ȈȦIJȒȡȘȢǼȁȠȣȡȓįĮȢ

ȀȫıIJĮȢȈȐȜĮȡȘȢǹȞįȡȑĮȢȉȡȚĮȞIJĮijȪȜȜȠȣ

ȂĮșȘȝĮIJȚțȐ
ȖȚĮǻȚĮȖȦȞȚıȝȠȪȢ
ǼȂǼǺȂȅ-%0200&,02
 ĬȑıȘȣʌȠȖȡĮijȒȢįȚțĮȚȠȪȤȠȣȦȞįȚțĮȚȦȝȐIJȦȞʌȞİȣȝĮIJȚțȒȢȚįȚȠțIJȘıȓĮȢ
İijȩıȠȞȘȣʌȠȖȡĮijȒʌȡȠȕȜȑʌİIJĮȚĮʌȩIJȘıȪȝȕĮıȘ

ȉȠ ʌĮȡȩȞ ȑȡȖȠ ʌȞİȣȝĮIJȚțȒȢ ȚįȚȠțIJȘıȓĮȢ ʌȡȠıIJĮIJİȪİIJĮȚ țĮIJȐ IJȚȢ įȚĮIJȐȟİȚȢ IJȘȢ İȜȜȘȞȚțȒȢ ȞȠȝȠșİıȓĮȢ
ȃ  ȩʌȦȢ ȑȤİȚ IJȡȠʌȠʌȠȚȘșİȓ țĮȚ ȚıȤȪİȚ ıȒȝİȡĮ țĮȚ IJȚȢ įȚİșȞİȓȢ ıȣȝȕȐıİȚȢ ʌİȡȓ ʌȞİȣȝĮIJȚțȒȢ
ȚįȚȠțIJȘıȓĮȢǹʌĮȖȠȡİȪİIJĮȚĮʌȠȜȪIJȦȢȘȐȞİȣȖȡĮʌIJȒȢĮįİȓĮȢIJȠȣİțįȩIJȘțĮIJȐȠʌȠȚȠȞįȒʌȠIJİIJȡȩʌȠȒȝȑıȠ
ȘȜİțIJȡȠȞȚțȩȝȘȤĮȞȚțȩȒȐȜȜȠĮȞIJȚȖȡĮijȒijȦIJȠĮȞĮIJȪʌȦıȘțĮȚİȞȖȑȞİȚĮȞĮʌĮȡĮȖȦȖȒİțȝȓıșȦıȘȒ
įĮȞİȚıȝȩȢȝİIJȐijȡĮıȘįȚĮıțİȣȒĮȞĮȝİIJȐįȠıȘıIJȠțȠȚȞȩıİȠʌȠȚĮįȒʌȠIJİȝȠȡijȒțĮȚȘİȞȖȑȞİȚİțȝİIJȐȜ-
ȜİȣıȘIJȠȣıȣȞȩȜȠȣȒȝȑȡȠȣȢIJȠȣȑȡȖȠȣ

ǼțįȩıİȚȢȆĮIJȐțȘ±ǺȚȕȜȓĮȖȚĮIJȘȞİțʌĮȓįİȣıȘȂĮșȘȝĮIJȚțȐ
ȈȦIJȒȡȘȢǼȁȠȣȡȓįĮȢȀȫıIJĮȢȈȐȜĮȡȘȢǹȞįȡȑĮȢȉȡȚĮȞIJĮijȪȜȜȠȣȂĮșȘȝĮIJȚțȐȖȚĮǻȚĮȖȦȞȚıȝȠȪȢ
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ȊʌİȪșȣȞȠȢȑțįȠıȘȢȃȓțȠȢȀȪȡȠȢ
ǻȚȠȡșȫıİȚȢȀȫıIJĮȢȈȓȝȠȢ
ȈİȜȚįȠʌȠȓȘıȘȈʌȪȡȠȢȇȑȞİıȘȢ
ĭȚȜȝȝȠȞIJȐȗȂĮȡȓĮȆȠȚȞȚȠȪȇȑȞİıȘ
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ǹȞįȡȑĮȢȉȡȚĮȞIJĮijȪȜȜȠȣǹșȒȞĮ
ȆȡȫIJȘȑțįȠıȘĮʌȩIJȚȢǼțįȩıİȚȢȆĮIJȐțȘǹșȒȞĮĭİȕȡȠȣȐȡȚȠȢ
ȀǼȉ±ȀǼȆ
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ȆǹȃǹīǾȉȈǹȁǻǹȇǾȆȇȍǾȃȆǼǿȇǹǿȍȈǹĬǾȃǹ

ȉǾȁĭǹȄ
ȀǼȃȉȇǿȀǾǻǿǹĬǼȈǾǼȂȂȂȆǼȃǹȀǾǹĬǾȃǹȉǾȁ
ȊȆȅȀǹȉǹȈȉǾȂǹǺȅȇǼǿǹȈǼȁȁǹǻǹȈȀȅȇȊȉȈǹȈȉǼȇȂǹȆȅȃȉȅȊ±ȆǼȇǿȅȋǾǺǯȀȉǼȅ
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ǹȖĮʌȘIJȑȢijȓȜİȢĮȖĮʌȘIJȠȓijȓȜȠȚ

ǾȜȠȖȚțȒİȓȞĮȚIJȠȤĮȡĮțIJȘȡȚıIJȚțȩȩʌȜȠIJȠȣĮȞșȡȫʌȠȣʌȠȣIJȠȞțȐȞİȚțȣȡȓĮȡȤȠʌȐȞȦıIJȠȞȖĮȜȐ-
ȗȚȠʌȜĮȞȒIJȘīȘȂİIJȘȜȠȖȚțȒȠȐȞșȡȦʌȠȢĮȟȚȠʌȠȚİȓIJĮįİįȠȝȑȞĮIJȘȢȗȦȒȢțĮȚʌĮȡȐȖİȚʌȡȩȠįȠ
țĮȚʌȠȜȚIJȚıȝȩȈİĮȣIJȩIJȠʌİȡȚȕȐȜȜȠȞĮȞĮʌIJȪııİIJĮȚțĮȚȘȝĮșȘȝĮIJȚțȒȞȠȘȝȠıȪȞȘȝȑıȦʌȜȑȠȞ
IJȘȢȝĮșȘȝĮIJȚțȒȢȜȠȖȚțȒȢIJȘȢįȚĮȓıșȘıȘȢțĮȚIJȘȢĮijĮȚȡİIJȚțȒȢȚțĮȞȩIJȘIJĮȢǾȝĮșȘȝĮIJȚțȒȞȠ-
ȘȝȠıȪȞȘİȓȞĮȚȘȚįȚĮȓIJİȡȘȚțĮȞȩIJȘIJĮțĮIJĮȞȩȘıȘȢIJȦȞȝĮșȘȝĮIJȚțȫȞİȞȞȠȚȫȞțĮȚșİȦȡȚȫȞțĮȚ
ȦȢ İț IJȠȪIJȠȣ İțIJȩȢ IJȦȞ ȐȜȜȦȞ ȝİ ĮȣIJȒȞ İʌȚIJȣȖȤȐȞİIJĮȚ Ș İʌȓȜȣıȘ įȪıțȠȜȦȞ ȝĮșȘȝĮIJȚțȫȞ
ʌȡȠȕȜȘȝȐIJȦȞȄİțȚȞȫȞIJĮȢIJȘıȣȖțİțȡȚȝȑȞȘıȣȖȖȡĮijȒʌȠȣIJȘșİȦȡȒıĮȝİĮʌȠȜȪIJȦȢĮȞĮȖțĮȓĮ
ȕĮıȚıIJȒțĮȝİ ıIJȠ ȕĮșȪ ȝĮȢ ʌȚıIJİȪȦ ȩIJȚ Ș ȚįȚĮȓIJİȡȘ ĮȣIJȒ ȚțĮȞȩIJȘIJĮ ȝʌȠȡİȓ ȞĮ țĮȜȜȚİȡȖȘșİȓ
ĮțȩȝĮʌİȡȚııȩIJİȡȠȝİıȣıIJȘȝĮIJȚțȒįȚįĮıțĮȜȓĮțĮȚİȟȐıțȘıȘıİȑȞĮȝĮșȘȝĮIJȚțȩʌİȡȚȕȐȜȜȠȞ
ʌȠȣİȜțȪİȚǹʌȠIJİȜİȓʌȚıIJİȪȦȝĮȢȩIJȚĮȣIJȒȘȚțĮȞȩIJȘIJĮİȞȣʌȐȡȤİȚıIJȠȐIJȠȝȠțĮȚȝİțĮIJȐȜȜȘȜȘ
ʌȡȠıʌȐșİȚĮ șĮ ȑȡșİȚ IJİȜȚțȐ ıIJȘȞ İʌȚijȐȞİȚĮ țĮȚ șĮ ȜİȚIJȠȣȡȖȒıİȚ ȆȡȑʌİȚ ȞĮ ȜȐȕȠȣȝİ ıȠȕĮ-
ȡȐȣʌȩȥȘȩIJȚİȓȞĮȚțȠȡȣijĮȓĮȘțȐșİıIJȚȖȝȒİʌȓȜȣıȘȢİȞȩȢȝĮșȘȝĮIJȚțȠȪʌȡȠȕȜȒȝĮIJȠȢĮijȠȪ
İȓȞĮȚȘıIJȚȖȝȒʌȠȣİȞșȠȣıȚȐȗİȚʌİȓșİȚȖȚĮIJȘįȚĮȓıșȘıȘțĮȚIJȘȞİʌȚȜȠȖȒIJȦȞȠȡșȫȞȜȠȖȚțȫȞ
ıȣȞįȣĮıȝȫȞțĮȚțĮIJĮȟȚȫȞİȚIJȠȞȜȪIJȘțȣȡȓȦȢıIJȠȞȓįȚȠIJȠȣIJȠȞİĮȣIJȩDzȞĮıȘȝĮȞIJȚțȐʌȠȜȪ
İȜțȣıIJȚțȩ ʌİȡȚȕȐȜȜȠȞ ȖȚĮ IJĮ ȝĮșȘȝĮIJȚțȐ İȓȞĮȚ İțİȓȞȠ IJȦȞ ȝĮșȘȝĮIJȚțȫȞ įȚĮȖȦȞȚıȝȫȞ IJȩıȠ
IJȦȞİȖȤȫȡȚȦȞʌȠȣįȚȠȡȖĮȞȫȞİȚșİıȝȚțȐȘǼȜȜȘȞȚțȒȂĮșȘȝĮIJȚțȒǼIJĮȚȡİȓĮıIJȚȢijȐıİȚȢ©ĬĮ-
ȜȒȢª©ǼȣțȜİȓįȘȢª©ǹȡȤȚȝȒįȘȢª©ȆȡȠțȡȚȝĮIJȚțȩȢǻȚĮȖȦȞȚıȝȩȢªĮȜȜȐțĮȚȠįȚĮȖȦȞȚıȝȩȢȀĮ-
ȖțȠȣȡȩʌȠȣįȚȠȡȖĮȞȫȞİIJĮȚĮʌȩIJȠȞțĮșȘȖȘIJȒțȂȚȤȐȜȘȁȐȝʌȡȠȣȩıȠțĮȚIJȦȞįȚİșȞȫȞ%02
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ĬİȦȡȒıĮȝİȜȠȚʌȩȞĮȞĮȖțĮȓĮȖȚĮIJȠʌİȡȚȕȐȜȜȠȞIJȦȞȝĮșȘȝĮIJȚțȫȞįȚĮȖȦȞȚıȝȫȞIJȘıȣȖȖȡĮijȒ
ĮȣIJȒʌȠȣıIJȩȤȠȑȤİȚIJȘȞİȞįȣȞȐȝȦıȘİȞȩȢȝĮșȘȝĮIJȚțȠȪȩȞIJȠȢȦȢȜȪIJȘʌȡȠȕȜȘȝȐIJȦȞȉȑȤȞȘ
İʌȓȜȣıȘȢʌȡȠȕȜȘȝȐIJȦȞʌȠȣįȚİșȞȫȢĮʌȠįȓįİIJĮȚȦȢDUWRISUREOHPVROYLQJīȚĮIJȠȞıțȠʌȩĮȣIJȩ
țȡȓȞĮȝİȦȢȜȓĮȞĮʌĮȡĮȓIJȘIJȘIJȘȞĮȞĮijȠȡȐıİșȑȝĮIJĮșİȦȡȓĮȢʌȠȣıȣȝʌȜȘȡȫȞİȚȠȣıȚĮıIJȚțȐIJȘ
ıȤȠȜȚțȒȖȞȫıȘȕȠȘșȫȞIJĮȢȑIJıȚIJȠȣȢȝĮșȘIJȑȢıIJȘȞțĮIJĮȞȩȘıȘIJȘȢȜİȚIJȠȣȡȖȓĮȢȜİʌIJȫȞȝĮșȘ-
ȝĮIJȚțȫȞİȞȞȠȚȫȞʌȠȣȩȝȦȢȕȠȘșȠȪȞțĮșȠȡȚıIJȚțȐıIJȘȞİʌȓȜȣıȘĮțȩȝȘʌİȡȚııȩIJİȡȦȞʌȡȠȕȜȘ-
ȝȐIJȦȞȈIJȘșİȦȡȓĮĮȜȜȐțĮȚȝȑıȦIJȦȞʌȡȠȕȜȘȝȐIJȦȞİȞIJȐȤșȘțĮȞțĮȚȠȚȝĮșȘȝĮIJȚțȑȢȝȑșȠįȠȚ
İʌȓȜȣıȘȢ Ǿ İʌȚȜȠȖȒ IJȦȞ ʌȡȠȕȜȘȝȐIJȦȞ ȑȖȚȞİ ȝİ İʌȚįȓȦȟȘ ȞĮ ȖȓȞİȚ ʌȚȠ țĮIJĮȞȠȘIJȒ Ș șİȦȡȓĮ
ȝȑıȦIJȘȢİʌȓȜȣıȒȢIJȠȣȢĮȜȜȐțĮȚȞĮʌȡȠʌȠȞȘșİȓıİİȣȡȪIJİȡȘșİȝĮIJȠȜȠȖȓĮȠįȚĮȖȦȞȚȗȩȝİȞȠȢ
ȦȢȜȪIJȘȢīȚĮIJȘȞİʌȓȜȣıȘIJȦȞʌȡȠȕȜȘȝȐIJȦȞȜȐȕĮȝİĮʌȩȜȣIJĮȣʌȩȥȘIJȠȞĮʌĮȡĮȓIJȘIJȠȡȩȜȠIJȘȢ
ǹȞĮȜȣIJȚțȒȢȂİșȩįȠȣȦȢȝİșȩįȠȣıțȑȥȘȢʌȠȣȠįȘȖİȓıIJȘȈȪȞșİıȘ
ȂȑıȦ IJȦȞ įȚĮȖȦȞȚıȝȫȞ IJȘȢ ǼȜȜȘȞȚțȒȢ ȂĮșȘȝĮIJȚțȒȢ ǼIJĮȚȡİȓĮȢ ıȣȖțȡȠIJȠȪȞIJĮȚ ȠȚ ǼșȞȚțȑȢ
ȅȝȐįİȢIJȦȞȞȑȦȞȑȦȢİIJȫȞțĮȚIJȦȞȝİȖȐȜȦȞİIJȫȞțĮȚȐȞȦʌȠȣİțʌȡȠıȦʌȠȪȞIJȘȞ
ʌĮIJȡȓįĮȝĮȢıIJȠȣȢįȚİșȞİȓȢįȚĮȖȦȞȚıȝȠȪȢȘȠʌȠȓĮIJȠȑIJȠȢțĮIJȑțIJȘıİıIJȘȞǿȂȅIJȘȘ
șȑıȘʌĮȖțȠıȝȓȦȢʌȠȣȒIJĮȞIJĮȣIJȩȤȡȠȞĮțĮȚȘʌȡȫIJȘșȑıȘĮʌȩIJȚȢȤȫȡİȢIJȘȢǼȣȡȦʌĮȧțȒȢ
DzȞȦıȘȢȈIJȘȞʌĮIJȡȓįĮȝĮȢʌȜȑȠȞĮȣȟȐȞȠȞIJĮȚȡĮȖįĮȓĮȠȚıȤȠȜȚțȑȢȝȠȞȐįİȢʌȠȣțĮș¶ȣʌȑȡȕĮıȘ
IJȦȞȦȡȫȞįȚįĮıțĮȜȓĮȢIJȘȢȣʌȠȤȡİȦIJȚțȒȢȪȜȘȢįȘȝȚȠȣȡȖȠȪȞȝİȝİȖȐȜȘİʌȚIJȣȤȓĮįȚįĮțIJȚțȠȪȢșȪ-


