5.1.

1 EARTHQUAKE:

A sudden violent shaking of the ground, typically causing great

destruction, as a result of movements within the earth's crust or
volcanic action.

TYPES OF EARTHQUAKES:
There are many different types of earthquakes: Tectonic,
Volcanic, and Explosion.The type of earthquake depends on the
region where it occurs and the geological make-up of that region.
1.Tectonic Earthquakes: These occur when rocks in the earth's
crust break due to geological forces created by movement of
tectonic plates.
2.Volcani Earthquakes:Earthquakes occur in conjunction with
volcanic activity.Volcanic Earthquakes are small earthquakes in
underground caverns and mines.
3. Explosion Earthquakes: Result from the explosion of nuclear
and chemical devices.

Causes:
 An earthquake is caused by a sudden slip on a fault.
Stresses in the earth's outer layer push the sides of
the fault together.Stress builds up and the rocks
slips suddenly, releasing energy in waves that travel
through the earth's crust and cause the shaking that
we feel during an earthquake.An EarthQuake occurs
when plates grind and scrape against each other.

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  Earthquakes induced by human activity have been
documented in a few locations in the United States,
Japan, and Canada. The cause was injection of fluids
into deep wells for waste disposal and secondary
recovery of oil, and the use of reservoirs for water
supplies.
 Energy from nuclear blasts dissipates quickly along
the Earth's surface. Earthquakes are part of a global
tectonic process that generally occurs well beyond
the influence or control of humans.

Effects of an earthquake:
Earthquake produces various damaging effect in the areas
the act upon. The list of some of the main effects caused by
earthquakes are given below:
1. Earthquake causes damage to the building, bridges,
dams.

2. Earthquake in many cases, can cause great loss of life.

3. Earthquake can also cause floods and landslides.

Landslides, triggered by earthquake, often cause more
destruction than the earthquake themselves.

4. If the earthquake happens to be beneath the ocean floor,

they can lead to a tsunami.

Measuring an earthquake:
We can realize that the destruction caused by an earthquake
depends on many factors. One major factor is its intensity.

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 Geologists usually express the intensity of an earthquake in terms
of a magnitude on a scale known as the Richter Scale. The
Richter scale, named after Dr. Charles F. Richter, is the scale
used for measuring the strength of an earthquake, in terms of the
amplitude of its seismic waves.

 This scale is not a simple scale.

 On this scale, an increase of two in the magnitude means

100 times more destructive energy.

5.1.2 Housing Vulnerable to Damage in Earthquakes:

Certain building types are particularly earthquakes vulnerable to
damage in

Wood Frame Multi-Family Buildings | Soft-Story Problems

Some of the most susceptible structures to shaking damage are

soft-story apartments and condominiums. A soft-story residential
building is one that has large openings on the first floor for garage
doors and windows to accommodate parking or commercial
space, and housing on upper floors, built prior to recent codes.
Expected damage: In an earthquake, ground shaking causes
such structures to sway and sometimes collapse. The

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 performance of the parking structure in past earthquakes has not
been good.
Retrofit approach: Structural retrofitting for apartments is more
complex than for homes. The retrofit should involve a specific
solution designed by Quake Busters. Retrofitting buildings with
large openings for parking involves adding bracing elements
(steel frames or shear walls) at the lowest story level and tying the
bracing to the floor above. In taller buildings, some upper story
walls may also need strengthening.

Expected losses: ABAG modeling has shown that, in both a large

earthquake on the Hayward or San Andreas faults, two-thirds of
the uninhabitable housing units will likely be in soft-story
residential buildings.

Single-Family Homes | Cripple Wall Problems:

Older (usually pre-WWII) houses are often not bolted to their

foundations and lack bracing of walls enclosing the crawl space
(cripple wall). After that period through the early 1960′s, houses
were often inadequately bolted with bolts that were either too
small or the spacing between bolts was too large. From the
1960′s through the mid-1970′s some housing still lacked adequate
bolting.

Expected damage: Typical earthquake damage to these

structures includes the wood frame coming off its foundation,
racking of the cripple walls, the foundation itself cracking, or the

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 chimney breaking at the roof line. Because this type of damage is
so common, earthquake hazard mitigation efforts in some Bay
Area building departments are directed toward them.

