EUROPEAN COMMISSION

DIRECTORATE-GENERAL VIII
DEVELOPMENT

Data Collection and Analysis for Sustainable Forest Management in ACP

Countries - Linking National and International Efforts

EC-FAO PARTNERSHIP PROGRAMME (1998-2000)

Tropical forestry Budget line B7-6201/97-15/VIII/FOR
PROJECT GCP/INT/679/EC

NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS IN ETHIOPIA

by Girma Deffar

December, 1998
Addis Ababa

This report has been produced as an out put of the EC-FAO Partnership Programme (1998-2000)
- Project GCP/INT/679/EC Data Collection and Analysis for Sustainable Forest Management in
ACP Countries - Linking National and International Efforts.The views expressed are those of the
authors and should not be attributed to the EC or the FAO.

This paper has been minimally edited for clarity and style
 1. INTRODUCTION

This report presents the findings of a 10-day study on non-wood forest products (NWFP) in
Ethiopia. The main objective of this short assignment was to compile data and information on the
dominant NWFP in Ethiopia (honey, wax, gums and resins, etc) where there is relatively limited
but organized data.

The study mainly depended on the review of existing published and unpublished literature, visits to
a number of organizations, such as the Biodiversity Conservation and Research Institute,
Beekeeping Unit of the Ministry of Agriculture, Gum and Incense Production and Marketing
Enterprise and a number of private sector organizations which are active in the production and
marketing of NWFP.

It should, however, be noted that because of the short duration of the assignment and the fact that
no provision was made for travel outside of Addis Ababa, important institutions, such as the
Holletta Bee Research and Training Center (which is some 45 km outside of Addis) and the
Aromatic Plants Processing and Utilization Center (some 15 km) and the Regional Bureaux of
Agriculture could not be visited. It should also be noted that most of the data and information exist
at regional level. During the past administration, the regions were obliged to report to the central
government about their activities. Since the change of government in 1991 and the subsequent
establishment of regional self-governments, reporting to the federal Ministry of Agriculture has
virtually stopped. The Regional Agricultural Bureaux only report to their Regional Council.

2. NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS (NWFP) IN ETHIOPIA

2.1 General

The information base on NWFP in Ethiopia is non-existent or at best weak. There is no single
national or regional organization responsible for the collection, study and documentation of NWFP
resources in the country.

Owing to its varied ecological and climatic conditions, Ethiopia is home to some of the most
diverse flora and fauna in Africa. Its forests and woodlands contain diverse plant species that
provide surplus nectar and pollen to foraging bees. The forests, woodlands and cultivated lands
also provide as much as 75 to 90 percent of Ethiopia's rural population's requirements for
traditional medicine especially medicinal plants for their primary health care. There are a large
number of non-wood forest products including ginger, cinnamon, cardamum, etc., the production
and consumption of which is not documented.

2.2 Beekeeping in Ethiopia

Ethiopia's wide climatic and edaphic variability have endowed this country with diverse and unique
flowering plants, thus making it highly suitable for sustaining a large number of bee colonies and
the long established practice of beekeeping. Nevertheless, the bees and the plants they depend
on, like all renewable natural resources, are constantly under threat from lack of knowledge and
appreciation of these endowments.
There is an ancient tradition for beekeeping in Ethiopia which stretches back into the millennia of
the country's early history. It is an important activity for many rural people - both men and women -
and is also carried out in homegardens and even houses in all parts of the country. There is no
nationality in Ethiopia which doesn't have beekeepers and for some, beekeeping, and the
collection and selling of honey and other bee products, is a major economic activity.

The density of hives on the land may be the highest, at the present moment, of any country in the
African continent. There are an estimated 10 million bee colonies, out of which about 7.5 million
are confined in hives and the remaining exist in the forest and crevices. In the western part of
Ethiopia, there are beekeepers who own up to one thousand bee colonies. They do not count the
number of hives any more, but only the number of tree on which the hives are hanging.