īȡȐȝȝĮʌȡȠȢȝĮșȘIJȑȢȖȠȞİȓȢțĮȚİțʌĮȚįİȣIJȚțȠȪȢ

ȜĮțİȢıIJȠʌȞİȪȝĮIJȘȢșİȝĮIJȠȜȠȖȓĮȢIJȦȞȝĮșȘȝĮIJȚțȫȞįȚĮȖȦȞȚıȝȫȞȉĮȣIJȩȤȡȠȞĮȑȤȠȣȝİțĮȚIJȘ
įȘȝȚȠȣȡȖȓĮțĮIJĮıțȘȞȦIJȚțȫȞİȖțĮIJĮıIJȐıİȦȞȩʌȠȣİțİȓįȚįȐıțȠȞIJĮȚȝĮșȘȝĮIJȚțȐȣʌȩIJȘȞĮȚȖȓįĮ
IJȘȢǼȜȜȘȞȚțȒȢȂĮșȘȝĮIJȚțȒȢǼIJĮȚȡİȓĮȢĬĮȒIJĮȞʌĮȡȐȜİȚȥȒȝĮȢIJȑȜȠȢĮȞįİȞĮȞĮijȑȡĮȝİIJȠȣȢ
ȠȡȓȗȠȞIJİȢʌȠȣĮȞȠȓȖȠȞIJĮȚȝȑıȦIJȦȞįȚĮȖȦȞȚıȝȫȞĮȣIJȫȞǹȞȑȞĮȢįȚĮȖȦȞȚȗȩȝİȞȠȢʌȐȡİȚįȚİșȞȑȢ
ȝİIJȐȜȜȚȠ Įʌȩ ǺȂȅ Ȓ ǿȂȅ Ȥȡȣıȩ Ȓ ȤȐȜțȚȞȠ Ȓ ĮȡȖȣȡȩ ĮȞȠȓȖȠȞIJĮȚ ĮȣIJȩȝĮIJĮ ȠȚ įȡȩȝȠȚ ȖȚĮ
țȠȡȣijĮȓĮįȚİșȞȒʌĮȞİʌȚıIJȒȝȚĮĮȜȜȐțĮȚİįȫıIJȘȞʌĮIJȡȓįĮȝĮȢİȚıȐȖİIJĮȚȤȦȡȓȢİȟİIJȐıİȚȢ©țĮș¶
ȣʌȑȡȕĮıȘª ıIJȚȢ ĮȞIJȓıIJȠȚȤİȢ ıȤȠȜȑȢ IJȘȢ IJȡȚIJȠȕȐșȝȚĮȢ İțʌĮȓįİȣıȘȢ ȩʌȠȣ IJĮ ȝĮșȘȝĮIJȚțȐ İȓȞĮȚ
ȝȐșȘȝĮțĮIJİȪșȣȞıȘȢǹȢİʌȚıȘȝȐȞȠȣȝİİįȫȩIJȚIJĮȝİIJȐȜȜȚĮįİȞİȓȞĮȚȩʌȦȢıIJȠȞțȜĮıȚțȩĮșȜȘ-
IJȚıȝȩǻȘȜĮįȒIJȠįȚİșȞȑȢȤȡȣıȩȒĮıȘȝȑȞȚȠȒĮȡȖȣȡȩȝĮșȘȝĮIJȚțȩȝİIJȐȜȜȚȠįİȞİȓȞĮȚȝȠȞĮįȚțȩ
țȐIJȚ ʌȠȣ șĮ țĮșȚıIJȠȪıİ IJȘ ıIJȩȤİȣıȘ ĮʌȡȩıȚIJȘ ȈIJȠȣȢ įȚĮȖȦȞȚıȝȠȪȢ ĮȣIJȠȪȢ ȑȤȠȣȝİ ʌȠıȠıIJȩ
ȤȡȣıȫȞȝİIJĮȜȜȓȦȞȑȞĮȝİȖĮȜȪIJİȡȠʌȠıȠıIJȩĮȡȖȣȡȫȞȝİIJĮȜȜȓȦȞțĮȚȑȞĮĮțȩȝĮȝİȖĮȜȪIJİȡȠ
ʌȠıȠıIJȩȤȐȜțȚȞȦȞȝİIJĮȜȜȓȦȞ
ǾıȣȖȖȡĮijȒĮȣIJȒȑȤİȚıIJȩȤȠȞĮİȓȞĮȚȩıȠIJȠįȣȞĮIJȩȞȠȣıȚĮıIJȚțȐȤȡȒıȚȝȘȦȢȜİȚIJȠȣȡȖȚțȩ
İȡȖĮȜİȓȠțȣȡȓȦȢıIJȠȣȢȝĮșȘIJȑȢIJȠȣīȣȝȞĮıȓȠȣțĮȚIJȘȢǹǯȁȣțİȓȠȣǵȝȦȢİȓȞĮȚȤȡȒıȚȝȘțĮȚ
ȖȚĮȝĮșȘIJȑȢIJȦȞIJȐȟİȦȞǺǯțĮȚīǯȁȣțİȓȠȣȖȚĮIJȘȞȠȣıȚĮıIJȚțȒıȣȝʌȜȒȡȦıȘȖȞȫıİȦȞʌȡȠȢIJȘȞ
țĮIJİȪșȣȞıȘĮȣIJȒIJȘȕİȜIJȓȦıȘįȘȜĮįȒĮțȩȝĮʌİȡȚııȩIJİȡȠIJȘȢȝĮșȘȝĮIJȚțȒȢIJȠȣȢĮʌȩįȠıȘȢ
ȉĮȣIJȩȤȡȠȞĮİȓȞĮȚȤȡȒıȚȝȘȖȚĮIJȠȣȢțĮșȘȖȘIJȑȢțĮȚȖİȞȚțȩIJİȡĮIJȠȣȢįȚįȐıțȠȞIJİȢʌȠȣʌȡȠıʌĮ-
șȠȪȞȞĮʌȡȠȦșȒıȠȣȞIJȘȝĮșȘȝĮIJȚțȒıțȑȥȘțĮȜȜȚİȡȖȫȞIJĮȢIJȘıIJȠȞȩȝȠȡijȠțȩıȝȠIJȦȞȞȑȦȞ
ȫıIJİ ȞĮ ȕİȜIJȚȦșİȓ Ș ȝĮșȘȝĮIJȚțȒ IJȠȣȢ ĮʌȩįȠıȘ Ǿ ıȣȖȖȡĮijȒ ĮȣIJȒ İȞįȚĮijȑȡİȚ İʌȓıȘȢ IJȠȣȢ
ȖȠȞİȓȢʌȠȣșȑȜȠȣȞȞĮıȣȝʌȠȡİȣIJȠȪȞȝİIJĮʌĮȚįȚȐIJȠȣȢıIJȠȞĮȖȫȞĮĮȣIJȩĮȜȜȐțĮȚțȐșİșİIJȚțȩ
İʌȚıIJȒȝȠȞĮʌȠȣȝȑıĮIJȠȣįİȞȑȤİȚĮțȩȝĮ©ıȕȒıİȚªȘijȜȩȖĮIJȠȣȜȪIJȘ
ǹʌȩIJȘșȑıȘĮȣIJȒșĮșȑȜĮȝİȞĮĮȞĮijİȡșȠȪȝİıIJȠȞșİIJȚțȩȡȩȜȠIJȘȢǼȜȜȘȞȚțȒȢȂĮșȘȝĮIJȚțȒȢ
ǼIJĮȚȡİȓĮȢ țĮȚ IJȦȞ ʌĮȡĮȡIJȘȝȐIJȦȞ IJȘȢ ȦȢ șİȝĮIJȠijȣȜȐțȦȞ IJȦȞ ȝĮșȘȝĮIJȚțȫȞ įȚĮȖȦȞȚıȝȫȞ
ʌȠȣ ȦȢ ȖİȖȠȞȩȢ ĮʌȠIJİȜİȓ ȝȓĮ ĮʌȐȞIJȘıȘ ıIJȘȞ ʌȡȩțȜȘıȘ IJȘȢ İʌȠȤȒȢ ȈȓȖȠȣȡĮ İȣȤĮȡȚıIJȠȪȝİ
IJȠȣȢʌȡȠȑįȡȠȣȢIJȘȢįȚĮȤȡȠȞȚțȐǿįȚĮȚIJȑȡȦȢİȣȤĮȡȚıIJȠȪȝİIJȠȣȢʌȡȠȑįȡȠȣȢIJȘȢȀĮșȘȖȘIJȑȢț
ǹȜİȟĮȞįȡȒȃȚțȩȜĮȠțǼȟĮȡȤȐțȠĬİȩįȦȡȠțǻȘȝȐțȠīȚȫȡȖȠțȀĮȜȠȖİȡȩʌȠȣȜȠīȡȘȖȩȡȘ
țȂʌȩȜȘĬİȩįȦȡȠțĭİȜȜȠȪȡȘǹȞȐȡȖȣȡȠȠȚȠʌȠȓȠȚȦȢʌȡȩİįȡȠȚIJȘȢǼȂǼțĮIJȐIJȘșȘIJİȓĮ
IJȠȣȢ ʌȡȠıȑijİȡĮȞ IJĮ țĮIJȐ IJȠ įȣȞĮIJȩȞ ȝȑȖȚıIJĮ İʌȓ IJȦȞ ȝĮșȘȝĮIJȚțȫȞ įȚĮȖȦȞȚıȝȫȞ ǼʌȓıȘȢ
İȣȤĮȡȚıIJȠȪȝİ IJȠȞ ȀĮșȘȖȘIJȒ țȁȐȝʌȡȠȣ ȂȚȤȐȜȘ IJȠȞ ȐȞșȡȦʌȠ ʌȠȣ ȝȑıȦ IJȠȣ įȚĮȖȦȞȚıȝȠȪ
ȀĮȖțȠȣȡȩʌȡȠıijȑȡİȚȠȣıȚĮıIJȚțȐıIJȠȞșİıȝȩIJȦȞįȚĮȖȦȞȚıIJȚțȫȞȝĮșȘȝĮIJȚțȫȞ
ǼȣȤĮȡȚıIJȠȪȝİȚįȚĮȚIJȑȡȦȢIJȠȞțȈIJȑȡȖȚȠǹȞIJȦȞĮțȠȪįȘʌȠȣĮʌȩʌȠȜȪȞȑȠȢįȚȑʌȡİȥİȦȢȝĮ-
șȘȝĮIJȚțȩIJĮȜȑȞIJȠȣȥȘȜȫȞʌȡȠįȚĮȖȡĮijȫȞíȝİįȚİșȞȒȅȜȣȝʌȚĮțȐȂĮșȘȝĮIJȚțȐȝİIJȐȜȜȚĮǺȂȅ
țĮȚǿȂȅțĮȚıȣȞİȤȓȗȠȞIJĮȢIJȫȡĮȞĮįȚĮʌȡȑʌİȚȦȢțĮșȘȖȘIJȒȢıIJȠȆĮȞİʌȚıIJȒȝȚȠ&DPEULGJHí
țĮȚȠȠʌȠȓȠȢİʌİȟİȡȖȐıIJȘțİșȑȝĮIJĮIJȠȣȕȚȕȜȓȠȣĮȣIJȠȪțȐȞȠȞIJĮȢȤȡȒıȚȝİȢʌĮȡĮIJȘȡȒıİȚȢ
ȉȑȜȠȢİȣȤĮȡȚıIJȠȪȝİȩȜȠȣȢİțİȓȞȠȣȢIJȠȣȢıȣȞĮįȑȜijȠȣȢĮȞȐIJȘȞİʌȚțȡȐIJİȚĮʌȠȣİȓȞĮȚșȚĮıȫ-
IJİȢIJȦȞįȚĮȖȦȞȚıIJȚțȫȞȝĮșȘȝĮIJȚțȫȞțĮȚĮijȚİȡȫȞȠȣȞĮIJȑȜİȚȦIJİȢȫȡİȢȖȚĮȞĮİȝʌȞİȪıȠȣȞȝİ
ȠȣıȚĮıIJȚțȐįİȓȖȝĮIJĮȖȡĮijȒȢIJȠȣȢȞȑȠȣȢIJȘȢʌĮIJȡȓįĮȢȝĮȢȫıIJİȞĮİȚıȑȜșȠȣȞıIJȠȞȝĮȖİȣIJȚțȩ
țȩıȝȠIJȦȞȝĮșȘȝĮIJȚțȫȞįȚĮȖȦȞȚıȝȫȞ
ȂİİțIJȓȝȘıȘ
ȠȚıȣȖȖȡĮijİȓȢ

ȊīǿįȚĮȓIJİȡĮİȣIJȣȤȒȢİȓȞĮȚȖȚĮİȝȐȢȘıȣȖțȣȡȓĮIJȠȕȚȕȜȓȠȝĮȢȞĮİțįȓįİIJĮȚIJȠȑIJȠȢʌȠȣ
ȑȤİȚĮȞĮțȘȡȣȤșİȓȑIJȠȢȂĮșȘȝĮIJȚțȫȞİȞȫıȣȝʌȜȘȡȫȞȠȞIJĮȚțĮȚȤȡȩȞȚĮĮʌȩIJȘȞȓįȡȣıȘIJȘȢ
ǼȜȜȘȞȚțȒȢȂĮșȘȝĮIJȚțȒȢǼIJĮȚȡİȓĮȢ



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10. ȈȊȈȉǾȂǹȉǹǹȇǿĬȂǾȈǾȈȀǹǿǾȁǼȀȉȇȅȃǿȀȅǿȊȆȅȁȅīǿȈȉǼȈǾȊ 
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ȆȇȅȈĬǼȉǼȈȁȊȂǼȃǼȈǹȈȀǾȈǼǿȈ
1. ǹȡȚșȝȘIJȚțȒȢ 
2. DZȜȖİȕȡĮȢ 
3. ȈțȑȥȘȢ 
4. ĬİȦȡȓĮȢĮȡȚșȝȫȞ 
5. īİȦȝİIJȡȓĮȢ 
6. īİȞȚțȑȢıȣȞįȣĮıIJȚțȑȢĮıțȒıİȚȢȖİȦȝİIJȡȓĮȢ 

ȆǹȇǹȇȉǾȂǹȉǹ
ǺĮȜțĮȞȚțȑȢȂĮșȘȝĮIJȚțȑȢȅȜȣȝʌȚȐįİȢȃȑȦȞ 
ĬĮȜȒȢ±ǼȣțȜİȓįȘȢ±ǹȡȤȚȝȒįȘȢ 


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ǼȚıĮȖȦȖȒ
ȂʌȠȡȠȪȝİȞĮțĮIJĮȜȐȕȠȣȝİȤȡȘıȚȝȠʌȠȚȫȞIJĮȢIJȚȢĮȚıșȒıİȚȢȝĮȢȩIJȚįȪȠȩȝȠȚĮĮȞIJȚțİȓȝİ-
ȞĮįİȞİȓȞĮȚʌȐȞIJĮȓįȚȠȣȝİȖȑșȠȣȢȅįȘȖȠȪȝĮıIJİȑIJıȚıIJȘȞȑȞȞȠȚĮIJȘȢįȚȐIJĮȟȘȢȩIJȚįȘ-
ȜĮįȒIJȠȑȞĮĮȞIJȚțİȓȝİȞȠİȓȞĮȚȝİȖĮȜȪIJİȡȠĮʌȩȑȞĮȐȜȜȠȈIJȘıȣȞȑȤİȚĮʌĮȡĮIJȘȡȠȪȝİȩIJȚ
țȐʌȠȚĮįȚĮijȠȡİIJȚțȐĮȞIJȚțİȓȝİȞĮȑȤȠȣȞțȠȚȞȐȤĮȡĮțIJȘȡȚıIJȚțȐIJĮȠʌȠȓĮȝĮȢȠįȘȖȠȪȞıIJȘ
įȘȝȚȠȣȡȖȓĮțȠȚȞȒȢȠȞȠȝĮIJȠȜȠȖȓĮȢȖȚĮĮȣIJȐįȑȞIJȡȠʌȡȩȕĮIJȠȐȞșȡȦʌȠȢȜȚȠȞIJȐȡȚʌȠIJȐȝȚ
țIJȜDzIJıȚįȘȝȚȠȣȡȖİȓIJĮȚįȚĮȚıșȘIJȚțȐȘȑȞȞȠȚĮʌȠȣĮȡȖȩIJİȡĮȠȞȠȝȐıIJȘțİıȪȞȠȜȠ
ǼʌȩȝİȞȘİȓȞĮȚȘȑȞȞȠȚĮIJȘȢȚıȩIJȘIJĮȢȩIJȚįȘȜĮįȒȝȚĮȠȝȐįĮȠȝȠİȚįȫȞĮȞIJȚțİȚȝȑȞȦȞ
ȑȤİȚȓįȚȠĮȡȚșȝȩĮȞIJȚțİȚȝȑȞȦȞȝİȝȚĮȐȜȜȘȠȝȐįĮDzIJıȚȕȜȑʌȠȣȝİȩIJȚIJȡȓĮįȑȞIJȡĮțĮȚ
IJȡȓĮʌȡȩȕĮIJĮȑȤȠȣȞIJȠțȠȚȞȩȤĮȡĮțIJȘȡȚıIJȚțȩȩIJȚİțijȡȐȗȠȞIJĮȚȦȢʌȡȠȢIJȠȞĮȡȚșȝȩȒ
IJȠʌȜȒșȠȢIJȠȣȢȝİIJȠȞĮȡȚșȝȩȉȠʌȜȒșȠȢįȘȜĮįȒIJȦȞIJȡȚȫȞįȑȞIJȡȦȞİȓȞĮȚȓįȚȠȝİ
IJȠʌȜȒșȠȢIJȦȞIJȡȚȫȞʌȡȠȕȐIJȦȞȒIJȠʌȜȒșȠȢIJȦȞIJȡȚȫȞʌȠȡIJȠțĮȜȚȫȞțIJȜDzIJıȚȘȑȞ-
ȞȠȚĮIJȘȢȚıȩIJȘIJĮȢʌȡȠțȪʌIJİȚȦȢĮʌȠIJȑȜİıȝĮȝȑIJȡȘıȘȢʌȠȣįȓȞİȚIJȠȓįȚȠʌȜȒșȠȢȈIJȘ
ijȪıȘȠțĮȞȩȞĮȢİȓȞĮȚȘįȚȐIJĮȟȘHilbert