Retrofit approach: Structural retrofit of these homes typically

includes a combination of adding anchor bolts to prevent sliding
off the foundations and adding plywood sheathing along portions
of the cripple walls to prevent collapse of those walls.
Professional help may be required for cripple walls over four feet
or complex configurations.

Expected losses: Pre-1940 single-family dwellings account for

8.3% of the total Bay Area housing stock. Their relative numbers
are highest in the counties of San Francisco and Alameda where
they account for 14.9% and 11.7% of the total housing stock.
Single-family homes will be responsible for 9% of the
uninhabitable housing units following a Hayward fault scenario
earthquake.

Damage to structural elements:

Structural elements are designed to with stand static
and dynamic forces under various circumstances such as
excessive gravity loads and earthquakes. It would be desirable
for permanent damage to occur at the end of the beams, while
the columns should remain elastically intact. In this way, the
total collapse of the buildings would be prevented and people
inside the building could be evacuated without any loss.

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 Selection of the structural system and elements is a crucial
engineering decision in earthquake prone areas. Therefore, the
practicing engineer must have experience in the earthquake
resistant design of structures. Even if service loads do not inflict
any damage on a poorly designed building, the earthquake load
may exceed the bearing capacity of the element, and ultimately
lead to catastrophic results.

5.1.3 HOUSING IN TRADITIONAL PRONE AREAS:

Earthquakes are natural hazards under which disasters are

mainly caused by damage or to collapse of buildings
and other man-made structures. Earthquake damage depends on
many parameters such as, intensity, vibration
period and frequency of ground motion, geologic and soil
condition, quality of construction etc. Non-engineered
buildings are frequently affected by earthquakes and need special
attention. According to Arya (1994), “nonengineered buildings are
defined as those that are spontaneously and informally
constructed in various
countries in the traditional manner without any or little intervention
by the qualified architects and engineers in
their design”. Experiences from many past earthquakes, it has
been observed that these buildings show poor
performance during earthquake. The damage scenario of these
types of rural houses due to Rangamati,

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 Bangladesh Earthquake (2003) can be seen in figure 1. In view of
the continued use of such buildings, it is
essential to introduce earthquake resistance features in their
construction (IAEE, 2004)

Mud House Masonry

Masonry RCC

1.1 Non-engineered Construction in Bangladesh

In Bangladesh the majority percentage of people live in rural
areas. Most of them are very poor. Due to financial
problem most of the family built their dwelling house using low
cost local materials and technique. For low
quality building materials and low quality construction technique,
the houses are not strong enough to resist the
natural hazards. Construction and distribution pattern of housing
in Bangladesh develops according to the need
of the inhabitants under asset of geographic control and changes
with the evolution of the human needs at the
different stages of socio-economic and cultural development. The
houses in rural area are generally made of
indigenous building materials like bamboo, straw, grass, jute
sticks, leaves, mud and corrugated iron sheet etc.

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 Approximately for the last forty years brick has been using in the
rural areas as the building material. The use of
corrugated iron & bricks in the rural houses can be assumed as
the influence from the urban areas as the durable
and prestigious building material for shelters. Corrugated iron
sheets, bamboo, straw, jute sticks or with the
combination of mud are basically used for the construction of the
enclosures. For the roofing, corrugated iron
sheets and thatch are the most common in the rural areas. In
some areas of the northern dry regions, clay tile
roofing can be seen. In most of the areas of rural Bangladesh
plinth of the rooms are constructed with rammed
soil.
1.2 Types of Non-engineered Houses in Bangladesh
The characteristics of non-engineered rural houses can be
recognized by its roofs and walls. These are subjects
to change with the variations of locations, climate and availability
of local materials and technologies. The
following types of rural houses are taken into considerations for
this seismic assessment study.

