 5._ Bending Stress in Beams 129 S.1_Introduction _129 5.2. Theory of Simple Bending 130 5.3__Moment of Inertia _132 5.4 Beams With Uniform Bending Strength __/42 5.5 Flitched Or Composite Beams 147 5.6__Reinforced Concrete Beams 156 5.7__Unsymmetrical Bending _/57 5.8 Determination of Principal Axes__/62 5.9 Ellipse of Inertia Or Momental Ellipse 770 5.10 Combined Direct and Bending Suess _/7/ Summary _179 Review Questions 181 Shear StressinBeams 2. Winton af Shoat § iw 6.3 Shear Sines Variation In Different Sections [85 6.4 Built-up Beams 197 65__Shear Centre 202 Summary _ 205 Review Questions 206 7. Slope and Deflection 208 L.L__Introduction 208 Copyrighted materialContents Ta & 7.2__ Beam Differential Equation 208 7.3 Slope and Deflection At A Point 209 7.4 Double Integration Method 2/0 7.5 Macaulay's Method 226 7.6__Moment=Area Method_238 7.1__ Strain Energy Due to Bending _ 244 7.8 Castigliano’s First Theorem (Deflection From Strain Energy) 244 7.9 Conjugate Beam Method _25/ 7.10 _Maxwell’s Reciprocal Deflection Theorem _ 257 7.11 Bettis Theorem of Reciprocal Deflections 259 Summary 259 Review Questions 260 8 Fixed and Continuous Beams 9. 8.1 Introduction _262 8.2 Effect of Fixidity 262 $.3__Moment-Arca Method 263 8.4 Macaulay's Method 270 8.5 Clapeyron’s Three-moment Equation 275 Distribai 2 Summary 297 Review Questions 298 Bending of Curved Bars 301 91 Introduction 301 9.3 Bars of Large Initial Curvature (Winkler-Bach Theory) 304 9.4 Values of P2 for Various Sections 307 9.5 Stresses In A Circular Ring 3/5 9.6 Stresses In A Chain Link 3/8 9.7 Deflection of Curved Bars _320 9.8 Deflection By Strain Energy (Castigliano's Theorem) 324 Summary 330 Review Questions 331 10._Torsion 333 10.1__Introduction 33.3 10.2 Circular Shafts 333 ission _335 10.4 __ Torsion of Tapered Shaft 338 10.5 Shafts In Series and Parallel 340 10.6 Strain Energy In Torsion _345 10.7__ Combined Bending and Torsion _35/ 10.8 Thin Tubular Sections (Bredt-Batho Theory) 353 10.9 _Thin-walled Sections 255 10.10 _ Thin Rectangular Members 357 9.ee ade Summary 360 Review Questions 361 11._ Springs 364 LL Introduction _364 11.2 Close-coiled Helical Springs 364 11.3 Springs In Series and Parallel 370 11.4 Concentric (Cluster) Springs 37/ 11.5 Open-coiled Helical Springs 373 11.6 Flat Spiral Springs 378 11.7__Leaf Or Laminated Springs 380 Summary _384 Review Questions 385 12,_Columns and Struts 2.2 BR 12.1 Introduction 388 12.2 Euler’s Theory 388 12.3 uivalent Len; 39] 12.4 Limitations of Euler’s Formula = 39/ 12.5 Rankine’s Formula 396 12.6 Other Formulae 397 12.7___ Strut With Eccentric Load (Secant Formula) _399 2. Strut With Initial C 02 12.9 Strut With Lateral Loading 405 12.10 Tie With Lateral Loading 4/1 12.11 Struts of Varying Cross-section 4/3 Summary 415 Review Questions 416 13.__ Cylinders and Spheres 419 13.1 Introduction 479 13.2__Thin Cylinder_4/9 13.3 Thin Spherical Shell 42 13.4 Thin Cylinder With Spherical Ends 427 a5 ic Strain 422 13.6 Wire Winding of Thin Cylinders 430 13.7__Thick Cylinders 433 13.8 Compound Tubes 439 13.9 Hub on Solid Shaft 444 13.10 Wire Winding of Thick Cylinders 447 13.11 Design of a Thick Cylindrical Shell 457 13.12 Thick Spherical Shells 454 Summary _457 Review Questions 458 14, Rotating Dises and Cylinders 461 14.1 Introduction 467nei & 14.2 Rotating Ring 461 14.4 Long Cylinder 476 14.5 Dise of Uniform Strength 48/ 14.6 Collapse Speed 482 Summary 484 Review Questions 485 15,_Circular Plates 487 15.1 Introduction _48Z 15.2 Symmetrically Loaded Circular Plates 487 15.3 Uniformly Distributed Load on A Solid Plate 49/ 340 Point 1 Solid P a7 55 LoadR Ci Solid P 503 15.6 Annular Ring, Load Round An Inner Edge 508 Summary Sit Review Questions 512 16._ Plastic Bending and Torsion 513 16.1 Introduction 5/3 16.2 Plastic Theory of Bending 513 16.3 Moment of Resistance At Plastic Hinge 514 16.4 Symmetrical Bending 5/5 16.5 _Unsymmetrical Bending 5/6 16.6 Collapse Load _523 16.7 Torsion of Circular Shafts 525 16.8 Combined Direct and Bending Stress 528 Summary 529 Review Questions 530 12._Plane Frame Structures 532 12.1 Introduction 532 17.2__Perfect Frames _532 17.3 Reactions At the Supports 533 17.4 Statically Determinate Frames 533 17.5 __ Assumptions In the Analysis of Frames 534 17.6 Sign Convention 534 17.7__ Methods of Analysis 535 17.8__Method of Joints 535. 12.9 Method of Sections 540 Summary 544 Review Questions 545 18. Properties and Testing of Materials 548 78.1 Introduction 548 18.2. Mechanical Properties 548 18.3 Factor of Safety 549ot ‘Contents 18.4 Tensile Testing 550 18.5 Compression Testing 552 18.6 Torsion Testing 552 18.7 Hardness Testing 553 18.8 Impact Testing 554 18.9 Column Testing 555 18.10 Creep Testing 555 18.11 Fatigue Testing 556 Summary 558 Review Questions 558 Appendix I 560 Appendix II 578 Index 581PREFACE An engineer always endeavours to design structural or machine members that are safe, durable and economical. To accomplish this, he has to evaluate the load-carrying capacity of the members so that they are able to withstand the various forces acting on them. The subject Strength of Materials deals with the strength, stability and rigidity of various structural or machine members such as beams, columns, shafts, springs, cylinders, etc. These days, a number of books on the subject are available in the market. However, it is observed that most of the books are feature-wise fine when considered on parameters like coverage of a topic, lucidity of writing, variety of solved and unsolved problems, quality of diagrams, etc., but usually, the students have to supplement a book with another book for one reason or the other. The present book aims to cover all good features in a single book. ‘The book is mainly aimed to be useful to degree-level students of mechanical and civil engineering as well as those preparing for AMIE and various other competitive examinations. However, diploma-level students will also find the book to be of immense use. The book will also benefit post-graduate students to some extent as italso contains some advance topics like bending of curved bars, rotating discs and cylinders, plastic bending and circular plates, etc. The salient features of the book are the following: © A moderately concise and compact book covering all major topics ‘* Simple language to make it useful even to the average and weak students * Logical and evolutionary approach in descriptions for better imagination and visualisation * Physical concepts from simple and readily comprehensible principles * Large number of solved examples © Theoretical questions as well as sufficient number of unsolved problems at the end of each chapter * Summary at the end of each chapter ® An appendix containing objective-type questions * Another appendix containing important relations and results It is expected that students using this book might have completed a course in applied mechanics. Chapters | and 2 introduce the concept of simple and compound stresses at a point. It is shown that an axial load may produce shear stresses along with normal stresses depending upon the section considered. The utility of Mohr's circle in transformation of stress at a point is also discussed. Chapter 3 explains the concept of strain energy that forms the basis of analysis in many cases. Chapters 4 to 8 are related to beams which may be simply supported, fixed at one or both ends or continuous having more than two supports. The analysis includes the computations of bending moment, shear force and bending and shear stresses under transverse loads. The concept of plastic deformations of beams beyond the elastic limit, being an advanced topic is taken up later and is discussed in Chapter 16. Sometimes, curved members such as rings and hooks are also loaded. Chapter 9 discusses the stresses developed in such members. The theory of torsion is developed in Chapter 1 whichoy Preface also includes its application to shafts transmitting power. The springs based on the same theory are discussed in the subsequent chapter. Columns are important members of structures. Chapter 12 discusses the equilibrium of columns and struts. However, the computation of stress in plane frame structures which is mostly included in the civil engineering curriculum is discussed later in Chapter 17. Some other important machine members include cylinders and spheres under internal or external pressures; flywheels, discs and cylinders which rotate while performing the required functi circular plates under concentrated or uniform loads. These topics are covered in chapters 13 to15. Chapter 18 discusses the properties of materials as well as the methods to determine the same. Though students are expected to exert and solve the numerical problems given at the end of each chapter, hints to most of these are available at the publisher’s website of the book for the benefit of average and weak students. However, full solutions of the unsolved problems are available to the faculty members at the same site. The facility can be availed by logging on to http:/Avww.mhhe.com/rattan In preparing the script, I relied heavily on the works of renowned authors whose writings are considered classics in the field. 