1.1 ȈȊȃȅȁǹ
1.1.1 ǾȑȞȞȠȚĮIJȠȣıȣȞȩȜȠȣ
Ǿ ȑȞȞȠȚĮ IJȠȣ ıȣȞȩȜȠȣ İȓȞĮȚ ©ʌȡȦIJĮȡȤȚțȒª IJȘȞ țĮIJĮ
ȞȠȠȪȝİ įȘȜĮįȒ įȚĮȚıșȘIJȚțȐ ȈȪȝijȦȞĮ ȝİ IJȠȞ șİȝİȜȚȦ-
IJȒ IJȘȢ șİȦȡȓĮȢ ıȣȞȩȜȦȞ G. Candor ıȪȞȠȜȠ ȠȞȠȝȐȗİ-
IJĮȚȝȚĮ©ıȣȜȜȠȖȒªĮȞIJȚțİȚȝȑȞȦȞįȚĮijȠȡİIJȚțȫȞĮȞĮįȪȠ
ȝİIJĮȟȪ IJȠȣȢ IJĮ ȠʌȠȓĮ ȩȝȦȢ ȑȤȠȣȞ ȝȓĮ țȠȚȞȒ ȚįȚȩIJȘIJĮ
ȘȠʌȠȓĮțĮșȠȡȓȗİȚĮȞȑȞĮIJȣȤĮȓȠĮȞIJȚțİȓȝİȞȠİȓȞĮȚȒȩȤȚ
ıIJȠȚȤİȓȠIJȘȢıȣȜȜȠȖȒȢĮȣIJȒȢȂİȐȜȜĮȜȩȖȚĮȘİȞȜȩȖȦ
ȚįȚȩIJȘIJĮțĮșȠȡȓȗİȚĮȞȑȞĮIJȣȤĮȓȠĮȞIJȚțİȓȝİȞȠʌİȡȚȑȤİIJĮȚȒįİȞʌİȡȚȑȤİIJĮȚıIJȘıȣȜȜȠȖȒ
ĮȣIJȒĬİȦȡȠȪȝİȩIJȚIJĮıIJȠȚȤİȓĮȝȚĮȢIJȑIJȠȚĮȢıȣȜȜȠȖȒȢıĮȞȞĮȕȡȓıțȠȞIJĮȚİȞIJȩȢȝȚĮȢʌİ-
ȡȚȠȤȒȢȝȑıĮıİȑȞĮ©țȠȣIJȓªIJȘȞȠʌȠȓĮıȣȝȕȠȜȓȗȠȣȝİȝİȐȖțȚıIJȡĮ { } ȒȝİįȚȐȖȡĮȝ-
ȝĮ9HQQ
ȈȣȞȒșȦȢıȣȝȕȠȜȓȗȠȣȝİȑȞĮıȪȞȠȜȠȝİțİijĮȜĮȓȠȖȡȐȝȝĮǹȞșȑȜȠȣȝİȞĮįȘȜȫıȠȣ-
ȝİȩIJȚȑȞĮıIJȠȚȤİȓȠxİȓȞĮȚıIJȠȚȤİȓȠİȞȩȢıȣȞȩȜȠȣAįȘȜĮįȒȩIJȚIJȠxĮȞȒțİȚıIJȠıȪ-
ȞȠȜȠAȠıȣȝȕȠȜȚıȝȩȢʌȠȣȤȡȘıȚȝȠʌȠȚȠȪȝİİȓȞĮȚ x
. ǹȞIJȓșİIJĮĮȞșȑȜȠȣȝİȞĮįȘ-
ȜȫıȠȣȝİȩIJȚIJȠıIJȠȚȤİȓȠĮįİȞĮȞȒțİȚıIJȠıȪȞȠȜȠAIJȩIJİȠıȣȝȕȠȜȚıȝȩȢİȓȞĮȚ 

. 

9
ĬǼȍȇǿǹȀǹǿǹȈȀǾȈǼǿȈ

„¾ÏÁÂÆÄʾ
ȉȠ ıȪȞȠȜȠ  = {1, 2, 5, 7, 9 } İȓȞĮȚ IJȠ ıȪȞȠȜȠ IJȦȞ ʌİȡȚIJIJȫȞ ȝȠȞȫȞ ȝȠȞȠȥȒ-
ijȚȦȞĮȡȚșȝȫȞȀĮIJȐıȣȞȑʌİȚĮ 5
A, İȞȫ 12
A.

„¾ÏÁÂÆÄʾ
ȉȠ ıȪȞȠȜȠ IJȦȞ ijȦȞȘȑȞIJȦȞ IJȘȢ ĮȜijĮȕȒIJȠȣ İȓȞĮȚ IJȠ B = { , , , , , , } .
ȀĮIJȐıȣȞȑʌİȚĮ 
,   .

1.1.2 ȉȡȩʌȠȚʌȠȣțĮșȠȡȓȗȠȣȞȑȞĮıȪȞȠȜȠ
ȅȚIJȡȩʌȠȚțĮșȠȡȚıȝȠȪİȞȩȢıȣȞȩȜȠȣİȓȞĮȚįȪȠȠĮȞĮȖȡĮijȚțȩȢțĮȚȠʌİȡȚȖȡĮijȚțȩȢ
‡ ǹȞĮȖȡĮijȚțȩȢǼįȫijĮȓȞȠȞIJĮȚIJĮıIJȠȚȤİȓĮʌȠȣĮʌȠIJİȜȠȪȞIJȠıȪȞȠȜȠțĮȚȠȤȫ-
ȡȠȢȝȑıĮıIJȠȞȠʌȠȓȠȕȡȓıțȠȞIJĮȚ
īȚĮʌĮȡȐįİȚȖȝĮİȓįĮȝİȩIJȚ
= {1, 3, 5, 7, 9 } ,  = { , , , , , ,  } , ȒȝİįȚĮ-
ȖȡȐȝȝĮIJĮ9HQQ

‡ ȆİȡȚȖȡĮijȚțȩȢ Ǽįȫ ĮȞĮijȑȡİIJĮȚ ȝİ IJȘ ȝİȖĮȜȪIJİȡȘ įȣȞĮIJȒ ĮțȡȓȕİȚĮ Ș țȠȚȞȒ

ȚįȚȩIJȘIJĮIJȦȞıIJȠȚȤİȓȦȞIJȠȣıȣȞȩȜȠȣȤȦȡȓȢĮȣIJȐȞĮ©ijĮȓȞȠȞIJĮȚªȁȑȝİʌȤȩIJȚ
IJȠıȪȞȠȜȠĮʌȠIJİȜİȓIJĮȚțĮȚĮʌȩIJĮıIJȠȚȤİȓĮxʌȠȣȑȤȠȣȞIJȘȞȚįȚȩIJȘIJĮȈȣȝȕȠȜȚ-
țȐ[«ʌȠȣıȘȝĮȓȞİȚ©[IJȑIJȠȚȠȫıIJİ«ªȆȤ
 = { x/ x μ 

 
 
μ } ,
 = { x/ x
   
 
 } . 
ȅĮȞĮȖȡĮijȚțȩȢĮȞĮȖȡĮijȒIJȦȞıIJȠȚȤİȓȦȞIJȠȣıȣȞȩȜȠȣțĮȚȠʌİȡȚȖȡĮijȚțȩȢIJȡȩʌȠȢʌİ-
ȡȚȖȡĮijȒIJȘȢȚįȚȩIJȘIJĮȢʌȠȣȑȤȠȣȞIJĮıIJȠȚȤİȓĮĮȣIJȐțĮșȠȡȚıȝȠȪıȣȞȩȜȠȣİȓȞĮȚȚıȠįȪȞĮ-
ȝȠȚįȘȜĮįȒțĮșȑȞĮȢĮʌȩĮȣIJȠȪȢıȣȞİʌȐȖİIJĮȚĮȣIJȩȝĮIJĮIJȠȞȐȜȜȠ

1.1.3 ȉȠțİȞȩ©ȐįİȚȠªıȪȞȠȜȠ

ȉȠ ıȪȞȠȜȠ { x/ x 

 
μ μ

  8 } ʌİȡȚȖȡĮijȚțȩȢ IJȡȩʌȠȢ ıȣȞİ-
ʌȐȖİIJĮȚ IJȠ ıȪȞȠȜȠ { } ĮȞĮȖȡĮijȚțȩȢ IJȡȩʌȠȢ ĮijȠȪ įİȞ ȣʌȐȡȤİȚ įȚȥȒijȚȠȢ ĮȡȚșȝȩȢ
ȝȚțȡȩIJİȡȠȢIJȠȣȆȡȩțİȚIJĮȚȖȚĮIJȠȜİȖȩȝİȞȠțİȞȩıȪȞȠȜȠʌȠȣıȣȝȕȠȜȓȗİIJĮȚ
. DZȡĮ
ȖȡȐijȠȣȝİ
= { } . ȆĮȡĮIJȘȡȠȪȝİȩIJȚ 
{ 0 } , 
0.

1.1.4 ȊʌȠıȪȞȠȜȠıȣȞȩȜȠȣ
DzıIJȦIJĮıȪȞȠȜĮ  = { 0, 2, 4, 6, 8 } ,  = { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 } . ǺȜȑʌȠȣȝİȩIJȚȩȜĮ
IJĮıIJȠȚȤİȓĮIJȠȣıȣȞȩȜȠȣǹİȓȞĮȚIJĮȣIJȩȤȡȠȞĮțĮȚıIJȠȚȤİȓĮIJȠȣıȣȞȩȜȠȣǺ

10
 ǹȆȅȉǾȃǹȇǿĬȂǾȉǿȀǾȈȉǾȃǹȁīǼǺȇǹ

ȀĮIJĮȜȒȖȠȣȝİ ȑIJıȚ ıIJȠȞ İȟȒȢ ȠȡȚıȝȩ DzıIJȦ ıȪȞȠȜĮ ǹ Ǻ 7Ƞ ıȪȞȠȜȠ ǹ İȓȞĮȚ ȣʌȠ-
ıȪȞȠȜȠIJȠȣıȣȞȩȜȠȣǺ ĮȞțĮȚȝȩȞȠĮȞIJĮıIJȠȚȤİȓĮIJȠȣǹİȓȞĮȚțĮȚıIJȠȚȤİȓĮIJȠȣǺ
ıȣȝȕȠȜȓȗȠȣȝİ A
B 
ȈȣȞȠȥȓȗȠȞIJĮȢȑȤȠȣȝİ
ǹȞ ȖȚĮ țȐșİ x

ȑȤȠȣȝİ (  ) x

, IJȩIJİ A
B, țĮȚ ĮȞIJȓıIJȡȠijĮ Ȃİ ȕȐıȘ IJĮ
įȚĮȖȡȐȝȝĮIJĮ9HQQʌĮȓȡȞȠȣȝİ

ǺĮıȚțȑȢʌȡRIJȐıİȚȢ

 ǻȪȠıȪȞȠȜĮİȓȞĮȚȓıĮȩIJĮȞĮʌȠIJİȜȠȪȞIJĮȚĮʌȩIJĮȓįȚĮĮțȡȚȕȫȢıIJȠȚȤİȓĮȤȦȡȓȢ

ȞĮȝĮȢİȞįȚĮijȑȡİȚȘıİȚȡȐʌȠȣİȓȞĮȚȖȡĮȝȝȑȞĮʌȤ {1, 2, 3} = { 2, 1, 3} .
 ǻȪȠıȪȞȠȜĮǹǺİȓȞĮȚȓıĮĮȞțĮȚȝȩȞȠĮȞ A
B țĮȚ B
A. 
ǹʌȩʌȜİȣȡȐȢȝĮșȘȝĮIJȚțȠȪıȣȝȕȠȜȚıȝȠȪȑȤȠȣȝİ A = B, ȩIJĮȞ A
B țĮȚ B
A.
ǹȞIJȓıIJȡȠijĮĮȞȚıȤȪİȚ A
B țĮȚ B
A, IJȩIJİȚıȤȪİȚțĮȚ A = B. ǾȚįȚȩIJȘIJĮĮȣIJȒ
ȠȞȠȝȐȗİIJĮȚĮȞIJȚıȣȝȝİIJȡȚțȒǾʌȡȩIJĮıȘ©įȪȠıȪȞȠȜĮ ǹǺİȓȞĮȚȓıĮĮȞțĮȚ
ȝȩȞȠĮȞ A
B țĮȚ B
A ªĮʌȠIJİȜİȓIJȘȞțȪȡȚĮȝȑșȠįȠĮʌȩįİȚȟȘȢȩIJȚįȪȠıȪ-
ȞȠȜĮİȓȞĮȚȓıĮ
 ȀȐșİ ıȪȞȠȜȠ ǹ İȓȞĮȚ ȣʌȠıȪȞȠȜȠ IJȠȣ İĮȣIJȠȪ IJȠȣ ȆȡȐȖȝĮIJȚ țȐșİ ıIJȠȚȤİȓȠ
IJȠȣ ǹ İȓȞĮȚ țĮȚ ıIJȠȚȤİȓȠ IJȠȣ ǹ Ǿ ȚįȚȩIJȘIJĮ ĮȣIJȒ ȠȞȠȝȐȗİIJĮȚ ĮȞĮțȜĮıIJȚțȒ Ȓ
ĮȣIJȠʌĮșȒȢ
 ȉȠțİȞȩıȪȞȠȜȠİȓȞĮȚȣʌȠıȪȞȠȜȠțȐșİıȣȞȩȜȠȣ
 ǹȞIJȠıȪȞȠȜȠǹİȓȞĮȚȣʌȠıȪȞȠȜȠIJȠȣıȣȞȩȜȠȣ B ( A
B ) , țĮȚIJȠıȪȞȠȜȠǺİȓ-
ȞĮȚȣʌȠıȪȞȠȜȠIJȠȣıȣȞȩȜȠȣ  ( 
 ) , IJȩIJİIJȠıȪȞȠȜȠǹșĮİȓȞĮȚțĮȚȣʌȠıȪ-
ȞȠȜȠIJȠȣıȣȞȩȜȠȣ  ( 
 ) . ǻȘȜĮįȒĮȞ A
B țĮȚ B

, IJȩIJİ A

. ǾȚįȚȩ
IJȘIJĮ ĮȣIJȒ ȠȞȠȝȐȗİIJĮȚ ȝİIJĮȕĮIJȚțȒ ȆȤ ĮȞ A = {1, 2, 3} , B = { 0, 1, 2, 3} țĮȚ

= { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} , ʌĮȡĮIJȘȡȠȪȝİȩIJȚ A
B, B

, țĮȚIJİȜȚțȐȩIJȚ A

.

1.1.5 ȉȡİȚȢȕĮıȚțȑȢʌȡȐȟİȚȢȝİIJĮȟȪıȣȞȩȜȦȞ
L ȉ
 ȠȝȒįȪȠıȣȞȩȜȦȞǹǺ ȠȞȠȝȐȗİIJĮȚIJȠıȪȞȠȜȠIJȦȞțȠȚȞȫȞIJȠȣȢıIJȠȚȤİȓȦȞȈȣ-
ȖțİțȡȚȝȑȞĮ ȠȡȓȗȠȣȝİ 
 = { x : x
 
 x
 } . Ȃİ ȕȐıȘ IJĮ įȚĮȖȡȐȝȝĮIJĮ
IJȠȣ9HQQȑȤȠȣȝİ

11
ĬǼȍȇǿǹȀǹǿǹȈȀǾȈǼǿȈ

ȆȤ  = {1, 3, 5, 7 } ,  = { , 3, 5, ,  }

 = { 3, 5} . ǹȞȘIJȠȝȒįȪȠıȣȞȩ-


ȜȦȞİȓȞĮȚIJȠțİȞȩıȪȞȠȜȠIJȩIJİIJĮıȪȞȠȜĮȠȞȠȝȐȗȠȞIJĮȚȟȑȞĮȝİIJĮȟȪIJȠȣȢ

LL Dz
 ȞȦıȘįȪȠıȣȞȩȜȦȞǹǺȠȞȠȝȐȗİIJĮȚIJȠıȪȞȠȜȠʌȠȣĮʌȠIJİȜİȓIJĮȚĮʌȩIJĮıIJȠȚȤİȓĮ
țĮȚIJȦȞįȪȠıȣȞȩȜȦȞ
ȈȣȖțİțȡȚȝȑȞĮȠȡȓȗȠȣȝİ 
 = { x : x
  x
 } . ȂİȕȐıȘIJĮįȚĮȖȡȐȝȝĮIJĮ

IJȠȣ9HQQȘȑȞȦıȘİȓȞĮȚIJȠıțȚĮıȝȑȞȠȝȑȡȠȢ

ȆȤ
= {1, 3, 5, 7 } 
  = { , 3, 5, ,  }


 = {1, , 3, 5, 7, ,  } .