1.2.1. Mud walled House

In most of the rural areas of Bangladesh, rural houses are
characterized by mud walled. Sometimes walls are
made of sun dried earthen blocks of one to two feet thickness.
These mud walled houses are generally oblong in
shape and covered with the roofs made with clay tiles, thatch or
corrugated iron sheets. The application of these
construction materials depends on their availability and the ability
of the house owners. In these specific regions
the lands are normally above flood level. Besides this, relatively
less rainfall, dry climate and lateritic soil
(which gets very hard when dry) are the main reasons behind the
mud constructions. Relatively taller (15´) mud

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 walled houses are found in the southwest part of Bangladesh.
The houses with two or three levels are common
in Chittagong region.

1.2.2. Bamboo walled House

In the piedmont alluvial plains, specially in Rangpur, Moribund
delta area in Jessore and Haor Basins, flood
plains of the Ganges, the Jamuna , the Brhamaputra, the
Meghna, the Tista and in some areas in eastern and
northern regions, the walls are generally made of bamboo and
rooms are configured in rectangular shape.
Bamboo is used for making posts and enclosing elements, which
is called ‘Bera’. Sometimes timber is used for
the post and making an upper horizontal floor in the room. This
horizontal floor is used for storage purposes. It
also acts as a thermal buffer in hot and cold seasons. Sometimes
the bamboo enclosures are plastered with mud
to protect it from rain and for aesthetics purposes. The bamboo
walls with corrugated iron sheet roofs are the
common practice in the rural areas and around Chittagong,
Dhaka, Pabna, Narayangang, and Chandpur districts,
but they can also be found scattered in all of the flood plain
regions.

1.2.3. Timber House

Relatively smaller groups of populations in Cox’s Bazar, Teknaf,
and Moheskhali are using the house forms
having walls constructed with timber. Generally, the houses are
built on raised wooden platform to get safety
from snakes and other animals. The lower parts of the houses are
also used for various purposes like storage,
keeping domestic animals, different family activities etc. Another
motivation behind this wooden construction is
the availability of wood in the forest areas. Some of these
buildings are also finished with different wood

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 curving for aesthetics purposes. With these distinctive features,
the houses are representing the special identity
of those regions.
1.2.4. Timber and Brick built House
The timber and brick built houses are common in the east of
Sylhet district. The floors, plinths and the lower
parts of the walls are constructed with brick while the rest portions
of the walls are constructed with bamboo
reeds covered with cement or mud on the both sides. Posts are
made with timber logs and roofing with
corrugated iron sheet or thatch.

1.2.5. Corrugated iron (C.I.) Sheet built House

C.I. sheet was not being used as the indigenous building material
in this region. Later on, for its durability, it
becomes one of the major building materials in local tradition. In
the northern part of Sylhet, it is very common
to build houses (walls and roofs) with corrugated iron sheets.
Heavy rainfall in that particular region is one the
major reasons behind choosing the corrugated iron sheets.
Corrugated iron sheets are providing protection
against rain and dampness of the weather. Another reason of
choosing the corrugated iron sheets is the
influences from the buildings of tea gardens constructed in British
colonial period. The economic ability of the
peoples of that particular area is considered as an additional
reason behind the selection of comparatively
expensive building materials.

1.2.6. Thatch walled House

In the Haor basins and Chalanbill areas houses are characterized
by thatch walls, where straw, long grass, jute
sticks and thatch are available and cheap. These materials are
also used for roofing purposes except jute sticks.

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 The main reasons of selecting these materials are the cheaper
price and the dismantle capability in the natural
hazards like floods.

1.2.7. Masonry House

In Bangladesh, masonry houses are seen in almost every rural
area, but in small quantity. This type of building
is built with bricks. Here suitable foundation is provided with brick
flat soiling. The creation of tensile and
shearing stresses in walls is primary cause of different types of
damages to such buildings.

1.2.8. Non-Engineered R.C.C. building

With the spread of reinforced concrete construction to urban and
rural areas, often buildings are constructed
using R.C. columns and beams without proper engineering
design, based on the experience of local masons and
petty contractors. In most cases, connection details are not in a
proper manner, beams simply rest on the top of
columns, isolated columns with long verandahs are used, which
introduces deficiencies from seismic view
point.