1 am indced indebted to them. I sincerely acknowledge the help of my many colleagues, who helped me in one form or the other in preparing this treatise. I also acknowledge the efforts of the editorial and production staff at Tata McGraw-Hill for taking pains in bringing out this book in an excellent format. I am immensely thankful to the following reviewers who went through the manuscript and enriched it with their feedback. Name Affiliation Anup Malti Haldia Institute of Tech., Haldia, West Bengal PK Kundu Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Heritage Institute of Technology. Kolkata PS Mukherjee Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Indian School of Mines, Dhanbeul AK Datta Dept. of Applied Mechanics National Institute of Technology, Durgapur A Dutta Dept. of Civil Engineering, HT, Guwahati Sukhwinder Singh Jolly Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Sri Sukhmani Institute of Engineering and Technology, Derabossi, Punjab ‘Chandana Rath Sehool of Materials Science and Technology. Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi Sunil Kumar Srivastava Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Madan Mohan Malviya Engineering College, Gorakhpur (Contd)Name Affiliation. SS Pathak Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, IEC College of Engineering and Technology, Greater Noida ‘Aasim Quadri Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Galgotia College of Engineering and Technology, Greater Noida ‘Abhay Kakirde Deptof Mechanical Engineering, RGPY, Bhopat DR Pachpande Dept.of Civil Engineering, JT Mahajan College of Engineering, Jalgaon, Maharashtra K Palanisamy pl National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalti '§ Shivaraj Dept. of Civil Engineering, Karunya University, Sadiapet J Girish Dept. of Civil Engineering, Bapatla Engineering College, Bapatta Finally, [ am also indebted to my wife, Neena, and my children Ravneet and Jasmeet, for being patient with me while I went about the arduous task of preparing the manuscript. But for their sacrifice, 1 would not have been able to complete it in the most satisfying way. A creation by a human being can never be perfect. A number of mistakes might have crept in the text. I shall be highly grateful to the readers and the users of the book for their uninhibited comments and pointing out the errors. Do feel free to contact me at ss_rattan@hotmail.com S'S RattanVISUAL WALKTHROUGH AND THEORIES OF FAILURES Introduction at the beginning of each chapter sums up the aim and contents of the chapter. Example 6.22 A oma ba ABC A variety of solved examples to reinforce the concepts. 1 Soap AB mem Asking pert By 12 we tana, nig came) Concise and comprehensive treatment of topics with emphasis on fundamental concepts.Vistial Walidhrough : a (— Beeting Sms in Beams fer 1 What do you et ya a sna pe aon? 1 Drnetp be tony af ie ba iy go em ade A number of..theoreticat questions and unsolved problems. for/practice: to widen whe horizon.’ of comprehension-of the topic. Summary at the end of each chapter recapitulates the inferences for quick revision. ‘Tebelgeoget aoa non seein ope bce ener Peta potions wr donk ror + cra negeinn of chom lat aig en ‘Sannin sb el eat of aa te irs ‘noha Maar sed esse hehe am yon a ‘Sega ber eta dati irgatim need de cpt i int: ce ‘rer ice te steed ems # yore Thc of ‘tpn av Fauly weve tel wien fT Moly ea ag et ibe Peg ee 0 er Example 3.7 A trope yo pes ect Re 28 ws of 4 me oe Th ge ee FL rg fe peg ‘Decne mace ered te Sf a ta eng a enonpetn at o ena ft ne set roo Setting Ae Ee. De 1 a? “Tem nine a= gh of e+ wh of pe Tie Seach ass sr sti ret alr ering te od B82 1022 ‘Thos vga san at ar rc meine ts Perea pe eg Internationa system ot units (SI) throughout the —bodk "for universal approval (0 Wamp Whee wp tcc beady ow cam ong nang 1 wee dea o wocestie Latntsats . wed ears eagle 3.8 erica mp ary de ape en nasSimple diagrams for easy visualization of the explanations. iineaed oe Asstora ne I Le se of ld Won ry oesetin i tvtitite dali wih peeps WR Deng al hae cs ap cg “Then d= 4a oreo?) Ze h_e au G7 oad an” ou ay ay Appendix | Appendix containing multiple choice questions to prepare for competitive examinations. Appendix II IMPORTANT, RELATIONS AND RESULTS Appendix containing important relations for ready reference.Qe B*OSHsTse ANS = Pmt Sy Us LIST OF SYMBOLS area area width width diameter, height, depth diameter eccentricity modulus of elasticity, Young’s modulus force acceleration due to gravity shear modulus, modulus of rigidity height, distance height moment of inertia length number of joints polar moment of inertia torsional stiffness, stiffness of spring Bulk modulus length length, load factor mass, modular ratio, number of members moment, bending moment, mass number of coils Pressure, compressive stress force, load shear flow SQR NT MSD = X Yee RSOQAN & DEX E TANKS radius radius, reaction length shape factor thickness, time, temperature torque strain energy density strain energy, resilience volume rate of loading force, weight, load rectangular coordinates, distances section modulus direct stress angle angle, shear strain angle, coefficient of thermal expansion increment of quantity, deflec- tion, extension shear stress elongation direct strain 3.1416 Poisson’s ratio angle angle angular velocity densitywe PAT a os i) 1.1 INTRODUCTION External forces acting on individual structural or machine members of an engineering design are common. An engineer always endeavours to have such a design so that ‘these are safe, durable and economical. Thus load carrying capacity of the members being designed is of paramount importance to know their dimensions to have the ‘minimum cost. The subject Strength of Materials deals with the strength or the load- carrying capacity of various members such as beams and columns. It also considers their stability and rigidity. Theory of structures involves the application of these principles to structures made up of beams, columns, slabs and arches. Force acting on a body is termed as load. A concentrated load is also known as a point load and a distributed load over a length is known as distributed load, Distributed load of constant value is called uniformly distributed load. If a structure as a whole is in equilibrium, its members are also in equilibrium individually which implies that ‘the resultant of all the forces acting on a member must be zero. However, the forces acting on a body tend to deform or tom the body. For example, a load P acting on a body tends to pull it apart (Fig. 1.1@). This type of pull may also be applied if one end of the body is fixed (Fig. 1.1). In this case, the balancing force is provided by the reaction of the fixed end, Such type of pulling force is known as tension or tensile force. A tensile force tends to increase the length and decrease the cross-section of the body. Ina similar way. a force tending to push or compress a body is known as compression ‘or compressive force which tends to shorten the length (Fig. |.1c). i ee [pr ar) @ Fig. 1.1 P+ deff (a)& me Strength of Materials Usually, the forces acting on a body along the longitudinal axis are known as direct or axial forces and the forces acting normal to the longitudinal axis of a body are known as transverse or normal forces. In the elementary theory of analysis, a material subjected to external forces is assumed to be perfectly clastic, i.e. the deformations caused to the body totally disappear as soon as the load or forces are removed. Other assumptions are that the materials are isotropic (same properties in all directions) and homogeneous (same properties anywhere in the body). 1.2) STRESS The applied external forces on a body are transmitted to the supports through the material of the body. This phenomenon tends to deform the body and causes it to develop equal and opposite internal forces. These internal forces by virtue of cohesion between particles of the material tend to resist the deformation. The magnitude of the internal resisting forces is equal to the applied forces but the direction is opposite. Let the member shown in Fig. I.la be cut through the section X-X as shown in Fig. 1.2. Now, each segment of the member is in equilibrium under the action of force P and the internal resisting force. The resisting force per unit area of the surface is known as intensity of stress or simply stress and is denoted by o. Thus if the load P is assumed as uniformly distributed over a sectional area A, then the stress o is given by x Ee} P Fig. 1.2 a=P/A (hl) However, if the intensity of stress is not uniform throughout the body, then the stress at any point is defined as o= OP/5A where 6A = Infinitesimal area of cross-section and SP = Load applied on area 5A The stress may be tensile or compressive depending upon the nature of forces applied on the body. Stress at the elastic limit is usually referred as proof stress. Units ‘The unit of stress is N/m? or Pascal (Pa). However, this is a very small unit, almost the stress due to placing an apple on an area of 1 m2. Thus it is preferred to express stress in units of MN/m? or MPa.Simpie Stiess and Stain : ome 1 MPa = 1 x 10° Nim? = | N/mm? Also 1 GPa = 1000 MPa = 1000 N/mm? = 1 kN/mm? In numerical problems, it is always convenient to express the units of stress mentioned in MPa and GPa in the form of N/mm?. When two equal and opposite parallel forces not in the same line act on two parts of a body, then one part tends to slide over or shear from the other across any section and the stress developed is termed as shear stress. In Fig. 1.3a and 6, the material is sheared along any section X-X whereas in a riveted joint (Fig.1.3c), the shearing is across the rivet diameter, SHEARING eg? x P (a (a " e. 1.3 If P is the force applied and A is the area being sheared, then the intensity of shear stress is given by T= P/A 1.2) and if the intensity of shear stress varies over an area, t= OP/SA Remember that shear stress is always tangential to the area over which it acts. Complimentary Shear Stress Consider an infinitely small c pr. é rectangular element ABCD under 7 t shear stress of intensity tacting on | | | | planes AD and BC as shown in Fig. 1.4a. It is clear from the figure that T the shear stress acting on the AR——x——1 8 A———+ v8 element will tend to rotate the () Fig. 1.4 ® block in the clockwise direction. ‘s- As there is no other force acting on the element, static equilibrium of the element can only be attained if another couple of the same magnitude is applied in the counter- clockwise direction. This can be achieved by having shear stress of intensity 7 on the faces AB and CD (Fig. 1.48). Assuming x and y to be the lengths of the sides AB and BC of the rectangular element and a unit thickness perpendicular to the figure, The force of the given couple = 1.