LLLȈȣȝʌȜȘȡȦȝĮIJȚțȩıȣȞȩȜȠȣǹDzıIJȦıȪȞȠȜȠȍIJȑIJȠȚȠȫıIJİIJȠıȪȞȠȜȠǹȞĮİȓ-
ȞĮȚȣʌȠıȪȞȠȜȩIJȠȣįȘȜĮįȒȞĮȑȤȠȣȝİ 
. ȉȩIJİıȣȝʌȜȘȡȦȝĮIJȚțȩIJȠȣıȣȞȩ-
ȜȠȣǹȦȢʌȡȠȢIJȠıȪȞȠȜȠȍțĮȜİȓIJĮȚIJȠıȪȞȠȜȠ

, ʌȠȣĮʌȠIJİȜİȓIJĮȚĮʌȩIJĮıIJȠȚ-
ȤİȓĮIJȠȣȍʌȠȣįİȞİȓȞĮȚıIJȠȚȤİȓĮIJȠȣǹįȘȜĮįȒ 
= { x : x   
 x   } . Ȃİ
ȕȐıȘIJĮįȚĮȖȡȐȝȝĮIJĮIJȠȣ9HQQȑȤȠȣȝİ

ȆȤ  = { , , , , 1, 2 } ,  = { , , , 2 }  
= {1,  } . 
ǻȪȠȕĮıȚțȠȓIJȪʌȠȚʌȠȣȚıȤȪȠȣȞİȓȞĮȚȠȚİȟȒȢ
  
=  
   
= .

1.1.6 ǿıȠįȪȞĮȝĮıȪȞȠȜĮ
ǻȪȠ ıȪȞȠȜĮ ǹ Ǻ ȜȑȖȠȞIJĮȚ ȚıȠįȪȞĮȝĮ ȩIJĮȞ IJĮ ıIJȠȚȤİȓĮ IJȠȣȢ ǹ ĮȞIJȚıIJȠȚȤȓȗȠȞIJĮȚ
İʌĮțȡȚȕȫȢȑȞĮʌȡȠȢȑȞĮȝİIJĮıIJȠȚȤİȓĮIJȠȣǺȤȦȡȓȢįȘȜĮįȒȞĮ©ʌİȡȚııİȪİȚªțĮ-
ȞȑȞĮ DzIJıȚ IJĮ ıȪȞȠȜĮ  = { , , ,  } ,  = {
, , ,  } İȓȞĮȚ ȚıȠįȪȞĮȝĮ ĮijȠȪ



, 
, 
 , 
. ȅıȣȝȕȠȜȚıȝȩȢIJȩIJİİȓȞĮȚ 
. ȆȡȠijĮȞȫȢįȪȠıȪ-
ȞȠȜĮȝİIJȠȓįȚȠʌȜȒșȠȢıIJȠȚȤİȓȦȞİȓȞĮȚȚıȠįȪȞĮȝĮ
ǻİȓIJİIJȠʌĮȡĮțȐIJȦʌĮȡȐįİȚȖȝĮ
ǹȞ  = { , ,  } ,  = { , , } ,  = {
, , μ } , … , IJȩIJİIJĮıȪȞȠȜĮǹǺī« İȓȞĮȚ
ȚıȠįȪȞĮȝĮĮijȠȪ




… , 


… , 

μ
… 

ȆĮȡĮIJȒȡȘıȘ ǾʌĮȡĮʌȐȞȦʌȡȩIJĮıȘİȓȞĮȚʌȠȜȪıȘȝĮȞIJȚțȒȖȚĮIJȘșİȝİȜȓȦıȘ
IJȦȞijȣıȚțȫȞĮȡȚșȝȫȞ

12
 ǹȆȅȉǾȃǹȇǿĬȂǾȉǿȀǾȈȉǾȃǹȁīǼǺȇǹ

ȆĮȡĮIJȒȡȘıȘīȚĮțȐșİıȪȞȠȜȠʌȠȣįİȞİȓȞĮȚțİȞȩȣʌȐȡȤȠȣȞȐʌİȚȡĮıȪȞȠȜĮ
ȚıȠįȪȞĮȝĮʌȡȠȢĮȣIJȩ

ȆĮȡĮIJȒȡȘıȘīȚĮIJĮȚıȠįȪȞĮȝĮıȪȞȠȜĮȚıȤȪȠȣȞȠȚİȟȒȢȚįȚȩIJȘIJİȢ
 ǹc$ĮȞĮțȜĮıIJȚțȒ
 ǹȞǹcBIJȩIJİBcAıȣȝȝİIJȡȚțȒ
 ǹȞǹcǺțĮȚBcīIJȩIJİǹcīȝİIJĮȕĮIJȚțȒ

 ȈȉȅǿȋǼǿǹȂǹĬǾȂǹȉǿȀǾȈȁȅīǿȀǾȈ
‡ ȁȠȖȚțȒ İȓȞĮȚ Ș İʌȚıIJȒȝȘ Ș İȟİIJȐȗȠȣıĮ IJȠȣȢ șİȝİȜȚȫįİȚȢ ȞȩȝȠȣȢ IJȘȢ ȞȠȒıİȦȢ țĮȚ
IJȠȣȢ șİȝİȜȚȫįİȚȢ ȞȩȝȠȣȢ IJȠȣ ȠȡșȫȢ ȞȠİȓȞ țĮȚ İȡİȣȞȐȞ IJȘȞ ĮȜȒșİȚĮȞª ȃȚțȩȜĮȠȢ
ȈȠȪȜȚĮȢȁȅīǿȀǾȂǼȉǹȈȉȅǿȋǼǿȍȃīȃȍȈǿȅȁȅīǿǹȈȅǼǻǺİȞǹșȒȞĮȚȢ

‡ ȂĮșȘȝĮIJȚțȒ ʌȡȩIJĮıȘ ȈIJĮ ȝĮșȘȝĮIJȚțȐ ȠȚ ʌȡȠIJȐıİȚȢ ȤĮȡĮțIJȘȡȓȗȠȞIJĮȚ ĮʌȠ-

țȜİȚıIJȚțȐțĮȚȝȩȞȠĮʌȩIJȠȖİȖȠȞȩȢȩIJȚțĮșİȝȓĮĮʌȩĮȣIJȑȢȝʌȠȡİȓȞĮİȓȞĮȚȝȩȞȠ
ĮȜȘșȒȢȒȥİȣįȒȢDzIJıȚıIJȘȝĮșȘȝĮIJȚțȒȜȠȖȚțȒȜȑȝİȩIJȚțȐșİʌȡȩIJĮıȘʌĮȓȡȞİȚ
IJȚȝȒĮȜȘșİȓĮȢ İȓIJİ©ĮȜȘșȒªİȓIJİ©ȥİȣįȒªȤȦȡȓȢȞĮȝĮȢİȞįȚĮijȑȡİȚȐȜȜȠȖȞȫȡȚ-
ıȝȐIJȘȢǹʌȩİįȫțĮȚıIJȠİȟȒȢȜȠȚʌȩȞȠȩȡȠȢ ʌȡȩIJĮıȘ ıȘȝĮȓȞİȚ ȝĮșȘȝĮIJȚțȒ
ʌȡȩIJĮıȘǾIJȚȝȒĮȜȘșİȓĮȢ©ĮȜȘșȒȢªȝȚĮȢʌȡȩIJĮıȘȢıȣȝȕȠȜȓȗİIJĮȚĮİȞȫȘIJȚȝȒ
ĮȜȘșİȓĮȢ©ȥİȣįȒȢªıȣȝȕȠȜȓȗİIJĮȚȥ
„¾Ï¾ÁºÄʾѾ
1. ǾʌȡȩIJĮıȘ ©ȅĮȡȚșȝȩȢİȓȞĮȚȗȣȖȩȢªİȓȞĮȚĮȜȘșȒȢ
2. ǾʌȡȩIJĮıȘ©ȅĮȡȚșȝȩȢ 3 İȓȞĮȚȡȘIJȩȢªİȓȞĮȚȥİȣįȒȢ
3. Ǿ ijȡȐıȘ©ǹȪȡȚȠșĮȕȡȑȟİȚªįİȞİȓȞĮȚʌȡȩIJĮıȘıIJĮȝĮșȘȝĮIJȚțȐIJȠȣʌȡȠIJĮ-
ıȚĮțȠȪȜȠȖȚıȝȠȪĮijȠȪįİȞȝʌȠȡİȓȞĮȤĮȡĮțIJȘȡȚıIJİȓȦȢĮȜȘșȒȢȒȥİȣįȒȢ

‡ ǺĮıȚțȐ İȓįȘʌȡȠIJȐıİȦȞ
DzȤȠȣȝİįȪȠİȓįȘʌȡȠIJȐıİȦȞIJȚȢĮʌȜȑȢțĮȚIJȚȢıȪȞșİIJİȢ
ǹʌȜȒșİȦȡİȓIJĮȚțȐșİʌȡȩIJĮıȘʌȠȣȤĮȡĮțIJȘȡȓȗİIJĮȚȐȝİıĮȦȢĮȜȘșȒȢȒȥİȣįȒȢ
ȈȪȞșİIJȘșİȦȡİȓIJĮȚțȐșİʌȡȩIJĮıȘʌȠȣĮʌȠIJİȜİȓıȪȞįİıȘĮʌȜȫȞʌȡȠIJȐıİȦȞȝȑıȦ
IJȦȞȜİȖȩȝİȞȦȞȜȠȖȚțȫȞıȣȞįȑıȝȦȞȠȚȠʌȠȓȠȚȝʌȠȡȠȪȞȞĮȤĮȡĮțIJȘȡȚıIJȠȪȞțĮȚȦȢ
ȜȠȖȚțȑȢʌȡȐȟİȚȢȖȚĮIJȚȢʌȡȠIJȐıİȚȢʌȠȣıȣȞįȑȠȣȞțĮșȫȢʌĮȡȐȖȠȣȞȞȑİȢʌȡȠIJȐıİȚȢ
DzIJıȚ IJȠ ıȪȞȠȜȠ IJȦȞ ʌȡȠIJȐıİȦȞ İijȠįȚĮıȝȑȞȠ ȝİ IJȚȢ ʌȡȐȟİȚȢ IJȦȞ ȜȠȖȚțȫȞ ıȣȞįȑ-
ıȝȦȞĮʌȠIJİȜİȓIJȘȞȐȜȖİȕȡĮIJȦȞʌȡȠIJȐıİȦȞǾIJȚȝȒĮȜȘșİȓĮȢȝȓĮȢıȪȞșİIJȘȢʌȡȩ-
IJĮıȘȢİȟĮȡIJȐIJĮȚĮʌȩIJȘȞIJȚȝȒĮȜȘșİȓĮȢIJȦȞȜȠȖȚțȫȞʌȡȠIJȐıİȦȞʌȠȣIJȘȞĮʌȠIJİȜȠȪȞ
țĮșȫȢțĮȚĮʌȩIJȠȞIJȡȩʌȠįȚȐIJĮȟȒȢIJȠȣȢȝȑıĮıIJȘıȪȞșİIJȘʌȡȩIJĮıȘǹȣIJȩıȘȝĮȓȞİȚ
ȩIJȚ ʌȡȑʌİȚ ȞĮ ȖȞȦȡȓȗȠȣȝİ IJȘ ©ıȣȝʌİȡȚijȠȡȐª IJȦȞ ȜȠȖȚțȫȞ ıȣȞįȑıȝȦȞ Ȓ ʌȡȐȟİȦȞ
ʌȠȣ ıȣȞįȑȠȣȞ IJȚȢ ʌȡȠIJȐıİȚȢ țĮȚ ȠȚ ȠʌȠȓȠȚ İȓȞĮȚ ȠȚ ©țĮȚª ıȣȝȕ
 ©Ȓª ıȣȝȕ

©İȐȞ«IJȩIJݪıȣȝȕ
 ©ȚıȠįȣȞĮȝİȓªıȣȝȕ
©ȐȡȞȘıȘªıȣȝȕ



ĬǼȍȇǿǹȀǹǿǹȈȀǾȈǼǿȈ

1.2.1 ȅȚȜȠȖȚțȠȓıȪȞįİıȝȠȚ
ȅȚȜİȖȩȝİȞȠȚʌȓȞĮțİȢĮȜȘșİȓĮȢȒĮȜȘșȠʌȓȞĮțİȢʌĮȡȠȣıȚȐȗȠȣȞ IJȘ©ıȣȝʌİȡȚijȠȡȐª
IJȦȞȜȠȖȚțȫȞıȣȞįȑıȝȦȞʌȡȐȟİȦȞ

i. ©țĮȚªıȣȝȕ

DzıIJȦįȪȠʌȡȠIJȐıİȚȢpq ȉȩIJİ©ʌĮȡȐȖİIJĮȚªȘʌȡȩIJĮıȘ p
q. īȚĮIJȘȞIJȚȝȒĮȜȘ-
șİȓĮȢIJȘȢʌȡȩIJĮıȘȢĮȣIJȒȢȑȤȠȣȝİ
p q p
q
Į Į Į
Į ȥ ȥ
ȥ Į ȥ
ȥ ȥ ȥ
ȈȣȝʌİȡĮȓȞȠȣȝİ İʌȠȝȑȞȦȢ ȩIJȚ Ș ʌȡȩIJĮıȘ p
q İȓȞĮȚ ĮȜȘșȒȢ ȝȩȞȠ ȩIJĮȞ țĮȚ ȠȚ
įȪȠʌȡȠIJȐıİȚȢpqİȓȞĮȚĮȜȘșİȓȢ

ii. ©Ȓªıȣȝȕ


DzıIJȦįȪȠʌȡȠIJȐıİȚȢpq ȉȩIJİ©ʌĮȡȐȖİIJĮȚªȘʌȡȩIJĮıȘ p
q. īȚĮIJȘȞIJȚȝȒĮȜȘ-
șİȓĮȢIJȘȢʌȡȩIJĮıȘȢĮȣIJȒȢȑȤȠȣȝİ
p q p
q
Į Į Į
Į ȥ Į
ȥ Į Į
ȥ ȥ ȥ
ȈȣȝʌİȡĮȓȞȠȣȝİ İʌȠȝȑȞȦȢ ȩIJȚ Ș ʌȡȩIJĮıȘ p
q İȓȞĮȚ ĮȜȘșȒȢ İțIJȩȢ IJȘȢ ʌİȡȓʌIJȦ-
ıȘȢʌȠȣțĮȚȠȚįȪȠʌȡȠIJȐıİȚȢ p, q İȓȞĮȚȥİȣįİȓȢȠʌȩIJİțĮȚȘ p
q İȓȞĮȚȥİȣįȒȢ

LLL©İȐȞ«IJȩIJݪıȣȝȕ

DzıIJȦ įȪȠ ʌȡȠIJȐıİȚȢ p q ȉȩIJİ ©ʌĮȡȐȖİIJĮȚª Ș ʌȡȩIJĮıȘ p
q. ȈIJȘȞ ʌİȡȓʌIJȦıȘ
ĮȣIJȒȘpȠȞȠȝȐȗİIJĮȚȣʌȩșİıȘȒȚțĮȞȒıȣȞșȒțȘțĮȚȘqıȣȝʌȑȡĮıȝĮ Ȓ ĮȞĮȖțĮȓĮ
ıȣȞșȒțȘ. īȚĮIJȘȞIJȚȝȒĮȜȘșİȓĮȢIJȘȢʌȡȩIJĮıȘȢĮȣIJȒȢȑȤȠȣȝİ
p q p
q
Į Į Į
Į ȥ ȥ
ȥ Į Į
ȥ ȥ Į
ȈȣȝʌİȡĮȓȞȠȣȝİİʌȠȝȑȞȦȢȩIJȚȘʌȡȩIJĮıȘ p
q İȓȞĮȚĮȜȘșȒȢİțIJȩȢIJȘȢʌİȡȓʌIJȦıȘȢ
ʌȠȣȘȣʌȩșİıȘpİȓȞĮȚʌȡȩIJĮıȘĮȜȘșȒȢțĮȚIJȠıȣȝʌȑȡĮıȝĮqʌȡȩIJĮıȘȥİȣįȒȢ

14
 ǹȆȅȉǾȃǹȇǿĬȂǾȉǿȀǾȈȉǾȃǹȁīǼǺȇǹ

ȆĮȡĮIJȒȡȘıȘǹȞIJȓșİIJĮ Įʌȩ IJȘ įİȪIJİȡȘ ȖȡĮȝȝȒ IJȠȣ ʌĮȡĮʌȐȞȦ ʌȓȞĮțĮ țĮ-

IJĮȞȠȠȪȝİįȚĮȚıșȘIJȚțȐȩIJȚĮʌȩȝȓĮ©ĮȜȒșİȚĮªįİȞİȓȞĮȚįȣȞĮIJȩȞȞĮʌȡȠțȪʌIJİȚ
©ȥȑȝĮªǼȝȐȢȩȝȦȢȝĮȢİȞįȚĮijȑȡİȚıȣȞȠȜȚțȐȘIJȚȝȒĮȜȘșİȓĮȢIJȠȣ©ȜȠȖȚțȠȪ
ʌĮțȑIJȠȣª p
q, įȘȜĮįȒȘȠȡșȩIJȘIJĮIJȦȞȜȠȖȚțȫȞȕȘȝȐIJȦȞĮʌȩIJȘȞȣʌȩșİıȘ
p ıIJȠıȣȝʌȑȡĮıȝĮq țĮȚȝȩȞȠĮȣIJȒDZȡĮȠıȣȜȜȠȖȚıȝȩȢ ( 1 = 1  1 =
1) İȓȞĮȚ
ȥİȣįȒȢʌȡȩIJĮıȘ (

 ) , İȞȫȠȚʌȡȠIJȐıİȚȢʌȠȣĮțȠȜȠȣșȠȪȞİȓȞĮȚĮȜȘșİȓȢ
(1 = 1  )
2 + 1 = 2 + 1 
 (

) ,

(1 =
1  1 = (
1)  1 = 1)  (  
) ,
2 2

(1 =
1  1 = (
1)  1 =
1)  (

). 