5.1.4 Damages Caused by EarthQuakes:

The ground shaking may also cause landslides, mudslides, and
avalanches on steeper hills or mountains, all of which
can damage buildings and hurt people. The second
mainearthquake hazard is ground displacement (ground
movement) along a fault.
Physical Damage:
 Landslides
 Tsunamis
 Fires
 Mudslides

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  Liquefaction
Structural Damage:
 Buildings Collapse
 Roadways Collapse
Emotional Damage:
 Deaths
Physical Damage:

***LANDSLIDES: Rocks and earth from mountains and hills

begin rolling downhill.
The greatest landslide concentration occurs in weak, poorly
cemented, geologically young rock and soil. As a result of their
weakness, the vibrations of earthquakes rapidly erode these
materials. Landslides include shallow rock falls and rockslides, as
well as disrupted, chaotic jumbles of soil, rock, and vegetal debris
that topple downhill. The greatest danger emanating from
landslides includes their ability to damage and destroy homes,
block roads and streams, disrupt pipes, water mains, sewers and
power lines, damage oil and gas production facilities, and
generate massive dust clouds

***TSUNAMIS: Japanese name for "Harbor wave," or seismic

sea wave.

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 Tsunamis are the result of a sudden vertical offset in the ocean
floor, which can indeed be triggered by intense earthquakes.
Essentially, tsunamis are creatures of the open ocean, or trains of
great waves that can travel long distances across the sea. As a
tsunami approaches the shore, the water depth decreases, the
front of the wave slows down, and the wave grows dramatically in
height and surges unexpectedly onto the land. Truthfully,
tsunamis can carry a considerable amount of energy because
they possess strong currents that cause massive erosion of the
coastline, as well as bulldoze towns and drown unsuspecting,
curious people. When earthquakes occur, these dark "walls" of
water suddenly flood coastal areas like California and Japan
without warning. For example, in 1896, an earthquake off of the
coast of Japan generated an enormous tsunami with waves up to
100 feet high. This "wall of water" killed 22,000 people and
destroyed entire villages.

***FIRES: result from broken or severed electrical and gas

lines.

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 Fires that begin as a result of earthquake activity are often
uncontrollable and can cause the most damage. Flammable
materials or debris released from the earthquake feed the flames
of the fire, thus causing it to spread out of control. Water mains
are broken as a result of the powerful earthquake vibrations,
therefore, no water is available for firefighters to put out the
flames and rescue the people. For example, in the 1906
earthquake in San Francisco, California, fire caused the most
damage because the broken water mains and blocked roads
allowed the flames to swell out of control.

***MUDSLIDES: slip down mountain slopes, sweep main

valley floors, and bury habitations below.
Mudslides often occur a few hours after the extraordinarily
widespread slope mass movements (landslides) take place.
Moreover, they are induced by the collapse of several temporary
natural dams built by the large and high-density landslides.
Several people lose their lives during these catastrophic events.
For example, in the 1994, Northridge California earthquake, there
were a significant amount of landslides that induced mudslide
activity, and many people died as a result.
("Earthquake Induced Mass Movement")

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 ***LIQUEFACTION: soils and unconsolidated materials
containing abundant water are turned into fluid-like masses
that are not capable of supporting buildings.
During an earthquake with intense seismic activity, loose, moist
soil is shaken, and the individual grains separate, turning the
earth into a soft, fluid slurry that is capable of swallowing entire
buildings. As a result of the seismic vibrations, the soil loses
strength and behaves as a viscous or thick fluid, rather than as a
solid mass. Essentially, in the case of liquefaction, the ground
behaves much like quick sand, and can prove to be very
dangerous and sometimes deadly. For example, liquefaction
occurred in the 1906 earthquake in San Francisco, California, and
also in the 1995 earthquake in Kobe, Japan.

STRUCTURAL DAMAGE:

***BUILDINGS COLLAPSE: seismic vibrations that occur

during earthquakes cause buildings to sway, which may
knock them off of their foundations and cause severe
damage or destruction. People can be trapped in collapsed
buildings or under rubble that collapses into the street.
Kobe, Japan (January 17th, 1995): The number of buildings
destroyed by the earthquake exceeded 100,000, or approximately
one in five buildings in the strongly shaken area. An additional
80,000 buildings were badly damaged. The large numbers of
damaged traditional-style Japanese residences and small,
traditional commercial buildings of three stories or less account
for a great deal of the damage. In sections where these buildings

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 were concentrated in the outlying areas of Kobe, entire blocks of
collapsed buildings were common. The fires following the
earthquake also destroyed several thousands of buildings.