Ethiopia, having the highest number of bee colonies and surplus honey sources of flora, is the
leading producer of honey and beeswax in Africa. On a world level, Ethiopia is fourth in beeswax
and tenth in honey production. Honey and beeswax also play a big role in the cultural and
religious life of the people of the country.

Total estimated honey production for Ethiopia as indicated by the International Trade Center (ITC)
1986, ranges from 19,400 - 21,000 tones per annum between the years 1976-1983. This
contributed 23.28% to the total African honey production and 2.03% to the total world production
in 1976. This went up to 23.58% and 2.13% for the total African and world honey production,
respectively in the year 1983. Furthermore, there has been an increased production of honey over
the period 1984-1994, i.e., from 21,480 tones in 1984 to 23,700 tones in 1994 (FAO, 1995).

The current honey production is estimated at 24,600 tones per year. The estimate is based on a
65% and 75% occupational efficiency of 7.5 million traditional hives and 20 thousand framed hives
respectively.

Another valuable hive product obtained from honeybees is beeswax. It is largely collected from
traditional hives rather than the moveable frame hives. The wax yield from traditional hives is 8 -
10 percent of the honey yield, compared to 0.5 - 2 percent from frame hives. The annual
production of wax is estimated at 3,200 tones. This estimate is without considering much of the
beeswax produced in remote areas where it is usually wasted. Thus, after China, Mexico and
Turkey, Ethiopia is the fourth largest wax producing country with an estimated 3,000 tones per
annum.

Honey is almost exclusively used for local consumption, to a very large extent for the brewing of
mead, also called tej,-while a considerable proportion of wax is exported. Even though honey
satisfies local demand, it is so crude that it will not compete in the international market. To this
effect, an average of 3,000 tones per annum has been exported to neighbouring countries over
the years 1984-1994 (Table 1).

Table 1. Export of honey (1984-1994)

year Honey (tone) Value in Birr

1984 18.4 109,161

1985 5.9 44,422

 1986 0.306 1,885

1987 0.563 4,382

1988 3.8 45,845

1989 0.825 6,289

1990 1.2 7,365

1991 N.A N.A

1992 0.220 1,810

1993 0.859 14,759

1994 1.44 24,759

TOTAL 33,513 260,677

Average 3,05 23,697

Source: Ministry of Trade and Industry, Annual External Trade Statistics, 1984-1994.

Ethiopia is one of the five biggest wax exporters to the world market. An average of 270 tones
was exported per year over the period 1984-1994 which in turn generated over ETH Birr 2 million
per annum to the national economy (Table 2). Currently, the annual turn-over of the apicultural
industry varies between 185 and 450 million ETH Birr. Exports only account for 5 million Birr of
this large total. Almost the entire production is achieved by means of traditional beehives,
comprising a wide range of some times very sophisticated models.

Table 2. Export of beeswax (1984-1993)

year Wax (tone) Value in Birr

1984 756 5,260,000

1985 229 1,632,000

1986 134 939,000

1987 210 1,416,000

1988 373 2,483,000

1989 325 1,483,000

1990 215 1,458,000

1991 102 689,000

1992 130 1,328,540

1993 229.44 4,049,884

TOTAL 2073 20,738,424

 Average 270.34 2,073,842
Source: Ministry of Trade and Industry, Annual External Trade Statistics, 1984-1993.

Although the annual production of both honey and wax is large compared to other African
countries, the system of production commonly exercised in the country is traditional. Productivity
of honeybees is very low and only an average of 5-6 kg of honey could be cropped per hive per
year. However, in areas where improved technology has been introduced, an average of 15-20
kg/hive/year has been recorded.

The major constraints that affect apiculture in Ethiopia are lack of beekeeping knowledge,
shortage of trained manpower, shortage of beekeeping equipment, pests and predators and
inadequate research works to support development programmes.