3 3

iv. ©ȚıȠįȣȞĮȝİȓªıȣȝȕ


DzıIJȦįȪȠʌȡȠIJȐıİȚȢpq ȉȩIJİ©ʌĮȡȐȖİIJĮȚªȘʌȡȩIJĮıȘ p
q. ǻȪȠʌȡȠIJȐıİȚȢpT
șİȦȡȠȪȞIJĮȚȚıȠįȪȞĮȝİȢȩIJĮȞȑȤȠȣȞIJȘȞȓįȚĮIJȚȝȒĮȜȘșİȓĮȢįȘȜĮįȒȩIJĮȞțĮȚȠȚįȪȠ
İȓȞĮȚĮȜȘșİȓȢȒțĮȚȠȚįȪȠİȓȞĮȚȥİȣįİȓȢǹȣIJȩĮʌȠįȓįİIJĮȚȦȢİȟȒȢ©ȘʌȡȩIJĮıȘpİȓ-
ȞĮȚȚıȠįȪȞĮȝȘȝİIJȘȞʌȡȩIJĮıȘqªȒ©Ș pİȓȞĮȚȚțĮȞȒțĮȚĮȞĮȖțĮȓĮıȣȞșȒțȘȖȚĮIJȘȞ
qªȒ©pĮȞțĮȚȝȩȞȠĮȞqªīȚĮIJȘȞIJȚȝȒĮȜȘșİȓĮȢIJȘȢʌȡȩIJĮıȘȢ p
q, ȑȤȠȣȝİ
p q p
q
Į Į Į
Į ȥ ȥ
ȥ Į ȥ
ȥ ȥ Į
v. ©ȐȡȞȘıȘªıȣȝȕ
)
ǾȐȡȞȘıȘIJȘȢʌȡȩIJĮıȘȢpıȣȝȕȠȜȓȗİIJĮȚ p, țĮȚȚıȤȪİȚ

p p
Į ȥ
ȥ Į
ȆĮȡĮIJȒȡȘıȘīȚĮȠʌȠȚĮįȒʌȠIJİʌȡȩIJĮıȘpȚıȤȪİȚʌȐȞIJȠIJİ p = p.

vi.ȉĮȣIJȠȜȠȖȓİȢ±ǹȞIJȚijȐıİȚȢ
‡ ǹȞ ȝȚĮ ʌȡȩIJĮıȘ p ʌĮȓȡȞİȚ IJȚȝȑȢ Įʌȩ ȑȞĮ ıȪȞȠȜȠ  = { , , , ...} , ȩʌȠȣ IJĮ
ıIJȠȚȤİȓĮ
, , , ... İȓȞĮȚʌȡȠIJȐıİȚȢIJȩIJİȘSȜȑȖİIJĮȚʌȡȠIJĮıȚĮțȒȝİIJĮȕȜȘIJȒ

‡ ȀȐșİ ȑțijȡĮıȘ ʌȠȣ ĮʌȠIJİȜİȓIJĮȚ Įʌȩ ʌȡȠIJĮıȚĮțȑȢ ȝİIJĮȕȜȘIJȑȢ țĮȚ ȜȠȖȚțȠȪȢ

ıȣȞįȑıȝȠȣȢ Ȓ Įʌȩ ʌȡȠIJĮıȚĮțȑȢ ȝİIJĮȕȜȘIJȑȢ ıIJĮșİȡȑȢ ʌȡȠIJȐıİȚȢ țĮȚ ȜȠȖȚ-
țȠȪȢ ıȣȞįȑıȝȠȣȢ țĮȚ ȖȓȞİIJĮȚ ȝȚĮ ıȪȞșİIJȘ ʌȡȩIJĮıȘ IJȩIJİ ȩIJĮȞ ȠȚ ʌȡȠIJĮ-
ıȚĮțȑȢ ȝİIJĮȕȜȘIJȑȢ ĮȞIJȚțĮIJĮıIJĮșȠȪȞ Įʌȩ ıȣȖțİțȡȚȝȑȞİȢ ıIJĮșİȡȑȢ ʌȡȠIJȐ-
ıİȚȢȜȑȖİIJĮȚȜȠȖȚțȩȢIJȪʌȠȢǻȘȜĮįȒȑȞĮȢȜȠȖȚțȩȢIJȪʌȠȢșĮİȓȞĮȚIJȘȢȝȠȡijȒȢ

15
ĬǼȍȇǿǹȀǹǿǹȈȀǾȈǼǿȈ

p ( 1 ,  2 ,  3 , … ,   )  1 ,  2 ,  3 , … ,   ȠȚĮȡȤȚțȑȢʌȡȠIJȐıİȚȢʌȠȣʌİȡȚ-
ȜĮȝȕȐȞȠȞIJĮȚıIJȠȞIJȪʌȠțĮȚıȣȞįȑȠȞIJĮȚȝİȜȠȖȚțȠȪȢıȣȞįȑıȝȠȣȢ
‡ ȉĮȣIJȠȜȠȖȓĮȠȞȠȝȐȗİIJĮȚȠȜȠȖȚțȩȢIJȪʌȠȢʌȠȣʌĮȓȡȞİȚIJȘıIJĮșİȡȒIJȚȝȒ©ĮȜȘșȒȢª
ıİȠʌȠȚȠȞįȒʌȠIJİıȣȞįȣĮıȝȩIJȚȝȫȞĮȜȘșİȓĮȢIJȦȞȜȠȖȚțȫȞȝİIJĮȕȜȘIJȫȞIJȠȣ
ȆȤ  Ƞ ȜȠȖȚțȩȢ IJȪʌȠȢ p
p İȓȞĮȚ IJĮȣIJȠȜȠȖȓĮ ȖȚĮIJȓ ȩʌȦȢ ijĮȓȞİIJĮȚ Įʌȩ IJȠȞ
ʌȓȞĮțĮĮȜȘșİȓĮȢIJȠȣʌĮȓȡȞİȚʌȐȞIJȠIJİIJȘıIJĮșİȡȒIJȚȝȒ©ĮȜȘșȒȢª

p p p
p
Į ȥ Į
ȥ Į Į

‡ ǹȞIJȓijĮıȘȠȞȠȝȐȗİIJĮȚȠȜȠȖȚțȩȢIJȪʌȠȢʌȠȣʌĮȓȡȞİȚIJȘıIJĮșİȡȒIJȚȝȒ©ȥİȣįȒȢª
ıİȠʌȠȚȠȞįȒʌȠIJİıȣȞįȣĮıȝȩIJȚȝȫȞĮȜȘșİȓĮȢIJȦȞȜȠȖȚțȫȞȝİIJĮȕȜȘIJȫȞIJȠȣ
ȆȤȠȜȠȖȚțȩȢIJȪʌȠȢ p
p İȓȞĮȚĮȞIJȓijĮıȘįȚȩIJȚȩʌȦȢijĮȓȞİIJĮȚĮʌȩIJȠȞʌȓȞĮ-
țĮĮȜȘșİȓĮȢIJȠȣʌĮȓȡȞİȚʌȐȞIJȠIJİIJȘıIJĮșİȡȒIJȚȝȒ©ȥİȣįȒȢª

p p p
p
Į ȥ ȥ
ȥ Į ȥ

vii. ǿıȠįȪȞĮȝȠȚȜȠȖȚțȠȓIJȪʌȠȚ
ǻȪȠ ȜȠȖȚțȠȓ IJȪʌȠȚ P ( 1 ,  2 , … ,   ) , Q ( 1 ,  2 , … ,   ) , ȩʌȠȣ
1 ,
2 , … ,


ȠȚ ĮȡȤȚțȑȢ ʌȡȠIJȐıİȚȢ IJȦȞ IJȪʌȦȞ İȓȞĮȚ ȚıȠįȪȞĮȝȠȚ ȩIJĮȞ ȖȚĮ ȩȜİȢ IJȚȢ IJȚȝȑȢ IJȦȞ

1 ,
2 , … ,
 ȠȚIJȪʌȠȚ P, Q ʌĮȓȡȞȠȣȞIJȘȞȓįȚĮIJȚȝȒ©ĮȜȘșȒȢªȒ©ȥİȣįȒȢªǾ
ʌĮȡĮʌȐȞȦıȤȑıȘıȣȝȕȠȜȓȗİIJĮȚ P
Q. īȚĮʌĮȡȐįİȚȖȝĮȑıIJȦ
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
i) p  q
p
q , ii) p
q
p  q , iii) p  q
p
q . Ǿ ȚıȠįȣȞĮȝȓĮ )
i įİȓȤȞİȚ IJȠȞ IJȡȩʌȠ İijĮȡȝȠȖȒȢ IJȘȢ ȝİșȩįȠȣ IJȘȢ ©ĮʌĮȖȦȖȒȢ ıİ ȐIJȠʌȠª ıIJȘȞ
ĮʌȩįİȚȟȘIJȘȢĮȜȒșİȚĮȢȝȓĮȢʌȡȩIJĮıȘȢȅȚIJȪʌȠȚiiiiiȠįȘȖȠȪȞıIJȘȞĮʌȩįİȚȟȘ
IJȦȞIJȪʌȦȞIJȠȣ'H0RUJDQ (    )
= 
 
, (    )
= 
 
.

ǺĮıȚțȑȢıȣȝʌİȡȚijȠȡȑȢȜȠȖȚțȫȞIJȪʌȦȞ
ȆȓȞĮțĮȢ

p q q p¡q p
q p
q

Į Į ȥ Į ȥ ȥ
Į ȥ Į ȥ Į Į
ȥ Į ȥ Į ȥ ȥ
ȥ ȥ Į Į ȥ ȥ


 ǹȆȅȉǾȃǹȇǿĬȂǾȉǿȀǾȈȉǾȃǹȁīǼǺȇǹ

ȆȓȞĮțĮȢ

p q p q p
q p
q p
q p
q

Į Į ȥ ȥ ȥ ȥ ȥ ȥ
Į ȥ ȥ Į ȥ ȥ Į Į
ȥ Į Į ȥ ȥ ȥ Į Į
ȥ ȥ Į Į Į Į Į Į
ȆȓȞĮțĮȢ

p q p q p¡q p
q q
p
Į Į ȥ ȥ Į Į Į
Į ȥ ȥ Į ȥ Į ȥ
ȥ Į Į ȥ Į ȥ Į
ȥ ȥ Į Į Į Į Į

 ȅǿĭȊȈǿȀȅǿǹȇǿĬȂȅǿ
ȈIJȠțİȞȩıȪȞȠȜȠ
= { } ĮȞIJȚıIJȠȚȤȓȗȠȣȝİIJȠȞĮȡȚșȝȩȝȘįȑȞ
ȈIJȠıȪȞȠȜȠ  = {  } țĮȚıİțȐșİȚıȠįȪȞĮȝȩIJȠȣĮȞIJȚıIJȠȚȤȓȗȠȣȝİIJȠȞĮȡȚșȝȩ
ȈIJȠıȪȞȠȜȠ  = { ,  } țĮȚıİțȐșİȚıȠįȪȞĮȝȩIJȠȣĮȞIJȚıIJȠȚȤȓȗȠȣȝİIJȠȞĮȡȚșȝȩ
ȈIJȠıȪȞȠȜȠ  = { μ, ,  } țĮȚıİțȐșİȚıȠįȪȞĮȝȩIJȠȣĮȞIJȚıIJȠȚȤȓȗȠȣȝİIJȠȞĮȡȚș-
ȝȩțȠț
ȅȚĮȡȚșȝȠȓ«țIJȜİȓȞĮȚȜȠȚʌȩȞȠȚʌȜȘșȚțȠȓĮȡȚșȝȠȓʌȠȣįȘȜȫȞȠȣȞįȘȜĮ-
įȒʌȜȒșȠȢıIJȠȚȤİȓȦȞȖȚĮIJĮıȪȞȠȜĮ
, A, B,
, … ĮȞIJȚıIJȠȓȤȦȢǹȢ©İʌȚȤİȚȡȒıȠȣȝݪ
ȜȠȚʌȩȞIJȠȞİȟȒȢȠȡȚıȝȩ
ȅȡȓȗȠȣȝİȦȢıȪȞȠȜȠIJȦȞijȣıȚțȫȞĮȡȚșȝȫȞIJȠıȪȞȠȜȠ
= { 0, 1, 2, 3, … ,
,
+1, …}.
ȉȠȞ ĮȡȚșȝȩ  IJȠȞ ȠȞȠȝȐȗȠȣȝİ ȝȘįȑȞ IJȠȞ ĮȡȚșȝȩ  IJȠȞ ȠȞȠȝȐȗȠȣȝİ ȑȞĮ Ȓ ȝȠȞȐįĮ IJȠȞ
ĮȡȚșȝȩIJȠȞȠȞȠȝȐȗȠȣȝİįȪȠțIJȜ
ȈȪȞȠȜȠIJȦȞ©țĮșĮȡȫȞªijȣıȚțȫȞĮȡȚșȝȫȞȠȞȠȝȐȗİIJĮȚIJȠıȪȞȠȜȠ

* = {1, 2, 3, … ,
,
+ 1, …} . ǻȘȜĮįȒȚıȤȪİȚ  =  *U { 0 } .

1.3.1 ǾȑȞȞȠȚĮIJȘȢįȚȐIJĮȟȘȢ
ȉȠ ıȪȞȠȜȠ
= { } įİȞ ȑȤİȚ ıIJȠȚȤİȓĮ ǵʌȦȢ İȓįĮȝİ ıİ ĮȣIJȩ ĮȞIJȚıIJȠȚȤȓȗȠȣȝİ IJȠȞ
ĮȡȚșȝȩ  ȝİ IJȘȞ ȑȞȞȠȚĮ ȩIJȚ IJȠ țİȞȩ ıȪȞȠȜȠ įİȞ ȑȤİȚ ıIJȠȚȤİȓĮ ȐȡĮ ȑȤİȚ  ıIJȠȚȤİȓĮ
ȀĮIJȐıȣȞȑʌİȚĮIJȠ©ʌȜȒșȠȢıIJȠȚȤİȓȦȞªIJȠȣțİȞȠȪıȣȞȩȜȠȣ
= { } İȓȞĮȚ
ȈIJȠıȪȞȠȜȠ {
} țĮȚțȐșİȚıȠįȪȞĮȝȩIJȠȣĮȞIJȚıIJȠȚȤȓȗȠȣȝİIJȠȞĮȡȚșȝȩȝİIJȘȞȑȞ-
ȞȠȚĮ ȩIJȚ IJȠ ʌȜȒșȠȢ IJȦȞ ıIJȠȚȤİȓȦȞ İȓȞĮȚ  Ǿ įȚĮȚıșȘIJȚțȒ ĮȞIJȓȜȘȥȘ ȝĮȢ ȠįȘȖİȓ ıIJȘ
įȚĮʌȓıIJȦıȘȩIJȚȠĮȡȚșȝȩȢİțijȡȐȗİȚȝȚțȡȩIJİȡȘʌȠıȩIJȘIJĮĮʌȩİțİȓȞȘʌȠȣİțijȡȐȗİȚȠ

17
ĬǼȍȇǿǹȀǹǿǹȈȀǾȈǼǿȈ

ĮȡȚșȝȩȢįȘȜĮįȒȠĮȡȚșȝȩȢİȓȞĮȚȝȚțȡȩIJİȡȠȢIJȠȣĮȡȚșȝȠȪȒȩIJȚȠİȓȞĮȚȝİȖĮ-

ȜȪIJİȡȠȢIJȠȣıȣȝȕȠȜȓȗȠȣȝİIJȩIJİ 0 < 1 
ȈIJȠ ıȪȞȠȜȠ {
,  } țĮȚ ıİ țȐșİ ȚıȠįȪȞĮȝȩ IJȠȣ ĮȞIJȚıIJȠȚȤȓȗȠȣȝİ IJȠȞ ĮȡȚșȝȩ  ȝİ
IJȘȞ ȑȞȞȠȚĮ ȩIJȚ IJȠ ʌȜȒșȠȢ IJȦȞ ıIJȠȚȤİȓȦȞ İȓȞĮȚ  ȅįȘȖȠȪȝĮıIJİ țĮȚ İįȫ ıIJȘ ıȤȑıȘ
1 < 2. DZȡĮȖİȞȚțİȪȠȞIJĮȢıȣȝʌİȡĮȓȞȠȣȝİȩIJȚ 0 < 1 < 2 < 3 < … <  <  + 1 < … Ǽʌȓ-
ıȘȢȝʌȠȡȠȪȝİȞĮșİȦȡȒıȠȣȝİ 2 = 1 + 1 IJȠİȓȞĮȚȠȣıȚĮıIJȚțȐįȪȠȝȠȞȐįİȢȝĮȗȓ
ıȣȞȅȝȠȓȦȢıȣȝʌİȡĮȓȞȠȣȝİȩIJȚ 3 = 1 + 1 + 1 = 2 + 1, țIJȜ

ȈȘȝĮȞIJȚțȒȚįȚȩIJȘIJĮȆĮȡĮIJȘȡȫȞIJĮȢįȚȐijȠȡĮıȪȞȠȜĮțĮȚȖİȞȚțİȪȠȞIJĮȢIJȚȢįȚĮʌȚ-
ıIJȫıİȚȢĮȣIJȑȢȑȤȠȣȝİ
ǹȞ Įȕ ȖijȣıȚțȠȓĮȡȚșȝȠȓʌȠȣȑȤȠȣȞȠȡȚıIJİȓȦȢ©ʌȜȒșȠȢıIJȠȚȤİȓȦȞªĮȞIJȓıIJȠȚȤȦȞ
ıȣȞȩȜȦȞǹǺīȝİ
<  țĮȚ
< , IJȩIJİ
<  ȝİIJĮȕĮIJȚțȒȚįȚȩIJȘIJĮǹȞIJȠıȪ-
ȞȠȜȠǹįİȞİȓȞĮȚȚıȠįȪȞĮȝȠȝİIJȠıȪȞȠȜȠBțĮȚȠijȣıȚțȩȢĮȡȚșȝȩȢĮİȓȞĮȚȠĮȞIJȓ-
ıIJȠȚȤȠȢʌȜȘșȚțȩȢĮȡȚșȝȩȢIJȠȣǹİȞȫȠijȣıȚțȩȢĮȡȚșȝȩȢȕİȓȞĮȚȠĮȞIJȓıIJȠȚȤȠȢʌȜȘșȚ-
țȩȢĮȡȚșȝȩȢIJȠȣǺIJȩIJİ
<  Ȓ  <
.