(y.1) bot4 ‘Strength of Materials ‘The moment of the given couple = (t.y)..* Similarly, The force of balancing couple = t’.(x.1) The moment of balancing couple = (t'.x).y For equilibrium, equating the two, (ty).x = (T.3x).y or T= T° which shows that the magnitude of the balancing shear stresses is the same as of the applied stresses. The shear stresses on the transverse pair of faces are known as complimentary shear stresses. Thus every shear stress is always accompanied by an equal complimentary shear stress on perpendicular planes. Owing to the characteristic of complimentary shear stresses for the equilibrium of members subjected to shear stresses, near a free boundary on which no external force acts, the shear stress must follow a direction parallel to the boundary. This is because any component of the shear force perpendicular to the surface will find no complimentary shear stress on the boundary plane. The presence of complimentary shear stress may cause an early failure of anisotropic materials such as timber which is weaker in shear along the grain than normal to the grain. 1.4 STRAIN The deformation of a body under a load is proportional to its length. To study the behaviour of a material, it is convenient to study the deformation per unit length of a body than its total deformation. The elongation per unit length of a body is known as strain and is denoted by Greek symbol & If A is the elongation of a body of length L, the strain eis given by AML (1,3) As it is a ratio of similar quanti i Shear Strain ' —_—_——_ + A rectangular element of a body is distorted by shear 19 stresses as shown in Fig. 1.5. If the lower surface is assumed. fi to be fixed, the upper surface slides relative to the lower F | surface and the commer angles are altered by angle @. Shear strain is defined as the change in the right angle of the element measured in radians and is dimensionless. Fig. 1.5 1.5,.MODULUS OF ELASTICITY AND MODULUS OF RIGIDITY. For elastic bodies, the ratio of stress to strain is constant and is known as Young’s Modulus or the Modulus of Elasticity and is denoted by E, i.c., E= ale (14) Strain has no units as it is a ratio. Thus & has the same units The materials that maintain this ratio are said to obey Hook's jaw which states that within elastic limits, strain is proportional to the stress producing it. The elastic limit of a material is determined by plotting a tensile test diagram (Refer section 1.15).‘Simipie Stress and Strain @ Young's modulus is the stress required to cause a unit strain. As a unit strain means elongation of a body equal to original length (since ¢ = A/L), this implies that Young's modulus is the stress or the force required per unit area to elongate the body by its original size or to causes the length to be doubled. However, for most of the engineering materials, the strain does not exceed 1/1000. Obviously, mild steel has a much higher value of Young’s modulus £ as compared to rubber. Similarly, for elastic materials, the shear strain is found to be proportional to the applied shear stress within the elastic limit. Modulus of rigidity or shear modulus denoted. by G is the ratio of shear stress to shear strain, i.e. Gado (1.5) 1.6: ELONGATION OF A BAR # An expression for the elongation of a bar of length Z and cross-sectional area A under ‘the action of a force P is obtained below: As E=2 sg e= 2% £ E PL Thus elongation of abar of lengthL, A= TE (1.6) 1.7. PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION - The principle of superposition states that if a body is acted upon by a number of loads on various segments of a body, then the net effect on the body is the sum of the effects caused by each of the loads acting independently on the respective segment of the body. Thus each segment can be considered for its equilibrium. This is done making a diagram of the segment alongwith various forces acting on it. This diagram is generally referred as free body diagram. The principle of superposition is applicable to all parameters like stress, strain and deflection. However, it is not applicable to materials with non-finear stress-strain characteristics which do not follow Hook's law. Example 1.1 A steel bar of 25-mm diameter is acted upon by forces as shown in Fig. 1.6a, What is the total elongation of the bar? Take E = 190 GPa, 6OKN-—-|20kN—=— | 30KN 50 kN G 60~4 60 of 80 so— fon (o) Fig. 1.6& 9) 55> Strength of Materiais Solution Area of the section = ; (25Y = 490.88 mm*, E = 190 GPa = 190 000 Nimm* Forces in various segments are considered by taking free-body diagram of each segment as follows (Fig. 1.6): Segment AB: At section AA, it is 60 KN tensile and for force equilibrium of this segment, it is to be 60 KN tensile at BB also. Segment BC: Force at section BB = 60 KN (as above) + 20 KN (tensile force at section BB) = 80 KN (tensile) = Force at section CC Segment CD: Force at section CC = 80 kN (as above) — 30 KN (compressive force at section CC) = 50 KN (tensile) = Force at section DD PL Elongation is given by, A = —— ngation is given by, AE =————— (60 1 =37! 400.88 x 190 000 © 000 x 2000 + 80 000 x 1000 + 50 000 x 3000) = 3.75 mm Example 1.2. A steel circular bar has three segments as shawn in Fig. 1.7a. Determine (i) the total elongation of the bar (ii) the length of the middle segment to have zero elongation of the bar (iii) the diameter of the last segment to have zero elongation of the bar Take E = 205 GPa. Fig. 1.7 Solution Forces in various segments (Fig. 1.7):Simple Stress and Strain of (i) Segment CD: At section DD, it is 80 KN tensiles and for force equilibrium of this segment, at CC also it is to be 80 KN tensile. Segment BC: Force at section CC = 80 KN (as above) - 330 KN (compressive force at section CC) = — 250 KN (compressive) = Force at section BB Segment AB: Force at section BB = = 250 kN (as above) + 300 KN (tensile force at section BB) = 50 KN (tensile) = Force at section AA Total elongation, Ae 1 ee | © (14) x 205 000 is 30° 20° 1 = Fer o07 (23 3333 - 55 555.5 + 50 000) = 0.173 mm (ii) Let the length of the middle segment be Z to have zero elongation of the bar. 1 250000 x L = 5} 33 333.3 - 5 = +50 000] =0 Then A 6 oil 307 ) 2 or L= 359 pop * 83.3333 = 300 mm (iii) Let the diameter of the last segment be d to have zero elongation of the bar. 1 80 000 x 250 “ A= Te oon (23 333.3 — 55 555.5 + z )-0 80 000 x 250 P= “pm =” or d=30mm 1,8 BARS OF TAPERING. SECTION . Bars of tapering section can be of conical section or of trapezoidal section with uniform thickness. Conical Section D Consider a bar of conical section under the action of axial force P as shown in Fig. 1.8. P Let D = diameter at the larger end diameter at the smaller end Ke x L = length of the bar h— > 4 £= Young's modulus of the bar Fig. 1.8 material Consider a very small length dx at a distance x from the small end. The diameter at a distance x from the small end=d+ 2& : ‘Strength of Matetiall ‘The extension of a small length P.6x 4P _ ot(d +(D-ad)xtL) .E -2 4p i(e-2-4+) deo SPL Extension of the whole rod = -Estile +(D — “TE aL) otPk_(1_1)._ 4% (Dad), 4g, mE(D-d)\d D)}) 2E(D-d)\ aD EdD . Trapezoidal Section of Gniform Thickness Let B = width at the larger end b = width at the smaller end f= thickness of the section L = length of the bar £ = Young's modulus of the bar material Consider a very small length dx at a ett distance x from the small end of the rod iH T Fig). / of p p b The width at a distance x from the | small end bx B-b bo =b+ weeb+ke .. {Taking k = (B - b)/L] Fig. 1.9 ‘The area of cross-section at this distance = (b + kx).t , PSx The extension of the small length = (b+ eye Extension of the whole rod fl L =f a - Ff_1_ lorie 1E 4 (b + kx) Pl b+kk P. B = leet +b = Fella SM) = Toe, B (1.8) zee 8) L“Simple Stress and Strain “1.9 ELONGATION DUE ‘TO SELF-WEIGHT: ‘The elongation duc to self-weight of bars of rectangular and conical sections may be considered as follows: Rectangular Section Consider a bar hanging freely under its own weight as shown in Fig: 1.10. Consider a small length 5x of the bar at a distance x from the free end, Let A = area of cross-section of the bar w = weight per unit length of the bar W = weight of the whole bar = wl W, = weight of the bar below the small section = wx W,8x _ wadx The ext fa small length = extension ofa small length = “22% = WS Fig. 1 Extension of the whole rod 1 thw afte eS] gee a5) a 5 ek 6 QAE 2AE 2AE = deformation due to a weight W at the lower end/2 | Thus the deformation of the bar under its own weight is equal to half the deformation due to a direct load equal to the weight of the body applied at the lower end. Conical Section Consider a small length dx