Ultimately, in the event of an earthquake, structural damage

depends on FIVE very important components.
**The strength of the earthquake waves that reach the
surface
**The duration of the motion
**Proximity
**Geologic foundation
**Structural design and construction quality
(Iacopi)

***ROADWAYS COLLAPSE: when an earthquake strikes,

freeways, bridges, and roads buckle under the pressure of
the intense seimic activity.

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 EMOTIONAL DAMAGE:
***DEATHS.people become trapped under the rubble and
debris that is generated from the earthquake. Falling
structures and flying glass and other objects strike
unsuspecting people.
This is the type of damage that leads to the worst casualties. In
fact, the worst thing to do during an earthquake is to rush out into
the street. The danger from being hit by falling glass and debris is
many times greater in front of the building than inside.

5.1.5 Repair and restore action of earthquake Damaged

non-engineered buildings recommendations for future
constructions:
Common materials for damage repair work are cement and steel.
In some situations non-shrink cement or an admixture like
aluminium powder in ordinary portland cement is admissible.

Steel may be required in many forms, like bolts, rods, angles,

channels, expanded
metal and welded wire fabric. Wood and bamboo are the most
common material for
providing temporary supports and scaffolding etc., and will be
required in the form of

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 rounds, sleepers, planks, etc.
Besides the above, special materials and techniques are available
for best results in
the repair and strengthening operations. A quality assurance is
needed to gurantee
sound results.

Shotcrete :
Shotcrete is a method of applying a combination of sand and
portland cement (concrete) which is mixed pneumatically and
conveyed in dry state to the nozzle of a pressure gun. Here water
is mixed and hydration takes place just prior to expulsion. The
material bonds well to properly prepared surface of masonry and
steel. In application
to curved or irregular surfaces, its high strength after application
and good physical
characteristics, make for an ideal means to achieve added
structural capability in walls
and other elements. There are some restrictions of clearance,
thickness, direction of
application, etc.

Polymer resins:
Polymer resins are excellent binding agents with high tensile
strength with compositions that can be changed as per
requirements. Polymer components are mixed just
prior to application. The product is of low viscosity and can be
injected in small cracks.
The higher viscosity epoxy resin can be used for surface coating
or filling larger cracks
or holes. The polymer strength is dependent upon the
temperature of curing and
method of application.

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 Polymerised mortar:
For larger void spaces, it is possible to combine polymers of
either low viscosity or
higher viscosity with sand aggregate to form polymer mortar.
Polymer mortar mixture
has higher compressive strength, higher tensile strength and a
lower modulus of elasticity than Portland cement concrete. Thus
the mortar is not stiff enough to replacing
reinforced concrete.

Quick-setting cement mortar:

This material was originally developed for the use as a repair
material for reinforced
concrete floors adjacent to steel blast furnaces. It is a non-
hydrous magnesium phosphate cement with two components, a
liquid and a dry, which can be mixed in a manner similar to
portland cement concrete.

Mechanical anchors :
Mechanical anchors employ wedging action to provide
anchorage. Some anchors provide both shear and tension
resistance. Such anchors are manufactured to give required
strengths. Alternatively, chemical anchors bonded in drilled holes
with polymer adhesives can be used.

Techniques to Restore Original Strength:

While considering restoration work, it is important to realize that
even fine cracks in
load bearing members which are unreinforced, like masonry and
plain concrete reduce
their resistance significantly. Therefore all cracks must be located
and marked carefully
and the critical ones fully repaired either by injecting strong
cement or chemical grout

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 or by providing external bandages. The techniques are described
below along with
other restoration measures.

5.1.6 Requirement’s of structural safety of thin pre-cost roofing

units against Earthquake forces:
Protection Against Earthquakes
Earthquakes are a natural phenomenon and an act of god but
are not predictable (so far).
Approximately 75% of fatalities due to earthquakes
during the last century occurred due to the collapse of
NonEngineered(NE) weak masonry construction made from
different types of bricks, clay, rammed earth or adobe.