ȈȘȝĮȞIJȚțȒʌĮȡĮIJȒȡȘıȘǹȞĮȕijȣıȚțȠȓĮȡȚșȝȠȓțĮȚʌȜȘșȚțȠȓĮȞIJȓıIJȠȚȤĮĮȡȚș-
ȝȠȓįȪȠıȣȞȩȜȦȞAǺIJȩIJİİȓȞĮȚįȣȞĮIJȩȞĮȑȤȠȣȝİ
=  Ȓ
<  Ȓ
> , ĮʌȠ-
țȜİȚȩȝİȞȘȢIJȘȢʌİȡȓʌIJȦıȘȢȞĮȚıȤȪȠȣȞįȪȠĮʌȩĮȣIJȑȢIJȚȢıȤȑıİȚȢIJĮȣIJȩȤȡȠȞĮ

1.3.2 ȉȠıȪȞȠȜȠIJȦȞijȣıȚțȫȞĮȡȚșȝȫȞ (
) *

ȉȠıȪȞȠȜȠĮȣIJȩįȘȜĮįȒIJȠ
* , ȑȤİȚİȜȐȤȚıIJȠıIJȠȚȤİȓȠIJȠįȘȜĮįȒIJȘȝȠȞȐįĮDzȤİȚ
İʌȓıȘȢIJȘȞȚįȚȩIJȘIJĮȩIJȚțȐșİıIJȠȚȤİȓȠIJȠȣ  > 1 İȓȞĮȚȐșȡȠȚıȝĮĮțȑȡĮȚȦȞȝȠȞȐįȦȞȆȤ
ȠĮȡȚșȝȩȢİȓȞĮȚȐșȡȠȚıȝĮʌȑȞIJİȝȠȞȐįȦȞįȘȜĮįȒ 5 = 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1. īİȞȚțȐȑȤȠȣȝİ

= 1
+
1+
… +1 , ȝİIJȠȝȠȞȐįĮȞĮİʌĮȞĮȜĮȝȕȐȞİIJĮȚȦȢʌȡȠıșİIJȑȠȢȞijȠȡȑȢ





ȉȠ
ȑȤİȚİʌȓıȘȢIJȘȞİȟȒȢȚįȚȩIJȘIJĮȖȚĮțȐșİıIJȠȚȤİȓȠIJȠȣȞȠĮȡȚșȝȩȢ  + 1 İȓȞĮȚ
*

İʌȓıȘȢıIJȠȚȤİȓȠIJȠȣȈȣȝʌİȡĮȓȞȠȣȝİȜȠȚʌȩȞȩIJȚIJȠıȪȞȠȜȠIJȦȞijȣıȚțȫȞĮȡȚșȝȫȞįİȞ
ȑȤİȚȝȑȖȚıIJȠıIJȠȚȤİȓȠįȘȜĮįȒįİȞȑȤİȚıIJȠȚȤİȓȠȝİȖĮȜȪIJİȡȠĮʌȩȩȜĮIJĮȐȜȜĮıIJȠȚȤİȓĮ
IJȠȣʌȠȣıȘȝĮȓȞİȚȩIJȚȠȚijȣıȚțȠȓĮȡȚșȝȠȓįİȞIJİȜİȚȫȞȠȣȞʌȠIJȑ

1.3.3 ǹȡȤȚțȩȣʌȠıȪȞȠȜȠIJȠȣ

‡ ȅȞȠȝȐȗȠȣȝİ ĮȡȤȚțȩ ȣʌȠıȪȞȠȜȠ IJȠȣ

țȐșİ ȣʌȠıȪȞȠȜȩ IJȠȣ IJȘȢ ȝȠȡijȒȢ

0 = {1, 2, … ,
0 } , ʌȠȣ ʌİȡȚȜĮȝȕȐȞİȚ įȘȜĮįȒ IJȠȣȢ ijȣıȚțȠȪȢ ĮȡȚșȝȠȪȢ ȝȑȤȡȚ
țĮȚIJȠȞ  0 , ıIJȠȞȠʌȠȓȠIJİȡȝĮIJȓȗİȚ
ȆȤ
1 = {1} ,
2 = {1, 2 } ,
5 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} țIJȜ
ȈȣȝʌȑȡĮıȝĮȀȐșİijȣıȚțȩȢĮȡȚșȝȩȢįȚȐijȠȡȠȢIJȠȣȝȘįİȞȩȢȠȡȓȗİȚȑȞĮĮȞIJȓ-
ıIJȠȚȤȠĮȡȤȚțȩȣʌȠıȪȞȠȜȠIJȠȣ
* , țĮȚĮȞIJȓıIJȡȠijĮ

‡ ȈȤȑıȘȚıȩIJȘIJĮȢıIJȠȣȢijȣıȚțȠȪȢĮȡȚșȝȠȪȢ
ǻȪȠijȣıȚțȠȓĮȡȚșȝȠȓįȚȐijȠȡȠȚIJȠȣȝȘįİȞȩȢİȓȞĮȚȓıȠȚĮȞțĮȚȝȩȞȠĮȞȠȡȓȗȠȣȞ
IJȠȓįȚȠĮȡȤȚțȩȣʌȠıȪȞȠȜȠIJȠȣ
* . 


 ǹȆȅȉǾȃǹȇǿĬȂǾȉǿȀǾȈȉǾȃǹȁīǼǺȇǹ

‡ ȆȜȘșȚțȩȢĮȡȚșȝȩȢıȣȞȩȜȠȣ
DzıIJȦ ıȪȞȠȜȠ AǹȞ  =
, IJȩIJİ Ƞ ʌȜȘșȚțȩȢ ĮȡȚșȝȩȢ IJȠȣ  =
İȓȞĮȚ IJȠ ǹȞ


, țĮȚIJȠıȪȞȠȜȠǹİȓȞĮȚȚıȠįȪȞĮȝȠȝİȑȞĮĮȡȤȚțȩȣʌȠıȪȞȠȜȠIJȠȣ
* , Ƞȡȓ-
ȗȠȣȝİȦȢʌȜȘșȚțȩĮȡȚșȝȩIJȠȣıȣȞȩȜȠȣǹİțİȓȞȠȞĮțȡȚȕȫȢIJȠȞĮȡȚșȝȩʌȠȣȠȡȓȗİȚ
IJȠĮȡȤȚțȩĮȣIJȩȣʌȠıȪȞȠȜȠİțijȡȐȗȠȞIJĮȢIJĮȣIJȩȤȡȠȞĮțĮȚIJȠʌȜȒșȠȢIJȦȞıIJȠȚ
ȤİȓȦȞIJȠȣǹ

1.3.4 ǿįȚȩIJȘIJİȢȩıȠȞĮijȠȡȐIJȘȞȚıȩIJȘIJĮįȪȠijȣıȚțȫȞĮȡȚșȝȫȞ

=
ĮȞĮțȜĮıIJȚțȒȒĮȣIJȠʌĮșȒȢ
 ǹȞ
= 
 =
ıȣȝȝİIJȡȚțȒ
 ǹȞ
=  țĮȚ
= , IJȩIJİ
=  ȝİIJĮȕĮIJȚțȒ
ȈȘȝĮȞIJȚțȒʌĮȡĮIJȒȡȘıȘǿıȤȪȠȣȞIJĮİȟȒȢ
L

=


= , ii) (


 




 ) 
< . 
 

1.3.5 ǾȑȞȞȠȚĮIJȘȢİȟȓıȦıȘȢıIJȠıȪȞȠȜȠIJȦȞijȣıȚțȫȞĮȡȚșȝȫȞ (
)
ǹȞĮȕ įİįȠȝȑȞȠȚijȣıȚțȠȓĮȡȚșȝȠȓțĮȚȗȘIJİȓIJĮȚijȣıȚțȩȢĮȡȚșȝȩȢxIJȑIJȠȚȠȢȫıIJİȞĮ
ĮȜȘșİȪİȚȘȚıȩIJȘIJĮ
+ x =  IJȩIJİȘ ȠȞȠȝȐȗİIJĮȚİȟȓıȦıȘȦȢʌȡȠȢx ıIJȠȣȢ

ijȣıȚțȠȪȢ ĮȡȚșȝȠȪȢ Ȓ İȟȓıȦıȘ ȦȢ ʌȡȠȢ x ȝİ ıȪȞȠȜȠ ĮȞĮijȠȡȐȢ IJȠ ıȪȞȠȜȠ IJȦȞ
ijȣıȚțȫȞĮȡȚșȝȫȞ (
) .
ȁȪıȘȒȡȓȗĮIJȘȢİȟȓıȦıȘȢ ıIJȠȣȢijȣıȚțȠȪȢĮȡȚșȝȠȪȢİȓȞĮȚȑȞĮȢijȣıȚțȩȢĮȡȚșȝȩȢ

x 0 ĮȞȣʌȐȡȤİȚIJȑIJȠȚȠȢȫıIJİ
+ x 0 = , İȞȫȖȚĮȞĮȣʌȐȡȤİȚȠ x 0 șĮʌȡȑʌİȚ

. ȆȤ
ȘİȟȓıȦıȘ 5 + x = 12, ıIJȠıȪȞȠȜȠ
, ȑȤİȚȦȢȜȪıȘIJȠȞijȣıȚțȩĮȡȚșȝȩ 7 ( 5 + 7 = 12 ) .
ȂʌȠȡİȓ ȞĮ ȑȤȠȣȝİ țĮȚ İȟȚıȫıİȚȢ ȝİ ıȪȞȠȜȠ ĮȞĮijȠȡȐȢ IJȠ ıȪȞȠȜȠ IJȦȞ ijȣıȚțȫȞ
ĮȡȚșȝȫȞ
, ȝİʌİȡȚııȩIJİȡȠȣȢĮʌȩȑȞĮȞĮȖȞȫıIJȠȣȢ
ȆȤ Ș İȟȓıȦıȘ 5x = 7 + y ȑȤİȚ ȦȢ ȝȓĮ ȜȪıȘ ıIJȠȣȢ ijȣıȚțȠȪȢ ĮȡȚșȝȠȪȢ IJȠ ȗİȪȖȠȢ
x = 2 țĮȚ y = 3, ĮijȠȪ ʌȡȐȖȝĮIJȚ ȚıȤȪİȚ 5
2 = 7 + 3. ǼʌȓıȘȢ ȝȚĮ ȐȜȜȘ ȜȪıȘ IJȘȢ ʌĮȡĮ-
ʌȐȞȦİȟȓıȦıȘȢİȓȞĮȚIJȠȗİȪȖȠȢ x = 3 țĮȚ y = 8, țĮșȩIJȚʌȡȐȖȝĮIJȚ 5
3 = 7 + 8. ȆĮȡĮIJȘ-
ȡȠȪȝİįȘȜĮįȒȩIJȚıİĮȣIJȒIJȘȞʌİȡȓʌIJȦıȘȑȤȠȣȝİʌİȡȚııȩIJİȡĮĮʌȩȑȞĮȗİȪȖȘȜȪıİȦȞ
ȉȠ ıȪȞȠȜȠ IJȦȞ ȜȪıİȦȞ IJȘȢ İȟȓıȦıȘȢ
x + y =  (3) İȓȞĮȚ IJȠ ıȪȞȠȜȠ IJȦȞ ȗİȣȖȫȞ
( x 0 , y 0 ) , ĮȞȣʌȐȡȤȠȣȞʌȠȣİʌĮȜȘșİȪȠȣȞIJȘȞȚıȩIJȘIJĮ įȘȜĮįȒȩIJĮȞȚıȤȪİȚʌȡȐȖ-
ȝĮIJȚ
x 0 + y 0 = . ǼȞȞȠİȓIJĮȚ ȕȑȕĮȚĮ ȩIJȚ ȖȚĮ IJȘȞ ĮʌȠįȠȤȒ ȝȓĮȢ ȜȪıȘȢ țĮșȠȡȚıIJȚțȩ
ȡȩȜȠʌĮȓȗİȚIJȠıȪȞȠȜȠĮȞĮijȠȡȐȢIJȘȢİȟȓıȦıȘȢ

1.3.6 ǾȑȞȞȠȚĮIJȘȢĮijĮȓȡİıȘȢȝİIJĮȟȪįȪȠijȣıȚțȫȞĮȡȚșȝȫȞ
ǹȞȑȤȠȣȝİįȪȠijȣıȚțȠȪȢĮȡȚșȝȠȪȢIJȩIJİȠȡȓȗȠȣȝİȦȢįȚĮijȠȡȐIJȠȣȝİȖĮȜȪIJİȡȠȣȝİȓȠȞ
IJȠȞȝȚțȡȩIJİȡȠȒȓıȠĮʌȩĮȣIJȩȞȦȢİȟȒȢDzıIJȦįȪȠijȣıȚțȠȓ Įȕ ȝİ

. ȉȩIJİȠȡȓ-
ȗȠȣȝİȦȢįȚĮijȠȡȐIJȠȣȢ 

, ıIJȠıȪȞȠȜȠIJȦȞijȣıȚțȫȞĮȡȚșȝȫȞIJȘȜȪıȘ x 0 IJȘȢİȟȓ-
ıȦıȘȢ x +
= . DZȡĮ ȠȚ İțijȡȐıİȚȢ x 0 +
=  țĮȚ x 0 = 

İȓȞĮȚ ȚıȠįȪȞĮȝİȢ ǹȞ
 <
, Ș įȚĮijȠȡȐ 

įİȞ ȠȡȓȗİIJĮȚ ıIJȠȣȢ ijȣıȚțȠȪȢ ĮȡȚșȝȠȪȢ DzIJıȚ ȑȤȠȣȝİ ıIJȠ

19
ĬǼȍȇǿǹȀǹǿǹȈȀǾȈǼǿȈ

ıȪȞȠȜȠIJȦȞijȣıȚțȫȞĮȡȚșȝȫȞțĮȚIJȚȢİȟȒȢʌİȡȚʌIJȫıİȚȢL x

=   x =
+ , 
ii)

x =   x =

 (  
) . 