of the bar at a distance x from the free end (Fig. 1.11). | Let A =area of cross-section at the small length w = weight per unit volume of the bar t 7 W, = weight of the bar below the section = wAx/3 | ! ‘The extension of a small length = Wx mise i " Fig. 1.11 wt =— | xde Extension of the whole rod = fas sae 36] wh (1.10) 6E Comparing it with Eq. 1.9, this elongation is one-third that of the rectangular section of the same length under own weight of the bar. 1,10; COLUMN OF UNIFORM STRENGTH: © - Let a bar of varying cross-sectional area be acted upon by a load P as shown in Fig. 1.12. Consider a small length dx at a distance x from the top.igen Let A = area at distance x A+ dA = area at distance x + dx w eight per unit volume of the bar Considering the balance of forces acting ‘on the small length, O(A+dA)=0A + weight of the small length dx of the bar or 0 (A+ dA) = OA + wAdx or o.dA=wAdx or Integrating both sides, log, A = ox +C At the top, where x=0, let Area A=a Then, log,a=0+C or C=log,a w A_w Thus log,-A = — +log,@ or log, — =—x Be o Be Be aso a or A=aew"e (11) 1,11 STATICALLY: INDETERMINAT2: SYSTEMS ey When a system comprises two or more membe.s of different materials, the forces in various members cannot be determined by the principle of statics alone. Such systems are known as statically indeterminate systems. In such systems, additional equations are required to supplement the equations of statics to determine the unknown forces. Usually, these equations are obtained irom deformation conditions of the system and are known as compatibility equations. A compound bar is a case of an indeterminate system and is discussed below: \ Compound Bar A bar consisting of two or mere bars of different materials in parallel is known as a composite or compound bar. in such a bar, the sharing of load by each can be found by applying equilibrium an¢ the compatibility equations. Consider the case of a solid bar enclosed in a hollow tube 2s shown in Fig. 1.13. Let the subscrivts 1 and 2 p denote the solid bar and the hollow tube respectively. Equilibrium equation As the Fig. 1.13 total load must be equal to the load taken by individual members, P=P,+P, w‘Simple Stress and Strain ¢ ‘Compatibility equation The deformation of the bar must be equal to the tube. AL _ Pb op - RAE = AE AE, Inserting (ii) in (i), Agky « py Pat AE, + AE, PAE) Similarly, p,= ae AE +AE, Example 1.3 Three equally spaced rods hE (ii) = PAB, p BAR + hab, _ PAE, + AE; ) AE, AE, (1.12) (1.13) in the same vertical plane support a rigid bar AB. Two outer rods are of brass, each 600-mm tong and of 25-mm diameter. The central steel rod is 800-mm long and 30 mm in diameter: Determine the forces in the bars due to an applied load of 120 KN through the mid-point of the bar. The bar remains horizontal after the application of load. Take E,/E,, = 2. Solution Refer Fig. 1.14. As the bar remains horizontal after the application of load, the elongation of each of the brass bars and of the steel bar are the same. From compatibility equation, 4, = 4, | Be Ble AE, AEs L, Ex{ dy or Py= = .2b| | p rele] # _ 800 1/257 600°2( 30 } “* or P, = 0.463 P, From equilibrium equation, 2P, + P, = P or 20.463 P,+P,=120 or 1.926 P, or P, = 62.3KN and P,= > 30mm 120 KN Fig. 1.14 120 8.84 KN Example 1.4 Three equidistant vertical rods each of 20-mm diameter support a load of 25 kN in the same plane as shown in Fig. 1.15. Initially, all the rods are adjusted to share the load equally. Neglecting any chance of buckling, and taking E= 205 GPa and E, = 100 GPa, determine the final stresses when a further load of 20 KN is added.ba Solution A= (2/4) 20? = 100 mm? 25 000 1002 x 3 On adding a further load of 20 KN, let the increase of stress in the steel rod be o, and in. the copper rod o,, Then from equilibrium equation, the z additional load P is # 28m Q0,+ 0)A=P or 2o,+ 0.) x 100n all? wr = 20.000 @ P | From compatibility equation, A, = A, = 26.53 MPa 25 kN Initially, the stress in each rod = COPPER Ob, Oaks Fig. 1.15 EE, or o,= & Fag, = 38 , 100000, or 6, = 0.6276, <" LE, * 2.8 205 000° * this value of a, in (i) ” (20, + 0.627 0) x 1007 = 20 000 or 2.627 0, = 63.662 or G, = 24.23 MPa and o,= 15.19 MPa Final stress in steel rod = 24.23 + 26.53 = 50.76 MPa Final stress in copper rod = 15.19 + 26.53 = 41.72 MPa Example 1.5 A steel rod of 16-mm diameter passes through a copper tube of 20 mm internal diameter and of 32-mm external diameter. The steel rod is fitted with nuts and washers at each end. The nuts are tightened till a stress of 24 MPa is developed in the steel rod. A cut is then made in the copper tube for half the length to remove 2mm from its thickness. Assuming the Young's modulus of steel to be twice that of copper, determine (i) the stress existing in the steel rod. (ii) the stress in the steel rod if a compressive load of 4 kN is applied to the ends of the steel rod. Solution Refer Fig. 1.16. C| LLP ITIL? kc Co 32mm 20mm‘Simple Stress and Strain a © x 16?= 64x mn? and A, for = 20°) = 156mm ‘On tightening the nut, the steel rod is elongated and the stress induced is tensile whereas the tube is shortened and the stress is compressive. Let 04, = stress in the steel rod = 24 MPa 0, = stress in the copper tube From equilibrium equation Push on copper tube = Pull on steel ro Oy XAL= Gy XA, or GX 1564 = 24 x 64a or 6,1 = 9.846 MPa oe mpreive (i) When the copper tube is reduced in diameter, Aj = reduced area of cross-section of the tube = % (28? ~ 20°) = 96m Let G,2 = stress in the steel rod 6.» = stress in the reduced section of tube and 0,2 = stress in the remaining section of tube From equilibrium equation, Force in each section of copper tube as well as in the steel rod are to be equal ie. 0,2 1561 = Oy X 961 = 0, 640 @ 4103 0,3 and 0,3 = 0.6667 0,3 From compatibility equation, When the cross-section of the tube is reduced, the change in length of the rod as ‘well as of the tube is to of the same nature, i.e. either the length of both is increased or decreased, Let us assume that the length of each is reduced which means a reduction 2 , OD or yO. = O24 G5-2G, ee (E,=2E) (ii) or 24 - Gy = 0.4103 Gy + 0.66676,5 — 2 x 9.846 or 2.077 6,9 = 43.692 or 6, = 21.036 MPa As the stress in the steel rod is decreased from 24 MPa to 21.036 MPa, the assumption of reduction of the length of the two is correct. In case, the lengths are assumed to be increased, the stress in the steel rod is increased and in the copper tube decreased. The equation formed would have been On L oy- on LG ‘s 2 and the result would have been the same i.e. 0,, = 21.036 MPa which would have indicated that the length actually would be reduced due to decrease in the stress of steel rod.a Strength of Materials (ii) When a compressive load of 4 kN is applied to the ends of the steel rod, the length of the rod is further reduced. Equilibrium equation 0.3% 1561 = 03 Xx 962= 0,3 x 640+ 6000 [as in (i) or 0-3 X 156 = 6,5 X 96 = 0,3 X 64 + 1909.9 or 6,3 = 0.4103 6,5 + 12.243 and © 3 = 0.6667 0,3 + 19.895 Compatibility equation Oy ~ Oy = Os + O5~ 20,1 [as in (ii)) or 0.41030,; + 12.243 + 0.66670, + 19.895 - 2 x 9.846 or 2.0776,; = 11.554 or 63 = 5.56 MPa Example 1.6 A roundsteel rod Load supported in a recess is surrounded by a co-axial brass tube as shown in Fig. 1.17. The level of the upper 0.08 om T end of the rod is 0.08 mm belaw that of the tube. Determine: (i) the magnitude and direction of the maximum permissible a E = ¢ 3 axial load which can be applied to a rigid plate Va resting on the top of the tube. (00 mm The permissible values of the compressive stresses are 7138 b= 105 MPa for steel and 75 come 1a for brass. (ii) the amount by which the Fig. 1.17 tube is shortened by a load if the compressive stresses in the steel and the brass are the same. Take E, = 210 GPa and Ey = 105 GPa. q Solution A= 4™ 36° = 3242 mm? and A, = 5 x (607 ~ 50°) = 275¢ mm? (i) Let W, be the load applied for the initial compression of the tube before the compression of the rod starts. Then = Sok = 26 X 300 y= S25 or 0.08= F65 G00 or G, = 28 MPa and W,, = 28 x 275 = 24 190N But limiting value of stress in the brass = 75 MPa «. Maximum value of stress due to additional load can be = 75 — 28 = 47 MPa((Sirgie Stidad!and Stra ca Let W be the additional load to compress both, the tube and the bar. Let o, be the stress induced in the steel rod and , the additional stress in the brass tube. Equilibrium equation, 6,A, + 6, A, = W Compatibility equation, 4, = 4, O,Ly Sale 300 210 1 or = 5, Se = F090 105 7% OF % 50, Therefore the stress induced in the steel rod = 1.5 x 47 = 70.5 MPa Tris less than the permissible value of stress for steel. Thus W = p,Ay + py Ay = 70.5 X 32400 + 47 x 2757 = 112 365 N Total maximum load = 112 365 + 24 190 = 136 555 N or 136.555 kN (ii) Let A be the shortening of the steel rod. This will also be the additional shortening of the brass tube. Then 4, + A = 246 E, 105 000 (0,084 A) and o,= 210.000 or a, = Equating the stresses in the steel and the Press = ee 000 (0.08 + +ay=2 10 000 or O08 +A=154 or O5A= a or A=0.16mm Total shortening = 0.08 + 0.16 = 0.24 m Example 1.7 Three wires of the same material and cross-section support a rigid bar which further supports a weight of 5 KN. The length of the wires is 5 m, 8 m and 6m in order. The spacing between the wires is 2 m and the weight acts at 1.6 m from the first wire. Determine the load carried by each wire. Solution As the wires are of different lengths and the weight suspended is LLL unsymmetrical, the bar will not remain horizontal but will be deformed as shown am the first, second and the third wire respectively. A Then P,+P)+P;=P=5000 (i) be Taking moments about the first wire, 16 5 kN 2P, + 4P; = 1.6 x 5000 = 8000 - A or P,= 4000 -2P, Gi) Ca Also, from symmetry, . Fig. 1.18 t= P1242 oy 2 Blan la ila in Fig. 1.18. 