2.3 State of the resource base

The principal resource base for beekeeping has, however, become seriously degraded in the
course of time. The potential of the Ethiopian landscape for honey and wax production does now,
undoubtedly, only constitute a small fraction of its former wealth. Moreover, the destruction of the
remaining resource-base can be observed going on at a steadily accelerating pace. This
unfortunate development is being checked, and even reversed, in some areas by the active
planting of nectar-yielding vegetation. The large Eucalyptus plantations that have sprung up in
some localities constitute a new and compensatory honey resource. In many places the
beekeepers themselves have endeavoured to redress the situation by planting good honey plants
near their hive colonies, such as Vernonia amygdalina, Salvia spp.

Despite such local improvements, which in some places are spectacular, there can nevertheless
be little doubt that the national beekeeping resource-base, looking at the country as a whole, is
deteriorating at an alarming pace at the present moment. This deterioration can be expected to
continue accelerating unless some major changes are brought about in general land use.

As a matter of fact, immense tracts of denuded land, in particular on the highlands north of Addis
Ababa, have already ceased to present any worth while potential for beekeeping.

Deterioration of this sort does not only present an inconvenience to eventual consumers of honey
and wax, and to those who might have benefited from getting an extra income from beekeeping. It
can also be assumed to have deleterious effects on the successful growing of crops and fodder
plants that require pollination by bees as e.g. noug, rapeseed, flax, sunflower, clover, etc.
Pollination, it should be added in this context, may naturally be ensured also by wild bees or by
other insects, butterflies, certain fly species, etc. However, it can be assumed that the numbers of
all efficient pollinators is declining, together with the deterioration of the nectar resource base.

Wild bees are already known to be much fewer than they were previously. In addition to the food
resource on which they depend having become scarce, they find it increasingly more difficult to
locate suitable hollows in old trees for establishing colonies, and are in many areas now confined
to rock-crevices.

2.4 Review and evaluation of past and current development efforts

As mentioned earlier, beekeeping in Ethiopia is a traditional exercise carried out in all areas where
human beings are settled. Forest beekeeping and backyard beekeeping are common cultural
practices of many farmers. Honey collection from wild colonies in forests and crevices is also
common to honey hunters found in extreme south-western, southern and north-western parts of
the country. Traditional hives made of bark, climber, cow dung, bamboo, etc., are some of the
hives used for decades. But not only is the honey yield obtained low but also the quality is inferior.

It was in 1978 that beekeeping extension started in the country. Many efforts were made since
that time which include training, introduction of new technologies, production and distribution of
equipment and institutional capacity building. These are briefly discussed below.

2.4.1 Training
Great attention has been given to train extension workers and farmers in apiculture so that they
acquire better beekeeping knowledge and develop skills that would enable them to improve the
backward bee culture and increase the production of honey and beeswax. The Holletta
Beekeeping Station (which is currently upgraded to Bee Research and Training Center) has been
responsible for beekeeping training in the country. The Agarfa Farmers Training Center is also
involved in the training of farmers. A total 873 extension staff and over 50,000 farmers have been
trained over the last two decades from the above institutions.

2.4.2 Introduction of technologies

Considerable effort has been made to introduce movable frame hive technology to the country for
better management of bees, to boost the yield both in quantity and quality and to exploit the
natural plant resources that would otherwise be wasted. The adoption of this technology has
shown significant improvement in the management of hives, bees and production of honey and
wax. Intermediate or low cost beekeeping technology was recently introduced and has been
tested in certain agroecological zones. Results have shown that better quality honey and beeswax
could be harvested from intermediate hives but, with little increase of yield from that of the
traditional hives.

2.4.3 Beekeeping institutions

At the national level, the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) is responsible for the overall development of
apiculture in the country. The Holletta Bee Research and Training Center, the Assela and Agarfa
Farmers Training Centres are involved in the production of trained manpower and beekeeping
extension activities. Following the establishment of the Regional National States, the Regional
Agricultural Bureau of the respective regional states took over the responsibility of the sectoral
development. Other institutions involved in the development programme are the Wondo Genet
College of Forestry, Ethiopia Children Ama, and development corporations such as Coffee and
Tea Development Enterprises and State Farms Corporation.