1.4 ȅǿǹȀǼȇǹǿȅǿǹȇǿĬȂȅǿ
ȂİȡȚțȑȢijȠȡȑȢȠȚijȣıȚțȠȓĮȡȚșȝȠȓĮʌȩȝȩȞȠȚIJȠȣȢįİȞİʌĮȡțȠȪȞȖȚĮIJȘȞĮțȡȚȕȒȝȑ-
IJȡȘıȘȒʌİȡȚȖȡĮijȒİȞȩȢijĮȚȞȠȝȑȞȠȣȆȤȑıIJȦİȣșȪȢįȡȩȝȠȢİ

ǹʌȩıȘȝİȓȠİțțȓȞȘıȘȢȅșȑȜȠȣȝİȞĮȝİIJȡȒıȠȣȝİ  ȕȒȝĮIJĮȀȐȞȠȞIJĮȢȜȠȚʌȩȞțȓ-
ȞȘıȘʌȡȠȢIJĮįİȟȚȐIJȠȠ©ȕȒȝĮªȝĮȢ©ʌĮIJȐİȚªıIJȠıȘȝİȓȠǹȩʌȠȣĮȞIJȚıIJȠȚȤȓȗȠȣȝİ
IJȠIJȠȠ©ȕȒȝĮªȝĮȢșİȦȡȠȪȝİȞȠȓįȚȠȣĮȞȠȓȖȝĮIJȠȢ©ʌĮIJȐİȚªıIJȠıȘȝİȓȠǺ ȩʌȠȣ
ĮȞIJȚıIJȠȚȤȓȗȠȣȝİIJȠ țĮȚIJȠȠ ȕȒȝĮ ȝĮȢ șİȦȡȠȪȝİȞȠ ȓįȚȠȣ ĮȞȠȓȖȝĮIJȠȢ©ʌĮIJȐİȚª
ıIJȠ ıȘȝİȓȠ ī ȩʌȠȣ ĮȞIJȚıIJȠȚȤȓȗȠȣȝİ IJȠȞ ĮȡȚșȝȩ  ȀȐȞȠȞIJĮȢ ȩȝȦȢ țȓȞȘıȘ ʌȡȠȢ IJĮ
ĮȡȚıIJİȡȐȑȤȠȣȝİʌȐȜȚIJȠʌȠșȑIJȘıȘIJȦȞȓįȚȦȞijȣıȚțȫȞĮȡȚșȝȫȞıİĮȞIJȓıIJȠȚȤĮ
ıȣȝȝİIJȡȚțȐȦȢʌȡȠȢIJȠıȘȝİȓĮ 
, 
, 
. ǻȘȝȚȠȣȡȖİȓIJĮȚȑIJıȚȘĮȞȐȖțȘȞĮįȘȜȫ-
ıȠȣȝİIJȘijȠȡȐIJȘȢțȓȞȘıȘȢįȘȜĮįȒʌȡȠȢIJĮʌȠȪțȚȞȠȪȝĮıIJİǼȚıȐȖȠȣȝİȜȠȚʌȩȞIJȘ
įȚȐțȡȚıȘȝȑıȦIJȦȞıȣȝȕȩȜȦȞ + ıȣȞțĮȚ
ʌȜȘȞȂİȐȜȜĮȜȩȖȚĮțȚȞȠȪȝİȞȠȚʌȡȠȢ
IJĮįİȟȚȐȤȡȘıȚȝȠʌȠȚȠȪȝİIJȠ +, İȞȫțȚȞȠȪȝİȞȠȚʌȡȠȢIJĮĮȡȚıIJİȡȐȤȡȘıȚȝȠʌȠȚȠȪȝİIJȠ

. ǵIJĮȞIJȠʌȠșİIJȠȪȝİIJĮ©ıȪȝȕȠȜĮª + țĮȚ
ȝʌȡȠıIJȐĮʌȩijȣıȚțȩĮȡȚșȝȩʌȡȠțȪʌIJİȚ
ĮțȑȡĮȚȠȢĮȡȚșȝȩȢțĮȚIJȩIJİIJĮıȪȝȕȠȜĮĮȣIJȐįȘȜȫȞȠȣȞIJȠʌȡȩıȘȝȩIJȠȣįȘȜĮįȒĮȞ
İȓȞĮȚșİIJȚțȩȢȒĮȡȞȘIJȚțȩȢĮȞIJȓıIJȠȚȤĮĮȡȚșȝȩȢ
ȂİIJȠȞIJȡȩʌȠĮȣIJȩȝʌȠȡȠȪȝİȞĮİțijȡȐıȠȣȝİʌȠȜȜȐijĮȚȞȩȝİȞĮīȚĮʌĮȡȐįİȚȖȝĮ
ȜȑȝİȩIJȚȑȤȠȣȝİıIJȘȞǹijȡȚțȒșİȡȝȠțȡĮıȓĮ 30°C ʌȐȞȦĮʌȩIJȠįȘȜĮįȒ +30°C, İȞȫ
ıIJȘȃȠȡȕȘȖȓĮȜȑȝİȩIJȚȑȤȠȣȝİșİȡȝȠțȡĮıȓĮ 3°C țȐIJȦĮʌȩIJȠįȘȜĮįȒ
3°C.

1.4.1 ȅȡȚıȝȩȢĮțȑȡĮȚȦȞĮȡȚșȝȫȞ
ȍȢıȪȞȠȜȠIJȦȞĮțİȡĮȓȦȞȠȡȓȗȠȣȝİIJȠıȪȞȠȜȠ

= {… ,
(
+ 1) ,

, … ,
2,
1, 0, 1, 2, … ,
,
+ 1, …} .
ǺȜȑʌȠȣȝİĮȝȑıȦȢȩIJȚ 

. ȅȚijȣıȚțȠȓĮȡȚșȝȠȓʌȠȣȝʌȡȠıIJȐIJȠȣȢİȓIJİįİȞȑȤȠȣȞ
IJȓʌȠIJĮİȓIJİȑȤȠȣȞIJȠʌȡȩıȘȝȠ + ȠȞȠȝȐȗȠȞIJĮȚșİIJȚțȠȓĮțȑȡĮȚȠȚİȞȫȠȚijȣıȚțȠȓĮȡȚș-
ȝȠȓʌȠȣȝʌȡȠıIJȐIJȠȣȢȕȡȓıțİIJĮȚIJȠʌȡȩıȘȝȠȠȞȠȝȐȗȠȞIJĮȚĮȡȞȘIJȚțȠȓĮțȑȡĮȚȠȚ
ǾįȚȐIJĮȟȘIJȦȞĮțİȡĮȓȦȞțĮIJȐıİȚȡȐȝİȖȑșȠȣȢȑȤİȚȦȢİȟȒȢ
… <
(
+ 1) <

< …
2 <
1 < 0 < 1 < 2 < … <
<
+ 1 < … 
ȈȘȝĮȞIJȚțȒʌĮȡĮIJȒȡȘıȘīȚĮȜȩȖȠȣȢıȣȞIJȠȝȓĮȢșİȦȡȠȪȝİȖȞȦıIJȑȢĮʌȩIJȠıȤȠ-
ȜİȓȠIJȚȢʌȡȐȟİȚȢȝİIJĮȟȪĮțİȡĮȓȦȞțĮșȫȢİʌȓıȘȢțĮȚIJȘıȣȝʌİȡȚijȠȡȐIJȦȞʌȡȠıȒ-
ȝȦȞțĮIJȐIJȚȢʌȡȐȟİȚȢĮȣIJȑȢ
‡ ǾȑȞȞȠȚĮIJȘȢĮijĮȓȡİıȘȢȝİIJĮȟȪįȪȠĮțİȡĮȓȦȞ
ǹȞȑȤȠȣȝİįȪȠĮțİȡĮȓȠȣȢȠȡȓȗȠȣȝİIJȘįȚĮijȠȡȐIJȠȣȢȦȢİȟȒȢ

20
 ǹȆȅȉǾȃǹȇǿĬȂǾȉǿȀǾȈȉǾȃǹȁīǼǺȇǹ

DzıIJȦįȪȠĮțȑȡĮȚȠȚĮȕȉȩIJİȠȡȓȗȠȣȝİȦȢįȚĮijȠȡȐIJȠȣȢ 

IJȘȜȪıȘ x 0 IJȘȢİȟȓ-

ıȦıȘȢ x +
= . DZȡĮȠȚİțijȡȐıİȚȢ x 0 +
=  țĮȚ x 0 = 

İȓȞĮȚȚıȠįȪȞĮȝİȢ
DzIJıȚȑȤȠȣȝİıIJȠıȪȞȠȜȠIJȦȞĮțİȡĮȓȦȞțĮȚIJȚȢİȟȒȢʌİȡȚʌIJȫıİȚȢ
i) x

=   x =
+  LL

x =   x =


ȆĮȡĮIJȒȡȘıȘĬĮșİȦȡȒıȠȣȝİȖȞȦıIJȒIJȘȞʌȡȐȟȘ©īȚȞȩȝİȞȠĮțȑȡĮȚȦȞĮȡȚș-
ȝȫȞªıIJȠʌȞİȪȝĮIJȦȞıȤȠȜȚțȫȞȕȚȕȜȓȦȞ
Ȉİ ʌȠȜȜȐ șȑȝĮIJĮ țĮȚ ĮıțȒıİȚȢ țĮȜȠȪȝĮıIJİ ȞĮ İijĮȡȝȩıȠȣȝİ IJȘȞ İʌȚȝİȡȚıIJȚ-
țȒ ȚįȚȩIJȘIJĮ IJȠȣ ʌȠȜȜĮʌȜĮıȚĮıȝȠȪ ȦȢ ʌȡȠȢ IJȘȞ ʌȡȩıșİıȘ Ȓ IJȘȞ ĮijĮȓȡİıȘ

(  ±  ) =
 ±
, ȘȠʌȠȓĮİijĮȡȝȩȗİIJĮȚțĮȚĮȞIJȓıIJȡȠijĮȆȤ
Į 2x
2 y = 2 ( x
y ) .
ȕ ǺȡİȓIJİIJȠĮʌȠIJȑȜİıȝĮIJȦȞʌȡȐȟİȦȞ y + 2 ( x + 4 )
3( y
7 ) , ĮȞ x
y = 0.
ǹʌȐȞIJȘıȘ
y + 2 ( x + 4 )
3( y
7 ) = y + 2x + 8
3y + 21 =
= 2x
2 y + 29 = 2 ( x
y ) + 29 = 29.

1.4.2 ǹʌȩȜȣIJȘIJȚȝȒȒȝȑIJȡȠĮțȑȡĮȚȠȣĮȡȚșȝȠȪ

DzıIJȦ Į ĮțȑȡĮȚȠȢ ĮȡȚșȝȩȢ (


) . ȉȩIJİ Ƞ ĮȞIJȓıIJȠȚȤȠȢ ijȣıȚțȩȢ IJȠȣ ĮȡȚșȝȩȢ Ƞȡȓ-
ȗİIJĮȚ ȦȢ ĮʌȩȜȣIJȘ IJȚȝȒ Ȓ ȝȑIJȡȠ IJȠȣ Į țĮȚ ıȣȝȕȠȜȓȗİIJĮȚ
, įȘȜĮįȒ ȑȤȠȣȝİ
0 = 0, +5 = 5,
5 = 5, țIJȜ ȆĮȡĮIJȘȡȠȪȝİ ȩIJȚ ȖȚĮ IJȣȤȩȞIJĮ ĮțȑȡĮȚȠ Į ȚıȤȪİȚ
0

, ȝİIJȘȞȚıȩIJȘIJĮȞĮȚıȤȪİȚĮȞțĮȚȝȩȞȠĮȞ
= 0. ȂʌȠȡȠȪȝİȜȠȚʌȩȞȞĮįȫıȠȣ-
ȝİIJȠȞİȟȒȢȠȡȚıȝȩ

,
> 0


=  0,
= 0 . ȆȡȠijĮȞȫȢȚıȤȪİȚ

0, ȖȚĮțȐșİĮțȑȡĮȚȠĮ


,
< 0
 
ǼȓȞĮȚ İʌȓıȘȢ ıĮijȑȢ ʌȦȢ ĮȞ ȖȞȦȡȓȗȠȣȝİ Ȓ įȓȞİIJĮȚ ȩIJȚ

0, IJȩIJİ ȝʌȠȡȠȪȝİ ȞĮ ȖȡȐ-
ȥȠȣȝİ
=

. 
īİȦȝİIJȡȚțȐȘĮʌȩȜȣIJȘIJȚȝȒİȞȩȢĮțȑȡĮȚȠȣĮȡȚșȝȠȪĮȞIJȚıIJȠȚȤȓȗİIJĮȚıIJȘȞĮʌȩıIJĮ-
ıȒIJȠȣĮʌȩIJȠȝȘįȑȞ

ǺĮıȚțȒʌȡȩIJĮıȘ

ǿıȤȪȠȣȞȠȚİȟȒȢȚįȚȩIJȘIJİȢʌȠȣĮʌȠįİȚțȞȪȠȞIJĮȚȝİįȚȐțȡȚıȘʌİȡȚʌIJȫıİȦȞȖȚĮIJȘșİIJȚ-
țȩIJȘIJĮȒĮȡȞȘIJȚțȩIJȘIJĮIJȦȞĮȡȚșȝȫȞȫıIJİȞĮİȟĮȤșȠȪȞIJĮıȪȝȕȠȜĮIJȦȞĮʌȠȜȪIJȦȞ
L





,
LL
, 


 =
 ,
LLL
,  


 

 
±  
+  Ȓ

,  
 



 
±  
+  .


21
ĬǼȍȇǿǹȀǹǿǹȈȀǾȈǼǿȈ

1.4.3 ǻȣȞȐȝİȚȢĮțȑȡĮȚȦȞĮȡȚșȝȫȞȝİİțșȑIJİȢijȣıȚțȠȪȢĮȡȚșȝȠȪȢ

DzıIJȦ ĮțȑȡĮȚȠȢ Į țĮȚ ijȣıȚțȩȢ ĮȡȚșȝȩȢ 
2. ǹȞ ȖȡȐȥȠȣȝİ IJȠ ȗİȪȖȠȢ ( ,  ) ȦȢ   ,
İȞȞȠȠȪȝİ IJȠ ȖȚȞȩȝİȞȠ IJȠȣ Į İʌȓ IJȠȞ İĮȣIJȩ IJȠȣ Ȟ ijȠȡȑȢ įȘȜĮįȒ   =  …  . ȉȠ
 
 

ȗİȪȖȠȢ  ȠȞȠȝȐȗİIJĮȚįȪȞĮȝȘIJȠȣĮıIJȘȞȅȡȓȗȠȣȝİ
= 1(

0 ) ,
= 1. Ǿ©įȪ-

 0 1

ȞĮȝȘª 0 0 ǻǼȃȠȡȓȗİIJĮȚ
ȈȘȝĮȞIJȚțȒʌĮȡĮIJȒȡȘıȘǿıȤȪȠȣȞȠȚȚįȚȩIJȘIJİȢ



2 
0,
 2
 
, 
      =  ,  2 =  =  2
0.

1.4.4 ǿįȚȩIJȘIJİȢįȣȞȐȝİȦȞıIJȠȣȢĮțİȡĮȓȠȣȢȝİİțșȑIJȘijȣıȚțȩĮȡȚșȝȩ
  μ   =  μ+
( )

  μ =  μ

1.4.5 ǺĮıȚțȠȓ IJȪʌȠȚ ʌȠȜȜĮʌȜĮıȚĮıȝȠȪ ± IJĮȣIJȩIJȘIJİȢ ıIJȠȣȢ ĮțȑȡĮȚȠȣȢ

ĮȡȚșȝȠȪȢ
ǹȞĮijȑȡȠȣȝİ țȐʌȠȚȠȣȢ ȕĮıȚțȠȪȢ IJȪʌȠȣȢ ʌȠȜȜĮʌȜĮıȚĮıȝȫȞ ʌȠȣ ȠȞȠȝȐȗȠȞIJĮȚ IJĮȣ-
IJȩIJȘIJİȢ ǼȓȞĮȚ ȚıȩIJȘIJİȢ ʌȠȣ ȚıȤȪȠȣȞ ȠʌȠȚĮįȒʌȠIJİ IJȚȝȒ țȚ ĮȞ ȑȤȠȣȞ ȠȚ ȝİIJĮȕȜȘIJȑȢ
IJȠȣȢȂİIJȚȢIJĮȣIJȩIJȘIJİȢȝĮȢįȓȞİIJĮȚȘįȣȞĮIJȩIJȘIJĮȞĮĮʌȜȠʌȠȚȒıȠȣȝİIJȘįȚĮįȚțĮıȓĮ
ȝİȜȑIJȘȢĮȜȜȐțĮȚİʌȓȜȣıȘȢȝĮșȘȝĮIJȚțȫȞʌȡȠȕȜȘȝȐIJȦȞ
 (
+  ) =
2 + 2
 +  2 ,
2

 (

 ) =
2
2
 +  2 ,
2

 (
+  ) (

 ) =
2
 2 ,
 (
+  ) =
3 + 3
2  + 3
 2 +  3 ,
3

 (

 ) =
3
3
2  + 3
 2
 3 ,
3

(

3 +  3 = (
+  )
2

 +  2 , )
3


 3
= (

 ) (
2
+
 +  2
),
3 3 3
(
 Euler)
+  + 
3
 = (
+  +  )
2 +  2 +  2




, Ȓ )
1

3 +  3 +  3
3
 = (
+  +  )  (

 ) + ( 
 ) + ( 

) 
2 2 2

 2  
ǹʌȩįİȚȟȘ
 (
+  ) =
(
+  ) +  (
+  ) =
2 +
 + 
+  2 =
2 + 2
 +  2 ,
2

 (

 ) =
(

 ) +  (

 ) =
2



+  2 =
2
2
 +  2 ,
2

 (
+  ) (

 ) =
(

 ) +  (

 ) =
2

 + 

 2 =
2
 2
 (
+  ) = (
+  ) (
+  ) = (
+  )
2 + 2
 +  2 = 
3 2
( )
( 2


+ 2
 +  2
) + (
2
+ 2
 +  2
)=

+ 2
 +
 + 
+ 2
 2 +  3 =
3 + 3
2  + 3
 2 +  3 
3 2 2 2

22
 ǹȆȅȉǾȃǹȇǿĬȂǾȉǿȀǾȈȉǾȃǹȁīǼǺȇǹ

 (

 ) = (

 ) (

 ) = (

 )
2
2
 +  2 = 
3 2
( )
( 2
=


2
 +  2
)
(
2

2
 +  2
)=

3
2
2  +
 2

2 + 2
 2
 3 =
3
3
2  + 3
 2
 3
( ) (
 (
+  )
2

 +  2 =

2

 +  2 + 
2

 +  2 =  ) ( )
3 2 2 2 2 3 3 3



 +
 + 


 +  =
+ 
( ) (
 (

 )
2 +
 +  2 =

2 +
 +  2

2 +
 +  2 =  ) ( )
3 2 2 2 2 3 3 3

+
 +





 =

 
(
 Euler (
+  +  )
2 +  2 +  2




=  )
( ) (
=

2 +  2 +  2




+ 
2 +  2 +  2




+ )
 + (
2
+  2 + 2




) =
+
 3 2
+
 2

2 



2 + 
 + 
2 +  3 +  2

 2
 2 

 =

 = 
2 +  2 +  3


 2
 2
=
3 +  3 +  3
3
 
 (
Ȓ
3 +  3 +  3
3
 = (
+  +  )
2 +  2 +  2




=  )
1
(
= (
+  +  ) 2
2 + 2 2 + 2 2
2

2
2
=
2
)
1
(
= (
+  +  )
2
2
 +  2 +  2
2 +  2 +  2
2
+
2 =
2
)
1
= (
+  +  ) (

 ) + (

 ) + ( 

)  
2 2 2

 2  

1.4.6 ǾįȚĮȚȡİIJȩIJȘIJĮıIJȠȣȢĮțȑȡĮȚȠȣȢĮȡȚșȝȠȪȢ (
)
DzıIJȦ įȪȠ ĮțȑȡĮȚȠȚ Į ȕȁȑȝİ ȩIJȚ Ƞ ȕ įȚĮȚȡİȓ IJȠȞ Į Ȓ ȩIJȚ Ƞ Į įȚĮȚȡİȓIJĮȚ ȝİ IJȠȞ
ȕțȐIJȚʌȠȣıȣȝȕȠȜȓȗİIJĮȚ  |
ĮȞțĮȚȝȩȞȠĮȞȣʌȐȡȤİȚĮțȑȡĮȚȠȢțIJȑIJȠȚȠȢȫıIJİ

= . ȉȩIJİRȕȠȞȠȝȐȗİIJĮȚįȚĮȚȡȑIJȘȢIJȠȣĮțĮȚȕȑȕĮȚĮȚıȤȪİȚ 

. ȈIJȘȞʌİȡȓ-



ʌIJȦıȘĮȣIJȒȖȡȐijȠȣȝİ =  Ȓ = .
 