6m Let P,, Pyand P; be the loads taken by § r AE) AE” AE or 2P,Ly=P\L,+PsL, or 2P,x8=P,xS+P\X66 Strength of Materials or 16P, = SP, + 6P, or 16 (4000-2?) = 5P,+6P,; or 64000~32P,=5P, +6P; or 5P, = 64.000-38P, or P, = 12.800 -7.6P, (ii) Inserting the values of P, and P, from (ii) and (iii) in (i), 12 800 - 7.6, + 4000 — 2P, + P= 5000 or 8.6P; = 11800 or P,=1372N or 1.372KN Py = 4000 - 2P; = 4000 - 2 x 1372 = 1256N or 1,256 kN = 12800 -7.6 x 1372=2373N or 2.373 KN Example 1.8 A system of three bars supports a vertical load P as shown in Fig. 1.49. The outer bars are identical and of the same material whereas the inner bar is of different material. Determine the forces in the bars of the system. Solution Owing to symmetry, forces in aN ? qe the outer bars | and 3 will be equal. Let it be ayy P, and the force in the inner bar P, The dotted lines show the deformed shape of the system Pp under the load P. Fig. 1.19 From equilibrium equation, 2P, cos0+ P, =P --(assuming negligible change in 8) (i) From compatibility equation, fil, _ Bile A, = 4, cos@ or === cos ' AE AE, or AE Ply AE BCL 0050) og = MEP 29 Gy AgEnL, ASE, Substituting this value of P, in (i), 2 AEB cost + P= P From (ii),Sifiple’Siése/and Strain Ww Example 1.9 Figure 1.20 shows a horizontal bar supported by two suspended vertical wires fixed to a rigid support. A load W is attached to the bar. The left hand side wire is of copper with a diameter of 5 mm and the right hand side wire is of steel of 3mm diameter. The tength of both the wires is 4 m initially. Find the position of the weight on the bar so that both the wires extend by the same amount. Also, catculate the load, stresses and the elongation of each wire if W = 1000 N. Neglect the weight of the bar and take E, = 210 GPa and E, = 120 GPa. Solution A, = for = 6.250 mm? Lah and A, = For = 2.252 mm? Let the load W be placed at a distance x from the f | copper wire and P, and P, the forces in steel and a it am copper wires respectively. 8 B Then taking moments about A, 240 P, = W.x 1-240 mm or P,= WX @ x 240 ap B Taking moments about B, 240 P.= W(240-.x) or p= WHO) Gi) | 240 wa PB 240-x w Dividing (ii) by (), — = —— ei) by (). ~ (iii) Fig. 1.20 As both the wires extend by the same amount, A. = A, PL _ PL PA E, or at = SS or = Ce L=h,) AE, AE, Pe Ay Ey ° 6.25% 120 000 . = See Shoo = 1387 (iv) From (iii) and (iv), 40—* <1.587 or x= 92.77 mm Numerical: p, = W(240—2) _ 1000 (240-9277) _ gia 4g 240 240 p= We _ 1000%92.77 556 54 240 240 o, = = 91346 31.24 MPa A, 6.25% a, = 7 = 38654 _ 5468 MPa A, 225% Aa eck - 3124x4000 1 641 mm E, 720 000le Strength of Materials. Example 1.10 Three identical pii-connected bars support a load P as shown in Fig. 1.21. All the bars are of the same area of cross-section and same length. Determine (i) the force in each bar (ii) the vertical displacer.ent of the point where the load is applied Neglect the yossibility of lateral buckling cy the bars. Solution (i) The dotted lines show the deformed shape of the structure. Assuming that there is negligible change in the angles after the deforming of the bars. Equilibrium equation Fig. 1.21 2P, cos 60° + P; =P or P, = @ or FL Pl cos 6° or pak di) AE AE 2 From (and (i), = P— P, or n= and P, =P PL 2PL AE 3AE Example 1.11 A bar system is loaded as shown in Fig. 1.22. Determine (i) the reaction of the lower support, and (ii) the stresses in the bars. Take E = 205 GPa Solution (ii) Vertical displacement of the joint, A, = " . R, (i) When the load is applied and the sup- t y= 40 KN ~ Fe port touches it, the Pe reactions of both the — 80mm?—~) Fe [1.2m supports will be up- T ward since the load is 40 4 40 kN — downward. 160 mm? =) iy “ Re Let R, = reaction of the ‘upper support t Ry = reaction of the | ogmm fe Then R, +8, an oo Pe en Ry +R, = . or R, = 40.000— Ry Fig, 1.22 ‘The free-body diagrams of the two portions of the bar system is shown in the figure. It is clear that the upper portion is in tension whereas the lower portion in compression.| ‘Simple’Stress and Strain Ca Ply _ (40 000~ Rp) x 1200 AE 80% 205 000 Shortening of the lower portion, dy = £24 = Rx *2400_ AE 160X205 000 Elongation of the upper portion, A, = From compatibility equation, Elongation of upper portion — shortening of lower portion = net elongation = 0.8 mm (40.000—R,)%1200__R x2400_ _9g 80 x 205 000 160 x 205 000 (40 000 - R) x 15 - 15R, = 0.8 x 205 000 or —- 40. 000 - 2R, = 10.933 or Ry = 14 533N and R, = 40 000— 14 533 = 25 467N Gi) 6, = 25 467/80 = 318.3 MPa (tensile) O, = 14 533/160 = 90.8 MPa (compressive) Example 1.12 A rigid horizontal bar AB hinged at A is supported by a 1.2-m long steel rod anda 2.4-m long bronze rod, both rigidly fixed at the upper ends (Fig. 1.23). A load of 48 kN is applied at a point 3.2 m from the hinge point A. The areas of cross- section of the steel and bronze rods are 850 mm? and 650 mm? respectively. Find (i) stress in each rod (ii) reaction at the pivot point. E, = 205 GPa and E, = 82 GPa Solution Refer Fig. 1.23. (Let P, and P, be the forces in the steel and bronze wires respectively as the load is applied. Taking moments about the pivot point, & P, x 800 + P, x 2400 - 48 000 x — or 3200 =0 t P,+ 3P,= 192. 000 @ From compatibility equation, 4, 300 1 a, 2400 3 or Ply _ | Poly as “ AE, 3 AE, on _eheXt200_ 1, 2400 Fig. 1.23 850x205 000 — 3 ° 650 x82 000 P,= 2.179 P, w From (i) and (ji), 2.179 P, + 3P, = 192 000 or P,=37073Na . Strength of Materials P, = 192 000 — 3 x 37 073 = 80 781 N o, = 22.973 57.04 MPa and o,= 8278! 650 = 95.04 MPa (ii) The reaction at the pivot can be found from force equation, let it be down- wards, P,+P,—R, = 48 000 R, = 80 781 + 37.073 — 48 000 = 69 854 N or 69.854 kN ‘Thus the assumed direction is correct. Example 1.13 A rigid bar AB is to be suspended from three steel rods as shown in Fig. 1.24a. The lengths of the outer rods are 1.5 m each whereas the length of the middle rod is shortened than these by an amount of 0.8 mm. The area of cross-section of all the rods is the same and is equal to 1600 mun’, Determine the stresses in the rods after the assembly of the structure, E, = 205 GPa. Solution The position of the rigid bar after the assembly is shown in Fig. 1.24b. It is raised upward by amounts A,, A, and A, ai the rod positions 1, 2 and 3 respec- ra tively. Thus the rods 1 and 3 are shortened by amounts A, and A, respectively whereas 4-© 15 rod 2 is elongated by an amount (0.8 — A,). A a We have, Ay _ 3a A a i Be Pillage, _ 5 {b) FIA E, Fig. 1.24 As Ly = Ly,A3=A, and Ey= E, : Py =3P, @ Also, Ae 2a 4, O8= Pilot Arts 5 aA 4 AL AE, The length of the rod 2 is shorter by 0.8 mm. However, to find the elongation of the rod, this may be ignored as its effect will be negligible and the length of rod 2.can be taken equal to that of rod 1. Thus Lak Also, Ay = Ay and Ey = E; O8-PL/AE 4 4, O8%AE Py AL/AE, AL A 0.8 «1600 % 205 000 _ Psy oe 174.933 - Py = 2P, P, «1500 B or 2P, + Py = 174.933 ii) Taking moments about A, Pj.a + P3.3a = P,.2a or P, +3P; = 2P, (ii)Simple Stress and Strain & Solving (i), (ii) and (iii), From (i) and Gi), P, +3 3P,=2P, or P,=5P, w) From (ii) and (iv), 2P,; + SP, = 174933 or P,=24990N Py = 24990 x 5 = 124.952 N P, = 24990 x3 =74 971 N 6, = 24 990/1600 = 15.62 MPa (compressive) Oy = 15,62 x 5 = 78.1 MPa (tensile) 0; = 15.62 x 3 = 46.86 MPa (compressive) 1,12. TEMPERATURE STRESSES The length of a material which undergoes a change in temperature also changes and if the material is frec to do so, no stresses are developed in the material. However, if the material is constrained, stresses are developed in the material which are known as temperature stresses. Consider a bar of length L. If its temperature is increased through 1°, its length is increased by an amount L.ct, where ais the coefficient of thermal expansion. But if the bar is constrained and is prevented from expansion, the temperature stress is induced in the material which is given by _ lemperature stress __ ~ temperature strain Lo/L or o=aiE (1.14) or G= atcle or temperature strain, € = aur (1.15) Compound Sections Consider a copper rod enclosed in a steel tube as shown in Fig. 1.25 rigidly joined at each end. Now, if the temperature is INTIAL FINAL iced te compere wean} nn tube. As the two are joined together, the 222277777774 j copper is prevented its full expansion and is put in compression. The final position of the compound bar will be as shown in the figure. Let 0, = tensile stress in steel = compressive stress in copper A,= cross-sectional area of Fig. 1.25 steel tube A, = cross-sectional area of copper rod From equilibrium equation Tensile force in steel = compressive force in copper STEEL POSITION IF FREE2 j +4. Strength of Materials OAs = Op. Ar (1.16) or £,.E..Ay = Compatibility equation. Let o, = coefficient of thermal expansion in steel @, = coefficient of thermal expansion in copper Now Elongation of steel tube (due to temperature + due to tensile stress) = Elongation of copper rod (due to temperature — due to compressive stress) or Temperature strain of steel + tensile strain = Temperature strain of copper — compressive strain Ot + OJE, = Ot - OSE, or Os + &,= O1-&, or E+E = (G.