Although the Holletta Bee Research and Training Center has no mandate to conduct basic
research, it is the only institution that undertakes adaptive and applied apicultural research works.
The research conducted so far encompasses improving the quality of hive products, identifying
honeybee races and honeybee flora, survey and diagnosis of honeybee diseases, pests and
predators. No other agricultural research institutes, universities and colleges have started
research works in the country.
2.5 The gum/olibanum resin products of Ethiopia

Exudates of the gum type, i.e., water soluble carbohydrates, are obtained from a considerable
number of Ethiopian shrubs and trees, partly by active tapping and partly by simple collection of
gum that occasionally "oozes" from some tree species without any need of human interference.

Since time immemorial, the aroma of incense smoke constitutes a striking feature of religious
rituals in many countries. Within some cultures, incense is furthermore used to add a very special
element of beauty to private homes and other places where people like to congregate in a
pleasant atmosphere.

2.5.1 Description of the gum resource base

The gum-yielding species of Ethiopia are confined almost exclusively to low-lying areas, subjected
to hot and arid conditions. With the exception of the provinces of Illubabor and Kefa, woodland
and shrub forest, with a potential for gum products, is encountered in all provinces and the areas
where some sort of gum is, or could be, produced account for about half of the national land
surface. However, these areas are the least inhabited parts of the country. Hardly any gum at all
is found on the highlands or on well-watered locations at medium elevation.

Because of present day market importance, the following species appear to play a significant role:

Boswellia papyrifera, yielding frankincense, also called olibanum Tigray type is found in large
amounts in Tigray, Gondar, Wollega and Gojjam provinces and thinly spread in Wello and Shewa.
Boswellia ogadensis, yielding a similar produce, is commonly found in Hararghe, Bale and
Sidamo, and on a smaller scale in Gamu Gofa.

However, the most important species in Sidamo, in this particular category, is Bosellia rivae
(possibly also known as B.carteri) yielding the southern variety of fraincense, also called black
incense. The same species on a small scale is also encountered in Gamo Gofa.

True gum arabic is obtained from Acacia senegal, which only seems to occur in significant
amounts in the provinces of Gojjam and Gondar along the Sudan border. A lower grade produce,
also sold under the name of gum arabic, is obtained from Acacia seyal, a species which occurs
widely in the Rift valley depression, especially on sites subjected to annual water logging.

A gum of relatively low quality is also obtained from a low shrub, Acacia drepanolobium which
occurs in the southern-most part of the country.

A third valuable gum is Myrrh, may be the most highly valued incense of all. It is obtained from a
small shrub Commiphora myrrh which principally is found in Ogaden, Bale and Sidamo. The
predominant product, market-wise, of these various gums is frankincense, which during recent
years has accounted for about 80% of total output. Most of the production originates from the
north-western part of the country, Tigray and Gondar in particular. Second in importance is gum
arabic with around 14% of production, while myrrh occupies third position with 6%.
2.5.2 Production
Reliable data on the production and utilization of the gum products of Ethiopia at national level is
not available, simply because the regional self-governments no longer report to the central
Government.

While the national average annual output during the period 1978-91 exceeds 1500 tons, much
higher figures are registered for the seasons 83/84 and 84/85 i.e., 3,500 tons and 4,200 tons
respectively.

Since 1992, production has levelled to over 2000 tones per annum. The increase in production is
attributed to the entrance in the business of the private sector particularly the Guna Trading
House Pvt. Ltd and Sihul Project Company. Together with the Natural Gum Production and
Marketing Enterprise (a Government parastatal), these companies are especially active in one of
the leading producers of gum/olibanum resin in Ethiopia, Tigray National Regional State. Table 3
below shows the production of natural gum/olibanum in the Tigray Region for the period 1992 -
1997.

Table 3. Gum/olibanum production in Tigray regional state (1992-1997)

Production /quintal/year
Organization Product 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
Olibanum - 6000 40000 33000 7500 -

Guna Trading House N. Gum - 855 2250 2800 - -

NGPME Olibanum 16000 53000 - - 9200 7000

Sihul Project Company Olibanum - 5050 4000 2842 5600 10000

Total 16000 64905 46251 38642 22300 17000

Source: Offices of the above three Organizations, 1997.