1. Structures should not be brittle or collapse suddenly. Rather,

should be tough, able to sway or deform a considerable amount.
2. Resisting elements, such as bracing or shear walls, must
be provided evenly throughout the building, in both
directions side-to-side, as well as top to bottom.
3. All structural elements, such as walls, columns, beams and
the roof structures, should be tied together so as to act as
an integrated unit during earthquake shaking, transferring
4. The building must be well connected to the foundation strata
below.
Wet and soft soils should be avoided and the foundation must be
well
tied together. Where soft soils cannot be avoided, special
strengthening
must be provided.
5. Care must be taken that all materials used are of good quality,
and
are protected from climatic conditions, insects and other
weakening agents so that their strength is preserved.
6. Normal earth and masonry (without reinforcement) have
low strength in tension, and are brittle in compression.

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 Generally, they must be suitably reinforced by steel or wood.
forces across connections and preventing separation.

5.1.7 FLOODS:
Sometimes a river receives a lot of extra water, either from lots of
rain or other natural disasters. ... Floods occur because of heavy
rains, a river overflowing, a dam or levy breaking, a tsunami, or
melting snow.

Flooding is the unusual presence of water on land to a depth

which affects normal
activities. Flooding can arise from:
• Overflowing rivers (river flooding),
• Heavy rainfall over a short duration (flash floods), or
• An unusual inflow of sea water onto land (ocean flooding).
Ocean flooding can
be caused by storms such as hurricanes (storm surge), high tides
(tidal
flooding), seismic events (tsunami) or large landslides (sometime
also called
tsunami).

Important facts to know about floods:

River and flash flooding usually result from abnormally high
rainfall over a relatively

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 short period: Hours for flash floods; Days for river floods. Rapid
snow melt can
bring more water into the hydrological system than can be
adequately drained,
leading to what is generally called spring floods. Heavy rainfall
during the a tropical
rainy season can lead to monsoon floods, which can affect rivers
and may also occur
as flash flooding.
Sedimentation of river beds and deforestation of water catchment
areas can
exacerbate conditions leading to river valley floods. Deforestation
and paving over
land can significantly increase the risk of flash floods. Building in
flood plains or in
environmentally degraded areas, or changing the natural drainage
systems, can
significantly increase the risk of flood damage.
Not all floods are bad. Seasonal flooding can be an important
source of nutrients
for agricultural lands, and recharge water supplies in dams and
underground
aquifers. In some parts of the world, a lack of seasonal flooding is
a disaster.
A disaster usually occurs when people are not prepared for a
flood due to the lack
of early warning systems, preparedness and mitigation measures.
Flooding which
occurs at night, which happens rapidly, or both, is the most
dangerous type of
flooding.
What are the elements most at risk during floods?
any structure situated within a flood plain
earth buildings or masonry with water-soluble mortar2

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 buildings with shallow foundations or weak resistance to lateral
loads or
impact
roads and bridges
basements or underground buildings
utilities
machinery and electronics, including industry and
communications equipment
food stocks
cultural artifacts
fields and orchards
confined livestock
fishing boats and other maritime industries.

During the floods:

Evacuate: An evacuation should be based on a pre-flooding
plan, include
provision for elderly, young and disabled, and provide for
evacuation shelters
which have adequate food, water, sanitation and lodging facilities.
Provide information to the evacuated on flood levels, possible
damage and
when people can expect to return. Most people do not want to say
away from
their homes more than necessary and want to return to rebuild as
quickly as

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 possible.
Ensure that utilities are cut-off in flooded areas to avoid
unnecessary
damage or risk of injury.
Plan for post-flooding damage assessments.
Work with schools, government and business to ensure that
normal activities
can continue as much as possible during the flooding.
Finding work, even temporary, may be very important for some
of the
evacuees.
Continuing schooling and social and commercial activities such
as markets,
are important for evacuees to provide a sense of normal to their
lived
disrupted by the flooding.
Work with professional services to providing counseling to
those who are
most affected by the flooding.