- aE (1.17) Equations (1.16) and (1.17) are sufficient to solve the problems. Example 1.14 Tivo parallel wails 8 m apart are to be stayed together by a steel rod of 30-mm diameter with the help of washers and nuts at the ends. The steel rod is passed through the metal plates and is heated, When its temperature is raised 10 90°C, the nuts are tightened. Determine the pull in the bar when it is cooled to 24°C if (i) the ends do not yield (ii) the total yielding at the ends is 2 mm. E = 205 GPa and coefficient of thermal expansion of steel, 0, = 11 x 10-PC. Solution Az Feaor = 225% mm? (i) Pull in the bar, P=0.A =QtEA = IL x 10-° x (90 = 24) x 205 000 x 225 x= 105 202 N (ii) When the yield at the ends is 2 mm, PL A=(alt-2)=— (aLt—2) AE 2 2 or P= ard B- ZA @ 195 292 — 2% 225%* 205 000 _ 195 299 36.297 L 8000 =68975N or 68.975 kN Example 1.15 A composite bar made up of copper, steel and brass is rigidly attached to the end supports as shown in Fig, 1.26. Determine the stresses in the three portions of the bar when the temperature of the composite system is raised by 70°C when (i) the supports are rigid (ii) the supports yield by 0.6 mm. E, = 100 GPa; E, = 205 GPa; E, = 95 GPa G, = 18 x 10-©PC; @, = HX 10°C; a, = 19 x 10- PCSimple Stress and Strain ra Solution A. = (/4)50? = 625 mm; A, = (1/4) 40? = 400 2 mm?; A, = (7/4)60? = 900 mm? (i) When the temperature is BRASS raised, each portion tends to COFPER STEEL elongate which is resisted by | the rigid supports and the | & 40 E compressive stresses are |§ mm 8 developed in each portion. However, the forces so f+ 600 mm——> +} developed in each portion are 300 mm 200 mm equal, Fig, 1.26 ‘9007 ie. G.A,=6,A,= 0,4, oF 0,2 Sho, = em xo, = 1.440, A 6250 and 0, = Sb, = x6, = 2.250, 4002 Elongation in the absence of supports, A= A. + A, +A, = OL, 1, + OL, 1, +O, Ly ty = 18 10-6 x 300 x 70 + HL x 10° x 600 x 70 + 19 x 10 x 200 x 70 = 70 x 10-® (5400 + 6600 + 3800) = 1.106 mm : . L. Also from stress considerations, A= 2ebe. 4 2s 4 Sole Oy Thus Lado, x30, 2.250 x 600 , ox 200 " 100 000 205000 95 000 or (0.004 32 + 0,006 59 + 0.002 11) a, = 1.106 0.01302 6, = 1.106 Gj, = 84.95 MPa 4.95 x 1.44 = 122.33 MPa = 84.95 x 2.25 = 191.13 MPa Gi), When the supports yield by 0.6 mm, 0.0132 g, = 1.106 - 0.6 = 0.506 8.33 MPa = 38.33 x 1.44 = 55.20 MPa G, = 38.33 x 2.25 = 86.24 MPa Example 1.16 A sree! mbe of 35-mm outer diameter and 30-mm inner diameter encloses a gun metal rod of 25-mm diameter and is rigidly joined at each end. Ifata temperature of 40°C there is no longitudinal stress, determine the stresses developed in the rod and the tube when the temperature of the assembly is raised to 240°C, Coefficient of thermal expansion of steel = If x 10°6 °C.a __ Strength of Materials’ Coefficient of thermal expansion of gun metal = 18 x 10-9PC. Young's modulus for steel = 205 GPa Young's modulus for gun metal = 91.5 GPa Also find the increase in length if the original length of the assembly is I m. Solution Refer Fig. 1.27, ros a Fe A,= —(5° - 30°)=255.25 mm? € fe — 4 5 E GUN METAL | EE gd 2 8 a and A,= pe = 490.87 mm‘ As the coefficient of expansion of ‘STEEL the gun metal is more as compared to that of steel, the final expansion Fig. 1.27 will be less than the free expansion of gun metal due to temperature rise and thus compressive stresses will be developed in the gun metal rod. In a similar way, as the coefficient of expansion of the steel is less, the final expansion will be more than the free expansion of steel due to temperature rise and thus it will have tensile stresses. Temperature strain of steel + tensile strain = Temperature strain of copper — compressive strain : G, o, P P ie. Out = Ot or Ott Te Ol or (a, —@,) - _ 6 or (240 — 40)(18 — 11) x10" + See tS AE, A,E, 255.25 x 205 000 490.87 x 91 500 1400 x10°* = — _, = 33841 N 19.11x10~" + 22.26 x1 33841 33 841 o,= = 132.6 MPaand o, = = 68.94 MPa * 255.25 * 490.87 Increase in length of assembly = Elongation of steel tube (due to temperature + due to tensile stress) = Elongation of copper rod (due to temperature — due to compressive stress) Using the first equation, Increase in length okt + ek Has + ¢| E, E, " 132. 205 000 =2.847 mm tv0{ 11108 200+| Simple Sttéss’and’strain a gd Baik peat & Example 1.17 Rails are laid such that there is no stress in them at 24° C. If the rails are 32-m long, determine (i) the stress in the rails at 80°C, when there is no allowance for expansion. (ii) the stress in the rails at 80°C, when there is an expansion allowance of 8 mm per rail. (iii) The expansion allowance for no stress in the rails at 80°C. (iv) The maximum temperature for no stress in the rails when expansion allowance is 8 mm. Coefficient of linear expansion, 0 = II x }0-°7°C and E = 205 GPa Solution Change in temperature = 80° — 24° = 56° (When there is no allowance for expansion, o= atE=11 x 10-6 x 56 x 205 000 = 126.28 MPa (ii) When there is an expansion allowance of 8 mm, A= a L1t-8= a or 11x 10° x 32.000 x 568 = 2222 0 205 000 or 19.712 = 8 =0.1561 0 or o=75.03 MPa (iii) If stresses are to be zero, the expansion allowance A= aLt=11 * 10-6 x 32 000 x 56 = 19.71 mm (iv) For no stress in the rails when expansion allowance is 8 mm. 8=alt or = 11x 10-6 x 32.000 xr or t= 22.73°C Example 1.18 A steel rod of 16-mm diameter and 3-m length passes through a copper tube of 50-mm external and 40-mm internal diameter and of the same length, The tube is closed at each end with the help of 30 mm thick steel plates which are tightened by nuts till the length of the copper tube is reduced by 0.6 mm. The temperature of the whole assembly is then raised by 56°C, Determine the stresses in the steel and copper before and after the rise of temperature. Assume that the thickness of the steel plates at the ends do not change during tightening of the nuts. COPPER PILILLLLLELILL ILE 16mm +430, /#—_—. 3m ———+} 30 ; STEEL 50 mm: 40 mm . Fig. 1.28 E, = 210 GPa; E, = 100 GPa; of, = 12 x 1O“PC; @, = 17 x 10*PC8 : __ “Strength of Materials. Solution Refer Fig. 1.28. A, = (7/4) 16? = 64 mm? A, = (7/4) [50? - 407] = 225 x mm? Stresses due to tightening of the nuts oe 1 O6= Scan or ¢,=20 MPa (compressive) and as the force in the rod and the tube is the same, 0,.A, = 0,.A,. or 6,x 640 = 20% 225 m or 6, =70.3 MPa (tensile) As A Stresses due to temperature rise As the coefficient of expansion of copper is more than that of steel, it expands more. Thus compressive stress is induced in the copper tube and tensile in the steel rod. As 6,.A, = A, “ G, = (AJA) 0, = (225/64) 0, = 3.516 6, Now, from compatibility equation, ‘Temperature strain of steel + tensile strain of steel = Temperature strain of copper — compressive strain of copper 4, . ie adage + 12% 10° x (3000+ 60) x 56 + 2316 % * 3060 210 000 = 17x 10 3000 «56 ~ Ze % 3000 100 000 or 2.056 + 0.0514, = 2.856 - 0.03 9, or 0.081 6, =0.8 or o,=9.87 MPa and O, = 3.516 x 0, = 3.516 x 9.87 = 34.7 MPa Final stresses : G, = 204+ 9.87 = 29.87 MPa (compressive ) and G, = 70.3 + 34.6 = 104.9 MPa (tensile) Example 1.19 A steel rod of 30-mm diameter is enclosed in a brass tube of 42-mm external diameter and 32-mm internal diameter. Each is 360 mm long and the assembly is rigidly held between two stops 360 mm apart. The temperature of the assembly is then raised by 50°C. Determine (i) stresses in the tube and the rod stresses in the tube and the rod if the stops yields by 0.15 mm (iii) yield of the stops if the force at the stops is limited to 60 kN’ E, = 205 GPa; E, = 90 GPa; a, = Ji x 10-P°C; O%, = 19 x 10°C Solution Refer Fig, 1.29, A,= (1/4) 30? = 225 2mm;= Ay = (nd/A) [422 - 322] BRASS t = 2 = 185¢mm‘ a EE () When the temperature is 9 30. mm STEE EE raised by 50°, a y ‘Stress in the steel rod = a, t E, 5 = 11x 10 x 50 x 205 000 |} 360 mn >} 5 = 112.75 MPa (compressive) Fig. 1.29 Stress in the brass tube = a, 1 E, = 19 x 10-6 x 50 x 90 000 = 85.5 MPa (compressive ) (i) If the stops yields by 0.15 mm, A, = (@L1~0.15) = se : r 9, = ate, S49Es — 112,75 ~ 915% 205 000 = 112.75 ~ 85.42 = 27.33 MPa (compressive) and Ayx(aybt- 0.15) = SHE Ey or 0, = GE, — DASE, _ gg 5_ 0:15 90 000 L 360 = 85.5 - 37.5 = 48 MPa (compressive) (iii) When the force at the stops is limited to 60 kN, let the yield of the stops be 5, Lb Then A, = (a,L1— 8) = or o, = 0,18, Es = 142.75 - 9% 205.000 11975 _ 560.448 L 360 o,L and A, = (@Lt- = (a@,Lt — 6) = or oy = ote, - 2B = 95.5 5X90 000 360 = 85.5- 2506 Now, Force exerted by steel rod + Force exerted by brass tube = total force on the stops G,A, + GA, = P (112.75 — 569.44 8) x 225 m+ (85.5 — 250 8) x 185 #= 60 000 79 698 ~ 402 513 6+ 49 692 — 145 299 5= 60000 547 812 5 = 69 390 5=0.127 mm Example 1.20 A rigid biock AB weighing 180 kN is supported by three rods symmetrically placed as shown in Fig. 1.30. Before attaching the weight, the lower ends of the rods are set at the same level. The areas of cross-section of the steel and copper rods are 800 mm? and 1350 mnt respectively. Determineae Strength of Materials (i) the stresses in the rods, if the temperature is raised by 25° (ii) the stresses in the rods, if the temperature is raised by SO° (iii) the temperature rise for no stress in the copper rod. E,= 95 GPa; @, = 18 x 10-FC; E, = 205 GPa; &, = I x 10°C t f Tl COPPER STEEL STEEL a t Solution Considering the increase in tempe- rature alone (neglecting the weight of the black), the elongation of copper rod is more as compared Fig. 1.30 to steel rods. On the other hand, if the temperature does not change, there is elongation of all rods and there is tensile stress in all the rods. Total elongation of each rod is the sum of clongations due to temperature and due to weight. As the block is rigid, it will remain horizontal under all conditions. Thus the total elongation of each rod is the same. (i) Assume the stress in the copper rod to be compressive, i.e. the force acting y 180 kN, upwards. Then aL + tn = at aE 11 x 10° 51200 25 + 2 1200 _ 800 x 205 000 = 18% 10-6 x 1800 x 25 — fe * 1800 _ 1350 x 95 000 330.000 + 7.317P, = 810 000 ~ 14.035P, P, = 65 601 - 1.918P, @ From equilibrium equation 2P, - P= 180 000 or P,-0.5P, = 90.000 65 601 - 1.918P, -0.5P, = 90.000 {from (i)] or 2.418 P= — 24 399 or — 10 090 N (compressive) and 90 000 + 0.5 x (~ 10 090) = 84 955 (tensile) o, =~ 100% _ 7.474 MPa 1350 This shows that the stress in the copper rod is opposite of what was assumed i.e. tensile and not compressive. 