2.5.3 Marketing and economic importance

Marketing involves the flow of gum/olibanum resin from the producers (enterprises, groups,
individuals) to the consumers (domestic and export trade, consumption by households and
religious institutions) through intermediaries (enterprises, wholesalers and retailers).

The economic importance of gum and olibanum as raw materials in the manufacture of varnish,
laxative, essential oils, perfume, chewing gum, etc., is well documented. More importantly, it is
one of the top employment generating activities in the remotest parts of Ethiopia. Table 4 below
shows the number of seasonal workers employed in tapping, collection and processing in the
Tigray Regional State during the period 1992-1997.

Table 4. Number of seasonal workers involved in collection and processing of

gum/olibanum resin in Tigray region (1992-1997).
 Type of Number of seasonal workers
Work
Organization 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
Tapping - 860 4562 4200 3500 2000

Guna Trading House Grading - 25 1050 3575 - -

NGPME grading 666 1000 1000 200 380 290

Tapping 2000 6625 - - 1150 875

Tapping - 630 500 355 700 1250

Sihul Project Company Grading - 210 166 118 233 416

Total 2666 9350 7278 8548 6763 4831

Source: Offices of the above three Organizations, 1997.

At national level, the number of seasonal workers engaged in tapping and grading is estimated to
range between 20,000 - 30,000 per year.

In addition, it is a very important source of income for most rural people. The price paid for
collectors on the sites and cleaners/sorters in the main stores is as follows: collectors receive 155
ETH. Birr per quintal while collectors get Birr 110, 90, 70, 50, and 30, per quintal for grades 1, 2,
3, 4, and 5, respectively.

About 1,500 tons of gums and incense are sold annually through official trading channels, nearly
50 percent of the produce is exported. The demand for incense exceeds the supply, and the
prices are increasing. Table 5 provides the volume of sales in both domestic and export markets.

Table 5. Domestic and Foreign Sales in Eth. Birr (1979-1997)

Domestic sales Export

Year volume value volume value
1979 2701 607335 822 367489

1980 5990 2179511 2082 726667

1981 8103 2205331 8362 3169233

1982 9740 3141839 10430 3854400

1983 8281 2116628 19042 6829153

1984 7132 2540453 9791 3937549

1985 9130 3944211 9985 3761414

1986 13975 4343400 7700 4671118

1987 10844 4660900 6634 3115149

1988 9239 3908000 7708 3366000

 1989 11030 5551400 7259 3057000

1990 5358 2775000 1903 1174000

1991 1028 5480000 1170 847000

1992 5409 2852165 560 373520

1993 11880 6843000 3949 5522000

1994 12061 5124000 13256 11530000

1995 4875 7002000 11103 10165000

1996 22456 7141000 7189 10846597

1997 11654 4545900 19780 16465300

Total 22456 76962073 148725 93778589

Source: Offices of the above three Organizations, 1997.

As indicated earlier, olibanum resin is burnt in most households consuming about 5-10 grams per
day on average. The total domestic consumption can be estimated using the total household
number of 9 million in the country. Similarly, the consumption of churches (an estimated 35,000
churches exist in Ethiopia) is estimated to be about 1.5 quintal per church per year.

Currently olibanum is sold locally at Birr 4 per kilo, depending on the grade, and about Birr 10 per
kilo for exports by wholesalers. The retail price to the consumer is usually between Birr 15-25 per
kilogram depending on the quality.

Table 6 presents the current market price of gum/olibanum resin, while tables 7 and 8 show prices
from producer to the three enterprises and prices from the three enterprises to wholesalers.