After the floods:

Conduct and publicize impact assessments.
Develop recovery plans which ensure people can quickly
rebuild their homes
and that social and commercial services will re-open as quickly as
possible.
Assist people in returning to their home and communities as
quickly as
possible, but not so soon that it is dangerous.
Warn returnees of the risks of injuries and health problems in
rebuilding
from flood damage.
Ensure flood victims have fair and easy access to information
on relief and
recovery services and assistance which may be available.

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 Provide advice and training to flood victims on ways to quickly
rebuild in ways
which will reduce future damage from floods.
Provide appropriate assistance to the elderly and other
disadvantaged
groups (the ill, orphans, disabled) who need additional assistance
to recovery
from the flooding.
Draw lessons from the impact of the floods and enhance
measure to prevent
or mitigate these impacts in the future.

CYCLONES:
A hurricane is an intense tropical storm with powerful winds and
heavy rain. Other names for a hurricane include cyclone, typhoon
and tropical storm. While they are essentially the same thing, the
different names usually indicate where the storm took place.

Tropical cyclones are like giant engines that use warm, moist air
as fuel. That is why they form only over warm ocean waters near
the equator. The warm, moist air over the ocean rises upward
from near the surface. Because this air moves up and away from
the surface, there is less air left near the surface.
Those that form in the Indian Ocean can affect India,
Bangladesh, north-west Australia, some parts of east Africa and

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 Indian Ocean islands such as Mauritius and Madagascar. In the
northern hemisphere most tropical cyclones occur between June
and November with a peak in September.
Tropical cyclones typically form over large bodies of relatively
warm water. They derive their energy through the evaporation of
water from the ocean surface, which ultimately recondenses into
clouds and rain when moist air rises and cools to saturation.
DAMAGES:
To qualify as hurricane-force, winds must maintain speeds of 74
miles per hour or higher. Such speeds can topple trees and send
small objects hurling through the air, where they can cause more
damage. Some particularly strong hurricanes have produced wind
speeds in excess of 200 miles per hour. Cyclones of such
strength can blow houses off of their foundations and strip siding
and shingles.

Destruction caused by Cyclones:

The destruction caused by cyclones depends on its intensity,
location, and size. In forest regions, the trees get uprooted and
canopies get affected. In coastal regions, the banks and
embankments get eroded. In deserts, the sand dunes get
reshaped whereas in mountainous regions mudslides and
landslides occur. When a cyclone hits a region, the hazards
resulting from the hit can be divided into three types:
 Primary Hazards
 Secondary Hazards
 Tertiary Hazards

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 Primary Hazards:
Primary hazards include strong winds, heavy rains, and storms.
The sea level rises abnormally near the coasts as a result of
which the low-lying areas near the coastal regions get
submerged, drowning humans, their live stocks, and their
inhabitations, destroying vegetation and soil fertility. Very strong
winds damage the houses, trees, communication systems etc.
resulting in huge loss of life and property.
Secondary Hazards:
Secondary hazards include floods, fire, and fresh water flooding.
Heavy and prolonged rains cause floods in rivers which cause
submergence of the nearby inhabited regions, erosion of valuable
farming lands and destruction of buildings. Strong winds in forest
regions result in forest fires which spread with the intensity of
cyclonic winds.

Tertiary Hazards:
Tertiary hazards include diseases caused due to stagnant water, water
poisoning and increase in prices of goods and resources.
Sometimes all the above hazards occur simultaneously because of which
the relief operations become difficult. As the water level rises in the
streets, transportation and communication in rescue operations and
clean-up efforts become extremely difficult.
The death tolls due to cyclones are very high. Nearly two million people
have died globally due to cyclones and their effects. Despite their

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 devastating effects, the cyclones of low intensity are beneficial as they
bring rain to dry areas and move heat from the tropical regions. They are
sometimes useful in the field of navigation.
Safety Measures to Follow before and during a Cyclone:
• Do not move out unless and until required.
• Keep a note of all the warnings given by the Meteorological
Department.
• Keep emergency phone numbers of police, ambulance and
fire brigade handy.
• Move people and valuable items to a safe place.
• Store hygienic drinking water.
• Help neighbours and friends.
• Avoid contact with wet electric lines and switches.
• Store enough food items in waterproof bags.
• Avoid going in flood water and be careful of snake bites.

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