84 955 = 800 = 106.19 MPa (tensile)‘Simple Stress and Strain & (ii) If the temperature is raised by 50°, 11x 10° x1200% 50 + 7.317 «10 °P. = 18x 10° x 1800 x50 - 14.035 x 10° P. 660 000 + 7.317 P, = 1 620000 - 14.035 P, P, = 131 201 - 1.918 P, From equilibrium equation 2P,- P.= 180000 or P,-0,5P, = 90.000 or 131 201 - 1.918 P.= 90 000 or P= 17.039 N (compressive) 9, = 17 039/1350 = 12.62 MPa (compressive) P, = 90.000 + 0.5 17 039 = 98 520 N G, = 98 520/800 = 123.1 MPa (tensile) (iii) As there is to be no stress and hence no load on the copper rod, 0, = 0 Hence load in each rod = 180 -000/2 = 90 000 N 11% 107 « 1200 x1 + 7.317 10° P, = 18x10 x 1800x1-0 13 200 1 + 7.317 P, = 32 4001 19 200 1 = 7.317 x 90 000 1= 343° 1,13: SHRINKING ON A thin tyre of steel or of any other metal can be shrunk on ‘ to wheels of slightly larger diameter by heating the tyretoa ¢ = o certain degree which increases its diameter. When the tyre has been mounted and the temperature falls to the normal temperature, the steel tyre tends to come to its original diameter and thus tensile (hoop) stress is set up in the tangential direction. ‘As shown in Fig. 1.31, let d and D be the diameters of the steel tyre and of the wheel on which the steel tyre is to be mounted (Fig. 1.31), then . mD-md _D-d The strain, a Fig. 1. st € ad a ig. 1.31 Circumferential tensile stress or hoop stress = €.£ = (?3“) (1.18) Example 1.21 A thin tyre of steel is to be mounted on to a rigid wheel of 1.2-m diameter. Determine the internal diameter of the tyre if the hoop stress is limited to 120 MPa.a 7) Strength of Materials Also determine the least temperature to which the tyre should be heated so that it can be slipped on to the wheel. E, = 210 GPa and a, = 11 x 10-7 Solution Tensile strain, e= Z27*4 _ D=d (2 ad d E D o O+E d E or === 4. d (2) E D O+E DE__ 1200x210 000 or ——__~ 3 1199.31 mm or 1.19931 m d= See” 1204210000 Increase in the circumferential length = a (D-d) Thus aLt=x(D-d) or IL x 10% x (x 1199.31) x 2 = 2 (1200 — 1199.31) t= 523°C 1,14 STRAIN ANALYSIS So far, the effect of an axial force on the length of a bar or rod has been considered. In case of a tensile force, the length increases, and in a compressive force, it decreases. However, this axial increase or decrease takes place at the cost of a change in the lateral dimensions of the bar or rod. If an axial tensile force is applied to a bar, its length is increased and its lateral dimensions i.e. the width and breadth or the diameter are decreased (Fig. 1.32). Therefore, any direct stress produces a strain in its own direction as well as an opposite kind of strain in all Fig.1.32 directions at right angles to its own direction. Poisson's Ratio The ratio of the lateral strain to the longitudinal strain of a material, when itis subjected to a longitudinal stress, is known as Poisson's ratio and is denoted by v. It is found that for elastic materials, the lateral strain is proportional to the longitudinal strain i.e. the ratio of the iateral strain to the longitudinal strain is constant. Thus Lateral strain Longitudinal strain The value of v lies between 0.25 and 0.34 for most of the metals. Lateral strain = — v x Longitudinal strain = - vy. o/E (negative sign indicates that it is opposite to the longitudinal strain) = constant = v (1.19) Two-Dimensional Stress System Consider a system with two pure normal stresses and 6,.as shown in Fig. 1.33.‘Simple Stress and Strain a” Strain due to 9, in its own direction =o/E Strain due to G, in the direction of 0, =-VoJE ‘Thus, net strain in the direction of o, £2 O/E-VvosE (1.20) Ina similar way, T Net strain in the direction of o, on & = 0/E- vo,/E (1.21) Fig. 1.33 Remember that a tensile stress is taken positive whereas a compressive stress negative. re oye bea Three-Dimensional Stress System Let there be a system with three pure normal stresses Qj, & and @, as shown in Fig. 1.34, Strain due to o, in its own direction = o/E Strain due to @, in the direction of 0, =- voJE e Strain due to a; in the direction of o, =- va,/E ‘Thus, the net strain in the direction of o,, o 6 £\= OE - vofE- vosE a Inasimilar way, &= OE - voyE- vo/E Fig. 1.34 and €3= OJE- vo/E - vosE Volumetric Strain 7 Volumetric strain is defined as the ratio of increase in volume of a body to its original volume when it is acted upon by three mutually perpendicular stresses 0), 6, and 03. For a rectangular solid body of sides a, b and c (Fig. 1.34), let €, & and & be the corresponding strains. Initial volume = a.b.c Final volume = (a + aé,) (b + be; (c + c&;) = abe (1 + &,) (1 + &) (1+ &) Increase in volume Original volume _ abc (+ eV + €) +63) ~ abe ~ abe =U te)(l+e)(+e)-1 S LAE FE Ey + Ley + Ey + ESE, + Eyes — | = E+E + 1.22) ‘Thus if the products of very small quantities are neglected, the volumetric strain is the algebraic sum of the three mutually perpendicular strains. In terms ©! stresses the volumetric strain can be expressed by substituting the values of £, & aud ¢, from above. Volumetric strain =2 Strength of Materials Volumetric strain, v a = (OVE - voyE - voJE) + (dE - vo/E- vo,/E) + (GE - vo,/E - voJE) _ (+0, +0,)(1-2v) - (1.23) and Change in volume = Vx Mees ote (1.24) If force is unidirectional, i.e, oy and @ are zero, Volumetric strain = sot =e(l-2v) Change in volume = VX a =Val-2v) (1.25) SS Example 1.22 What will be the change in the volume of a steel bar of 20-mm diameter and 600-mm length when a tensile stress of 180 MPa is applied to it along its longitudinal axis? E, = 205 GPa, v= 0.3 Solution Yolume of the bar, V = ox 20? x 600 = 60 000 mm! , o(l-2v) 180(1 - 2 x 0.3) v =Vx — = = 66: 3 Change in volume = V E 60.000 mx 205 000 66.2 mm Percentage change in volume = > Fo>= x 100 = 0.035 Example 1.23 The tangential (hoop) and longitudinal stresses in the plates of a cylindrical boiler of 2.2-m diameter and 3.5-m length are 90 MPa and 45 MPa respectively, Determine the increase in its internal capacity. Neglect compressive Stress due to steam on the inner surface. E = 205 GPa; v=03 Soztution 0. = 90 MPa; 0, = 45 MPa V = (w/4) 2.2? «3.5 = 4.235 am} As compressive stress due to steam on the inner surface is neglected, o, = 0 &, = OJE — vo,/E = (1/E)(90 - 0.3 x 45) = 76.5/E OfE ~ vo, E = (EAS = 0.3 x 90) = 18/E The diameter of a boiler is directly proportional to its circumference. Thus €, also is the diametrical strain along any two perpendicular radii. Volumetric strain, ¢= @,+€,+ &, 18/E + 76.5/E +76.5/E = 171/205 000 = 834.1 x 10-Simple Stress and Strain as As strain is a ratio, change in volume can be found directly in m’. Change in volume = ex V = (834.1 x 10%) x 4.235 7= 0.011 098 m3 = (0.011 098 x 1000) f= 11.098 1 Example 1.24 A steel bar 35 mm X35 mm in section and 100 mm tong is acted upon by a tensile load of 180 kN along its longitudinal axis and 400 KN and 300 kN along the axes of the lateral surfaces. Determine (i) change in the dimensions of the bar (ii) change in volume (iii) longitudinal axial load acting alone to produce the same langitudinal strain as in (i). E = 205 GPa; v=03 Solution Let o,, 6, and 0, be the stresses along longitudinal and two transverse axes respectively. @ o, = 180000 «146.9 MPa 35x35 oy = 100.000 = 114.3 MPa 2 = 100% 35 o, = 200.000 _ 95.7 MPa 10x35 In longitudinal direction, L AL= £(o,-v)- gai VO, — VO) = (146.903 x 114.3 03 x 85:7) = 0.042 39 mm = pp qpp (1469-03 x 1143-03 x85.7) = 0042 3 In the direction of 400 KN load, AL= £0, v9, - v0) 35 * 205 000 In the direction of 300 KN load, (114.3 - 0.3 x 146.9 - 0.3 x 85.7) = 0.0076 mm AL= 5 (6, - V6, — va) 35 = 305 900 (85.7 - 03 x 146.9 — 0.3 x 114.3) = 0.001 25 mm (ii) Change in volume = (100 + 0.042 39) (35 + 0.0076)(35 + 0.001 25) —100x 35 x35 = 82.92 mm? (0, +02 +0;)1-2v) E (146.9 + 114.3 + 85.7)(1 — 2 0.3) 205 000 or Change in volume = Vx = (100 x 35 x 35) = 82.92 mm°mM "Strength of Materials (iii) Let orbe the longitudinal stress to have the same strain, _ AL 0.04239 L 100-205 000 Longitudinal load = ox A = 86.9 x 35 x 35 = 106 452 N or 106.452 kN Example 1.25 A square steel bar of dimensions 50 mm x 50 mm x 150 mm is subjected to an axial load of 250 kN. Determine the decrease in length of the bar if (i) the lateral strain is fully prevented by applying external uniform pressure on the rectangular surfaces. (ii) only one-third of the lateral strain is prevented by the external pressure. Solution wi 6, = 250 000/50 x 50) = 100 MPa . 7= 86.9 MPa Let the compressive stresses applied on the similar lateral 250 KN sides be 6, (= 03) 10 prevent the lateral strain (Fig. 1.35). Then L FG VOa~ vo} =0 «.—4 be— oy or (6,-0.3xX6,-03%100)=0 — ...