Table 6. Current market price per quintal of gum/olibanum resin

N0 1995 1996 1997

I EXPORT
black grezo - 360.91 455.60

1st grade Tigray type incense 1331 1329.30 1340

2nd grade " " ' 1046 1044.45 1038.50

3rd grade " " " 919 917.85 871

Gum Humera Type 1902 1899 670

Gum Harar/Sidamo type 1204 1202.90 603

Gum seyal 667 664.65

II DOMESTIC PRICE
 1st grade Tigray type incense - 850 762

4th special " " ' 575 570 540

4th grade regular incense 450 450 430

5th grade " " " 200 200 200

Ogaden regular incense 900 800 400

Borena regular incense 800 300 210

Gum Harar/Sidamo 1204 1138 670

Gum Gumero 697 800 603

Source: Natural Gum Production and Marketing Enterprise (NGPME), 19972

Table 7. Domestic price (in Birr) from producer to NGPME and the other two companies

Type of produce cost of tappers cost of processors Grades

and graders
White Grezo 156 80-90 1st
70-80 2nd
60-70 3rd

Black Grezo 55-78 50-60 4th

20-30 5th
Source: Guna Trading House; NGPME; Sihul Project Company, 1997

Table 8. Domestic sale price (in Birr) from the three organizations to wholesellers

Year Grades and Wholesale Price

nd
1st 2 3rd 4th 5th
1993 600 580 550 400 175

1994 700 600 500 420 165

1995 798 707 560 336 153

1996 887 817 516 324 150

Source: Guna Trading House; NGPME; Sihul Project Company, 1997

2.5.4 Future prospects for gums and incense

As far as marketing prospects are concerned, the situation also differs between the two types of
gum products. While substitutes already exist for replacement of the acacia gum in certain
domains of utilisation, it also seems quite likely that the chemical industry will develop alternative
products, on an increasing scale, for replacing this relatively costly raw material It appears more
doubtful whether synthetics will ever seriously threaten the market for frankincense (or olibanum
as it is also called) or myrrh. Instead of the employed reasoning, one might admittedly employ a
far more optimistic view for future market prospects for gum arabic and related acacia gums.
There is in fact a possibility that present world-wide trends which favour utilization of healthy,
'ecological' products, may lead to increased future demand for such a perfectly natural product as
gum, rather than to the suggested decline of its use.

In conclusion, the following may be stated about the potential for gum production in Ethiopia. The
resource base is almost certainly vastly under-exploited but under heavy pressure from shifting
cultivators, fuelwood collectors and charcoal makers. After discussions with a number of
competent people at the Natural Gum Marketing Enterprise and in the forestry service, and also
drawing on previous field observations, the consultant would think that sustainable annual output
could be increased to five or even 10 times the recent production level of 1500 tons. However, as
it should be clear from the preceding analysis, this statement does not amount to anything more
than an even not very well informed guesstimate.

In an attempt to evaluate long term prospects, the situation is complicated further by our
ignorance about the speed with which the natural resource base is becoming degraded, and the
extent to which it may be possible to slow down this unfortunate development by appropriate
counter-measures. Very little is also known about prospects for improving the resource base by
active afforestation. It is known that the important frankincense tree can be planted simply by
sticking a cutting into the ground at the onset of the rains, and that the same simple technique will
work with the myrrh producing Commiphora sp. However, for rural people to become motivated to
carry out planting on a large scale, they must be assured that the trees established in this manner
will start yielding incense in significant quantities within a relatively short period. In the case of
Acacia senegal it is known that it can be tapped successfully for gum arabic about five years after
planting. No such data seems to be available for frankincense and myrrh producing trees, a fact
which makes it impossible to evaluate the economic soundness of promoting afforestation by the
government or by individuals, with these species, and makes it no easier to appreciate whether
such an activity would make sense to rural people.

3. MEDICINAL PLANTS

3.1 Medicinal plant resources of Ethiopia

The Ethiopian region is characterized by a wide range of ecological, edaphic, and climatic
conditions that account for the wide diversity of its biological resources, both in terms of flora and
faunal wealth. The plant genetic resources of the country exhibit an enormous diversity as seen in
the fact that Ethiopia is one of the twelve Vavilov centres of origin for domesticated crops and their
wild and weedy relatives. According to recent studies, it is estimated that there are more than
7000 species of flowering plants recorded in Ethiopia, of which 12 percent or more are probably
endemic.