(0,= 05) or 0.7 6 =30 03 = 42.857 MPa . L Fig. 1.35 Decrease in length = go — VO) ~- Va3)=0 150 100 — 0.3 x 2 x 42.857) = 0 = 305 000 {100 - 0.3 x 2 x 42.857) = ++ (0) = 63 ) = 0,054 36 mm (ii) In the absence of compressive stresses on the sides to prevent the lateral strain, The lateral strain = vo,/E (tensile) Now, one-third of this is to be prevented ie. vo,/3E and leaving 2v0/3E as such. Let the compressive stresses applied on the sides be 0. Then 1 2ve, =; - vo; - vo,) =- 1 (eV VO =~ Se The two strains are of opposite directions. or ( - 0.3 x 6,-0.3 x 100) =-2 «0.3 x 1003 (6, =9;) or 0.7 0 = 30-20 03 = 14.286 MPa Decrease in length = Zc, — VO, - V3) =0 Is 0 = ps ppp (100- 0.3 x2 x 14.286) =0 (= 0) = 0.0669 mm“Simple Stress and Strain “1.15 TENSILE TEST DIAGRAM ‘The behaviour of a ductile material, such as steel, subjected to an increased tensile load is studied by testing a specimen in a tensile testing machine. The plot between strain and the corresponding stress is represented graphically by a tensile test diagram. Figure 1.36 shows a stress vs, strain diagram for steel in which the stress is calculated on the basis of original area of a steel bar. Most of the other engineering materials show a similar pattern to a varying degree. The following are the salient features of 2 : Proportional limit wg E: Elastic limit q ¥: Yield point o U: Ultimate strength : Rupture strength STRAIN the diagram: Fig. 1.36 When the load is increased gradually, the strain. is proportional to load or stress upto a certain value. Line OP indicates this range and is known as the line of proportionality. Hooke’s law is applicable in this range. The stress at the end point P is known as the proportional limit. If the load is increased beyond the limit of proportionality, the elongation is found to be more rapid, though the material may still be in the elastic state, ie. on removing the load, the strain vanishes. The point £ depicts the elastic limit. Hooke’s law cannot be applied in this range as the strain is not proportional to stress. Usually, this point is very near to P and many times the difference between P and Eis ignored and therefore elastic limit is taken as the limit of proportionality. When the load is further increased, plastic deformation occurs i.e, on removing, the load, the strain is not fully recoverable. At point Y, metal shows an appreciable strain even without further increasing the load. Actually, the curve drops slightly at this point to Y’ and the yielding goes upto point ¥”. The points Y’ and ¥” are known as the upper and lower yield points respectively. The stress-strain curve between Y and Y” is not steady. After the yield point, further straining is possible only by increasing the load. ‘The stress strain curve rises upto point U, the strain in the region Y to U is about 100 times that from O to ¥’. The stress value at U is known as the ultimate stress and is mostly plastic which is not recoverable. If the bar is stressed further, it begins to form a neck or a local reduction in cross- section occurs. After this, somewhat lower loads are sufficient to keep the specimen elongating further. Ultimately, the specimen fractures at point R. If the load is divided by the original area of the cross-section, the stress is known as the neminal stress. This is lesser at the rupture load than at the maximum load. However, the stress obtained by dividing with the reduced area of cross-section is known as the actual or true stress and is greater at the maximum load, It is shown in the figure by the dotted line. For more information refer to section 18.3.6 : Strength of Materials 1,16 FACTOR OF SAFETY. A machine component must be designed so that the load carried by it under normal conditions of utilisation is considerably below its ultimate load. This smaller load is referred as the allowable load or the design load or the working load. Usually, the allowable load is only a fraction of the ultimate load or the load carrying capacity of a component. This is done to ensure safe working of the component against uncertainties of various factors during the operation of a machine, e.g., homogeneousness of the material, number of loadings during the life of component, type of loading (static or sudden), method of analysis used, natural causes, etc. Thus a large portion of the load carrying capacity of the component is kept as reserve for safe performance of the component. The ratio of the ultimate load to the allowable or working load is known as factor of safety. Thus ultimate load Factor of safety = Gllowable load As the stress is the load per unit area, factor of safety is also defined as, ultimate sti Factor of safety = ~~~ Y= ‘allowable stress © Refer section 18.3 also. 1,17 ELASTIC CONSTANTS The factors to determine the deformations produced by a stress system acting on a material within elastic limits are constant and termed as elastic constants. Two elastic constants Modulus of Elasticity and Modulus of Rigidity have already been defined in section 1.5. A third elastic constant is being defined in Pp this section. If three mutually perpendicular stresses of equal intensity are applied to a body of initial volume V as LIP shown in Fig. 1.37, then the ratio of the direct stress to the volumetric strain is known as the bulk modulus (K) of the body. P Usually, bulk modulus is applicable mainly to fluid _¢/ problems with pressure intensity p in all directions and thus. Fig. 1.37 ~ Younaic wala & (126) Volumetric strain, & = Wamtens (Eq. 1.23) For three perpendicular stresses of equal intensity p (compressive), 30. = 2v)(- p) ESimple Stress and Strain 7 =——P Therefore, Ke 30 = wp/E or E=3K(I-2) (1.27) 1,18: RELATION BETWEEN ELASTIC CONSTANTS Consider a square element ABCD under the action of a simple shear stress t(Fig. 1.38a). The resultant distortion of the element is shown in Fig. 1.385. The total change in the comer angles is + @ . However, for convenience sake, side AB may be considered to be fixed as shown in Fig, 1,38. As angle @ is extremely small, CC’ and DD’ can be assumed to be arcs. Let CE be a perpendicular on the diagonal AC’. Linear strain of the diagonal AC can approximately be taken as AC’= AC _ EC’ _ CC’ cos 45° _ g.BCcos*45° _ &= Tn Z AC AC ABYcos 45° BC 2 (CC’ = @.BC and AB = BC) But Modulus of rigidity,G = t/por p= 7G (Eq.1.5) Tt oe c= = 26 @ It will be shown in section 2.2 that in a state of simple DO. Cc shear on two perpendicular planes, the planes at 45° are subjected to a tensile stress (magnitude equal to that of he shear stress) while the planes at 135° are subjected to a compressive stress of the same magnitude with no shear stress on these planes. Thus planes AC and BD are subjected to tensile and compressive stresses respectively each equal to 7 in magnitude as shown in Fig. 1.39. Fig.1.39 Hence linear strain of diagonal AC is Gi)ae zi ~ Strength of Materials From (i) and (ii), T ig = gaty) or E=2G(1+v) As E=3K(1-2v) +(Eq. 1.27) = 2G(1 + v) = 3K(1 -2v) (1.28) This equation relates the elastic constants. Also from above, 1 + v= 2. os aeave Z @ and 1-2v= = Gi) ‘Adding (i) and (ii), 3 = #(5+3e)= = wok +6) or = wie (1.29) sri erunar tates sreaaaiemicaviamecterwatt Example 1.26 A bar, 24 mm in diameter and 400 mm in length, is acted upon by an axial load of 38 KN. The elongation of the bar and the change in diameter are measured as 0.165 mm and 0.0031 mm respectively. Determine (i) Poisson's ratio, and (ii) the values of the three moduli Solution A= (m4) 24? = 144.2 mm? 38 000/144 z= 84 MPa Lateral strain = v .Linear strain 165 or V=0.313 100 E= 2-4 __ .203 636 MPa € 0.165/400 Also, E=2G0+)=3K(1-2v) E 203 636 ” C= 304 Roary 77 4° MPa E203 636 ~ 30-2v) 3020313) Example 1.27 A bar, 12 mm in diameter, is acted upon by an axial load of 20 KN. The change in diameter is measured as 0.003 mm. Determine (i) Poisson's ratio and (ii) the modulus of elasticity and the bulk modulus. The value of the modulus of rigidity is 80 GPa. Solution and = 181 494 MPa A = (m4) 12? = 36 a mm? © = 20 000/36 x = 176.84 MPaSimple Stress and Strain a Lateral strain = v . Linear strain 34 ave or 208 ve or €= 0,000 25/v @ Now, E=2G (1+ v)=2 x 80000 (1 + v) = 160 000 + 160 000 v o_ 176.84 a Also, E= = 0000 5/v = 707 360 v [using (i)] os 707 360 v = 160 000 + 160 000 v 0.2923 Thus = 707 360 x 0.2923 = 206 771 MPa and k= —2_ -__20671_ 165901 MPa 30-2v) 30-2 0.2923) Summary © The resisting force per unit area of cross-section of a body is known as intensity of stress or simply stress. © Shear stress exists on two parts of a body when two equal and opposite parallel forces, not in the same line, act and one part tends to slide over or shear from the other across any section. * The elongation per unit length of a body is known as strain. It is dimensionless. Shear strain is the change in the right angle of a rectangular clement measured in radians and is dimensionless. © The ratio of stress to strain is constant within elastic limits and is known as Young’s Modulus or the Modulus of Elasticity. Itis denoted by E and E= o/e. ® Modulus of rigidity or shear modulus denoted by G is the ratio of shear stress to shear strain i.e. G = 7. © The materials in which strain is proportional to stress are said to obey the Hook's law. Elongation of a bar of length Z is given by, A= PLAE The principle of superposition states that if'a body is acted upon by a number of loads, then the net effect on the body is the sum of the effects caused by each load acting independently. Increase in length due to temperature rise = Lact ‘Temperature stress is given by = ai E For elastic materials, the ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal strain is constant and is known as Poisson's ratio (Vv). © Volumetric strain is the ratio of increase in volume of a body to its original volume when it is acted upon by three mutually perpendicular stresses. . . + 1-2v © Volumetric strain = Gite Foyt) =e tet ey