Medicinal plants comprise one of the important components of the vegetation. On record there are
600 species of medicinal plants constituting a little over 10 percent of Ethiopia's vascular flora.
They are distributed all over the country, with greater concentration in the south and south-
western part of the country. The woodlands of Ethiopia are the source of most of the medicinal
plants, followed by the montane grassland/dry montane forest complex of the plateau. Other
important vegetation types for medicinal plants are the evergreen bushland and rocky areas.

Over 85 percent of the rural population, plus an increasing number of the poor in urban centres,
and animal husbandry employ many of the available plants, as well as products from wild animals
and minerals as their primary source of healthcare in the fight against various physical and mental
health problems. The value and role of these traditional healthcare systems will not diminish in the
future because they are both culturally viable and expected to remain affordable while the modern
healthcare service is both limited and expensive.

Ethiopia has a long history of traditional healthcare based largely on rich, though unstandardized,
pharmacopoeia drawn mostly from plants used both by women in the home in self-administration
and traditional health practitioners (THPs). The efficacy of a few of these plants (Hagenia
abyssinica) and Glinus lotoides from the treatment of tapeworm, and Phytolacca dodecandra as a
molluscicide in the control of schistosomiasis) has been scientifically determined, but the safety
and efficacy of many others in the treatment of various diseases remains underdeveloped.

However, many of these plant species used in traditional systems by women and THPs are
becoming rare and limited in distribution; they are threatened by several factors, both man-made
and natural. Environmental degradation, agricultural expansion, loss of forest and woodlands,
over-harvesting, fire, and urbanization appear to be the principal threats to the medicinal plants of
the country. The danger certainly poses a significant threat to the future well being of the
population which has, for generations, relied on these resources to combat the ailments of both
human beings and domestic animals.

3.2 Utilization and marketing of medicinal plants and products

Collection of medicinal plants in the wild has been going on for ages in Ethiopia. Forests are still
the primary source of these plants. A small part of the collected plants are used in the treatment of
diseases, most of them are sold as crude herbs and mostly for domestic consumption. Trading of
crude herbs goes through three channels, namely: collectors, vendors and practitioners.

Organized and documented information on use and marketing of medicinal plants in Ethiopia is
fragmentary. Even though there is some literature in traditional medicine, it does not include any
economic value of plant medicine that generates income for people who practice it for their
livelihood.

The marketing and selling of traditional medicine forms part of the general market scene in the
country. Known individuals in rural settlements, herbalist clinics, village markets, towns, etc., are
major retail outlets where people buy their plant medicines.

In Ethiopia, the traditional health practitioners are categorized into herbalists, bonesetters,
traditional birth attendants, spiritual healers, diviners and magicians. Though herbalists are
considered to be the biggest group that use medicinal plants, all of the practitioners in one way or
another use plant and plant products in their practice. Leaf of Cloisonne amisata, Lippia adoensis
and Ficus sur are used by birth attendants to wash the body of pregnant women after delivery.
Tables 9 and 10 below show the most common medicinal plants found in practitioners clinics and
sold by vendors in the markets of rural Ethiopia.

Table 10. Medicinal plants obtained from practitioners clinics

Scientific name Medicine used for Part used Price per treatment
(Eth Birr)
Calendula officinal haemorroide leaf 150
Eucalyptus globules skeletal musculo leaf oil 250
problem
Matricaria chamomile headache leaf 150
Rosmarinus officinal nerve manipulation whole plant 300
when partially
paralyse
Datura stromnium chronic cough, seed 150
asthma
Taraxacum official, Lactuca hepatitis leaf 250
spp., Marubium vulgaris,
Cynara scolymus
Verbascum haemorroide, eye leaf, flower 250
disease
Coriandrums sativum, hepatitis fruit, leaf 250
Taraxacum official
Ricinus communis, Solanum skin disease leaf, seed 100
giganteum and fruit
Marubium vulgares chronic cough, cold leaf, bark 150
Source: Desalegne Desissa, 1997

Table 11. Most common medicinal plants sold by vendors in the markets
Scientific name Unit of measure Price (Eth. Birr)
Hagenia abyssinica kg 30
Embelia schimperi cupful 5
Ximenia americana cupful 10
Croton macrostachys soup spoon 15
Euphorbia ampliphylla tablet 50
Tamarindus indica kg 30
Corindrium sativum kg 10
Lupinus albus soup spoon 15
Ricinus communis, kg 15
Rumex abyssinicus soup spoon 5
Rumex nervosus soup spoon 30
Adathoda schimperiana soup spoon 50
Asparagus africana tea spoon 25
Bersama abyssinica soup spoon 50
Kalenchoe petitiana soup spoon 10
Olea africana soup spoon 80
Doviyalis abssinica soup spoon 5
Source: Dessalegne Dessisa, 1997.
3.3 Status of the medicinal plants

An estimate of the threat to medicinal plants can be made from the type of plant and the part
used. Harvesting the root of a tree poses more of a threat than collecting the fruits and seeds, and
this can be more threatening than using the leaves. The plants used, as recorded in Jensen's list,
have often been confirmed from notes on specimen labels. The proportion of the plants in the list
is as follows:

Part Used Percentage

Ash 1
Bark 6
Bulb/tuber 1.7
Flower 2.5
Fruit 13
Gum/resin 2
Herb/stem 26
Leaf 43
Root 25
Sap 10
Seed 13
Smoke 2.5
Wood 0.5

It is interesting to note that a high proportion of plants are used for their leaves. This indicates that
many of the medicinal plants are being used in a sustainable way. However, it has also shown
that about a quarter of the plants used are harvested for their roots, tubers or bulbs. These
species need special attention to determine their status and what measures should or could be
taken to have them conserved.

4. Concluding remarks
Traditional medicine is used by a large segment of the population in Ethiopia. It is one of the most
important ways of making livelihoods for those who have no other means of income and it is also
the most important way of getting relief from various diseases.

The use of traditional medicine is increasing compared to the past because modern medicine has
become very expensive and beyond the reach of most compatriots. The uncontrolled use of
plants, particularly their roots, can easily lead to their destruction. Some of them may already be
endangered. On the other hand research and development and in situ and ex situ conservation of
most of these plants is rudimentary.
 REFERENCES
Natural Resource Management and Regulatory Department (NRMRD), 1998. Agro-ecological
Zones of Ethiopia, Ministry of Agriculture. Addis Ababa.

Forestry, 1997. Tekeze River Basin Integrated Development Master Plan Project. Ministry of
Water Resources, Volume NR7, Addis Ababa.

Gebre Medhin, 1997. Boswellia papyrifera From Western Tigray Opportunities, Constraints and
Seed Germination Response, MSc thesis, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences.

Sue Edwards, Mesfin Taddesse and Inga Hedberg (eds.), 1995. Flora of Ethiopia. Volume II.
Addis Ababa.

Reinhard Fichtl and Admassu Adi, 1994. Honeybee Flora of Ethiopia. Addis Ababa.

Jensen, P.C.M, 1981. Species Condiments and Medicinal Plants in Ethiopia, their Taxonomy and
Agricultural significance.

Amare Getahun, 1976. Some Common Medicinal and Poisonous Plants used in Ethiopian Folk
Medicine.

Desalegn Dessisa, 1997. Economic Value of Medicinal Plants in Ethiopia, A Case study. Paper
Prepared for the National Workshop on Biodiversity Conservation and Sustainable Use of
Medicinal Plants In Ethiopia. April 26-May 1, 1998, Addis Ababa.

Biodiversity Institute (BDI), 1998. Draft Proceedings of the National Workshop on Biodiversity
Conservation and Sustainable Use of Medicinal Plants In Ethiopia. April 26-May 1, 1998, Addis
Ababa.

Natural Gum Production and Marketing Enterprise (NGPME), 1997. Annual Enterprise Statistics,
Addis Ababa.

Guna Trading House PLC, 1997. Company Statistics.

Sihul Project Company, 1997. Company Statistics.

Ministry of Trade and Industry, Annual External Trade Statistics, 1984-1993.