6 6
ȆȤ 2 | 6, ĮijȠȪ 2
3 = 6, ȠʌȩIJİȑȤȠȣȝİ = 3 Ȓ = 2.
2 3
ȆĮȡĮIJȒȡȘıȘ ȅĮȡȚșȝȩȢțȠȡȓȗİIJĮȚȝȠȞȠıȒȝĮȞIJĮįȘȜĮįȒİȓȞĮȚȝȠȞĮįȚțȩȢ
DzıIJȦįȪȠĮțȑȡĮȚȠȚĮȕȁȑȝİȩIJȚȠĮİȓȞĮȚʌȠȜȜĮʌȜȐıȚȠIJȠȣȕĮȞțĮȚȝȩȞȠĮȞ
ȣʌȐȡȤİȚĮțȑȡĮȚȠȢ
(


) IJȑIJȠȚȠȢȫıIJİ
= .

1.4.7 ǺĮıȚțȑȢʌȡȠIJȐıİȚȢ
 ȅĮȡȚșȝȩȢįȚĮȚȡİȓIJĮȚĮʌȩȩȜȠȣȢIJȠȣȢĮțȑȡĮȚȠȣȢĮȡȚșȝȠȪȢĮijȠȪ 0 =
0 ȖȚĮțȐșİ
ĮțȑȡĮȚȠȕDZȡĮRĮȡȚșȝȩȢİȓȞĮȚʌȠȜȜĮʌȜȐıȚȠȠʌȠȚȠȣįȒʌȠIJİĮțİȡĮȓȠȣ


ĬǼȍȇǿǹȀǹǿǹȈȀǾȈǼǿȈ

 ȅĮȡȚșȝȩȢİȓȞĮȚįȚĮȚȡȑIJȘȢȝȩȞȠIJȠȣİĮȣIJȠȪIJȠȣȆȡȐȖȝĮIJȚĮȞ 0 | x, ȖȚĮĮțȑȡĮȚȠ
ĮȡȚșȝȩxșĮȣʌȐȡȤİȚĮțȑȡĮȚȠȢțIJȑIJȠȚȠȢȫıIJİ x =
0
x = 0. 
ȂİșȠįȠȜȠȖȚțȩ ıȤȩȜȚȠ ǹȞ țĮIJĮȜȒȟȠȣȝİ ıİ ıȤȑıȘ  |
, ȝİ Į ȕ ĮțİȡĮȓȠȣȢ
IJȑIJȠȚȠȣȢȫıIJİ
<  , IJȩIJİʌȡȑʌİȚȞĮȚıȤȪİȚ
= 0. 
 ȀȐșİĮțȑȡĮȚȠȢĮįȚĮȚȡİȓIJĮȚĮʌȩIJȠȣȢĮȡȚșȝȠȪȢ
1, 1,

,
. 
 ȅȚĮțȑȡĮȚȠȚ

,
ȑȤȠȣȞIJȠȣȢȓįȚȠȣȢįȚĮȚȡȑIJİȢ
 ǹȞ  |
, IJȩIJİȚıȤȪİȚİʌȓıȘȢ  | 
, ȩʌȠȣțĮțȑȡĮȚȠȢĮȡȚșȝȩȢ
 ǹȞ
, 
0, ȝİ
|  țĮȚ  |
, IJȩIJİ
=  Ȓ
=
.

ǹʌȩįİȚȟȘ
ȂİȕȐıȘIJȠ
| , ʌĮȓȡȞȠȣȝİ  = 
, İȞȫȝİȕȐıȘIJȠ  |
, ʌĮȓȡȞȠȣȝİ
= . DZȡĮ
ȑȤȠȣȝİ 
=

 = 1. ǼʌȠȝȑȞȦȢȚıȤȪİȚ
=  = 1, Ȓ
=  =
1. ǹȞ
=  = 1,
ȑȤȠȣȝİ
= ,ĮȞ
=  =
1, ʌĮȓȡȞȠȣȝİ
=
.

 ǹȞ
|  țĮȚ

0, IJȩIJİȚıȤȪİȚ

 . 
 ǹȞ
|  țĮȚ
| , IJȩIJİ
|  +  ȖȚĮțȐșİ
, 

. 
 ǹȞ
|  țĮȚ
|  + , IJȩIJİ
| .

ǹʌȩįİȚȟȘ
ǼʌİȚįȒ
| , șĮȣʌȐȡȤİȚĮțȑȡĮȚȠȢȜIJȑIJȠȚȠȢȫıIJİ  =
. ǹijȠȪȚıȤȪİȚȘ
|  + , 
șĮȣʌȐȡȤİȚĮțȑȡĮȚȠȢȝIJȑIJȠȚȠȢȫıIJİ  +  =
μ.
ǹʌȩIJȘȞIJİȜİȣIJĮȓĮĮȣIJȒıȤȑıȘțĮȚȕĮıȚȗȩȝİȞȠȚıIJȘ  =
, ʌĮȓȡȞȠȣȝİ

 +  =
μ   =
μ

   =
( μ
 ) 
| . 

1.5 ȆȇȍȉȅǿȀǹǿȈȊȃĬǼȉȅǿǹȀǼȇǹǿȅǿǹȇǿĬȂȅǿ

‡ ȆȡȫIJȠȢȠȞȠȝȐȗİIJĮȚțȐșİĮțȑȡĮȚȠȢĮʌȠȣȑȤİȚįȪȠȝȩȞȠșİIJȚțȠȪȢįȚĮȚȡȑIJİȢȁȑȝİ
ȜȠȚʌȩȞȩIJȚȑȞĮȢijȣıȚțȩȢĮȡȚșȝȩȢİȓȞĮȚʌȡȫIJȠȢĮȞȑȤİȚȦȢįȚĮȚȡȑIJİȢȝȩȞȠIJȠȞİĮȣ-
IJȩIJȠȣțĮȚIJȘȝȠȞȐįĮ
DZȝİıȘıȣȞȑʌİȚĮǹȞȠĮȡȚșȝȩȢĮİȓȞĮȚʌȡȫIJȠȢțĮȚȠĮțȑȡĮȚȠȢȕįȚĮȚȡİȓIJȠȞĮ
IJȩIJİ
=
1 Ȓ
= 1 Ȓ  =

Ȓ  =
. 
ȆĮȡĮįİȓȖȝĮIJĮʌȡȫIJȦȞĮȡȚșȝȫȞ
3,
2, 2, 3, 5, 11, 13, 17, …

‡ ȈȪȞșİIJȠȢȠȞȠȝȐȗİIJĮȚțȐșİĮțȑȡĮȚȠȢȝİʌİȡȚııȩIJİȡȠȣȢĮʌȩįȪȠșİIJȚțȠȪȢįȚĮȚȡȑIJİȢ
ȆȡȠijĮȞȫȢ ȠȚ ĮȡȚșȝȠȓ
1, 1, įİȞ İȓȞĮȚ ȠȪIJİ ʌȡȫIJȠȚ ȠȪIJİ ıȪȞșİIJȠȚ ĮijȠȪ ȑȤȠȣȞ
ȑȞĮȞȝȩȞȠșİIJȚțȩįȚĮȚȡȑIJȘIJȠȞ
ȆĮȡĮįİȓȖȝĮIJĮıȪȞșİIJȦȞĮȡȚșȝȫȞ
9,
6,
4, 4, 6, 8, 21. 

24
 ǹȆȅȉǾȃǹȇǿĬȂǾȉǿȀǾȈȉǾȃǹȁīǼǺȇǹ

1.5.1 ĬİȫȡȘȝĮ
©ȅȚșİIJȚțȠȓĮțȑȡĮȚȠȚʌȠȣİȓȞĮȚʌȡȫIJȠȚĮȡȚșȝȠȓİȓȞĮȚȐʌİȚȡȠȚǻȘȜĮįȒȖȚĮțȐșİʌȡȫIJȠ
ĮȡȚșȝȩȣʌȐȡȤİȚʌȐȞIJĮȑȞĮȢʌȡȫIJȠȢȝİȖĮȜȪIJİȡȩȢIJȠȣª
ȉȘȞĮʌȩįİȚȟȘșĮIJȘįȠȪȝİıİİʌȩȝİȞȘʌĮȡȐȖȡĮijȠȩIJĮȞĮȞĮijİȡșȠȪȝİıIJȘȝȑșȠįȠ
IJȘȢ©ĮʌĮȖȦȖȒȢ ıİ ȐIJȠʌȠª.

1.6 ǹȁīȅȇǿĬȂǿȀǾdzǼȊȀȁǼǿǻǼǿǹǻǿǹǿȇǼȈǾ
DzıIJȦ ȠȚ ĮȡȚșȝȠȓ
= 243,  = 12. ȆĮȡĮIJȘȡȠȪȝİ ĮȡȤȚțȐ ȩIJȚ 12 < 243. ǻȚĮȚȡȠȪȝİ IJȠȞ
ȝİIJȠȞȆĮȡĮIJȘȡȠȪȝİȩIJȚ 243 = 12
20 + 3.
īİȞȚțİȪȠȞIJĮȢȑȤȠȣȝİ
īȚĮ țȐșİ ȗİȪȖȠȢ ĮțİȡĮȓȦȞ Į ȕ ȝİ

0, ȣʌȐȡȤȠȣȞ įȪȠ ȝȠȞĮįȚțȠȓ ĮțȑȡĮȚȠȚ ʌ ȣ IJȑ-
IJȠȚȠȚ ȫıIJİ
=  +  țĮȚ 0   <
 0   

1, įȘȜĮįȒ Ƞ ȣ ʌĮȓȡȞİȚ ȝȓĮ Įʌȩ
IJȚȢ IJȚȝȑȢ 1, 2, 3, … ,

1. Ǿ ȚıȩIJȘIJĮ ʌȠȣ ʌȡȠțȪʌIJİȚ ȠȞȠȝȐȗİIJĮȚ ȚıȩIJȘIJĮ IJȘȢ ĮȜ-
ȖȠȡȚșȝȚțȒȢįȚĮȓȡİıȘȢ IJȠȣ Į įȚȐIJȠȣ ȕȅĮȠȞȠȝȐȗİIJĮȚįȚĮȚȡİIJȑȠȢȠȕ įȚĮȚȡȑIJȘȢ
Ƞʌ ʌȘȜȓțȠțĮȚȠȣ ȣʌȩȜȠȚʌȠȋȦȡȓȢȤȡȒıȘȝĮșȘȝĮIJȚțȫȞıȣȝȕȠȜȚıȝȫȞȜȑȝİȩIJȚȠ
įȚĮȚȡİIJȑȠȢ IJȘȢ ĮȜȖȠȡȚșȝȚțȒȢ įȚĮȓȡİıȘȢ ȚıȠȪIJĮȚ ȝİ IJȠȞ įȚĮȚȡȑIJȘ İʌȓ IJȠ ʌȘȜȓțȠ
ıȣȞIJȠȣʌȩȜȠȚʌȠ
ȈȘȝĮȞIJȚțȒʌĮȡĮIJȒȡȘıȘǵIJĮȞİʌȚȜȑȟȠȣȝİȑȞĮȞĮȡȚșȝȩȑıIJȦ


* , ȜȑȝİȩIJȚ
țȐșİĮȡȚșȝȩȢȝʌȠȡİȓȞĮįȚĮȚȡİșİȓȝİĮȣIJȩȞĮijȒȞȠȞIJĮȢȣʌȩȜȠȚʌȠȒȩȤȚȉĮįȣȞĮ-
IJȐȣʌȩȜȠȚʌĮʌȠȣĮijȒȞİȚİȓȞĮȚ 0, 1, 2, … ,

1.
DzIJıȚ ȑȤȠȣȝİ
IJȠ ʌȜȒșȠȢ ıȪȞȠȜĮ IJȠ Ƞ Įʌȩ IJĮ ȠʌȠȓĮ ĮʌȠIJİȜİȓIJĮȚ Įʌȩ IJȠȣȢ
ĮȡȚșȝȠȪȢ İțİȓȞȠȣȢ ʌȠȣ įȚĮȚȡȠȪȝİȞȠȚ ȝİ IJȠȞ ȕ įȓȞȠȣȞ ȣʌȩȜȠȚʌȠ ʌȠȣ ıȣȝȕȠȜȓȗİ-
IJĮȚ [ 0 ] , įȘȜĮįȒȑȤȠȣȝİ [ 0 ] = { x / x =
 } . ȉȠȠıȪȞȠȜȠĮʌȠIJİȜİȓIJĮȚĮʌȩIJȠȣȢ
ĮȡȚșȝȠȪȢİțİȓȞȠȣȢʌȠȣįȚĮȚȡȠȪȝİȞȠȚȝİIJȠȞȕįȓȞȠȣȞȣʌȩȜȠȚʌȠǹȣIJȩ IJȠ ıȪȞȠȜȠ
ıȣȝȕȠȜȓȗİIJĮȚ [ 1] , įȘȜĮįȒȑȤȠȣȝİ [ 1] = { x / x =
 + 1} . ȈȣȞİȤȓȗȠȞIJĮȢȝİIJȠȞȓįȚȠ
IJȡȩʌȠijIJȐȞȠȣȝİıIJȠıȪȞȠȜȠ [

1] = { x / x =
 +

1} .
ǹȢįȠȪȝİȦȢʌĮȡȐįİȚȖȝĮIJȘįȘȝȚȠȣȡȖȓĮIJȦȞȐȡIJȚȦȞȗȣȖȫȞțĮȚʌİȡȚIJIJȫȞȝȠ-
ȞȫȞĮȡȚșȝȫȞĬİȦȡȫȞIJĮȢIJȘȞȑȞȦıȘIJȦȞıȣȞȩȜȦȞĮȣIJȫȞțĮȜȪʌIJȠȣȝİȝİȕȐıȘ
IJȠȞĮțȑȡĮȚȠ ȕIJȠıȪȞȠȜȠIJȦȞĮțİȡĮȓȦȞ_ȅʌȩIJİʌĮȓȡȞȠȣȝİȝȓĮįȚĮȝȑȡȚıȘȩʌȦȢ
ȜȑȝİIJȠȣ_DzIJıȚȑȤȠȣȝİ = [ 0 ]
[ 1]
[ 2 ]
...
[

1] .
ȉȠİȓȞĮȚʌȠȜȜĮʌȜȐıȚȠțȐșİĮțİȡĮȓȠȣĮĮijȠȪ 0 =
0.
ȈȘȝĮȞIJȚțȒʌĮȡĮIJȒȡȘıȘ ǼȓȞĮȚıĮijȑȢȩIJȚȠĮȡȚșȝȩȢįİȞİȓȞĮȚʌȠȜȜĮʌȜȐıȚȠ
IJȠȣĮȜȜȐȝʌȠȡİȓȞĮȖȡĮijIJİȓ 1 = 2
0 + 1.
ǹȞIJȫȡĮʌȐȡȠȣȝİIJȣȤȩȞIJĮĮțȑȡĮȚȠĮIJȩIJİȘįȚĮȓȡİıȒIJȠȣȝİIJȠįȓȞİȚʌȘȜȓțȠʌ
țĮȚȣʌȩȜȠȚʌȠȒ

25
ĬǼȍȇǿǹȀǹǿǹȈȀǾȈǼǿȈ

DzIJıȚįȘȝȚȠȣȡȖȠȪȞIJĮȚIJĮİȟȒȢıȪȞȠȜĮ [ 0 ] = { x / x = 2
} , [ 1] = { x / x = 2
+ 1} . 
ȂİĮȞĮȖȡĮijȒIJȦȞıIJȠȚȤİȓȦȞIJȠȣıȣȞȩȜȠȣʌĮȓȡȞȠȣȝİ
[ 0 ] = {…
2,
2 + 2, … ,
2, 0, 2, … , 2
2, 2, ...} țĮȚ
[ 1] = {… ,
2 + 1,
2 + 3, … ,
1, 1, … , 2 + 1, 2 + 3, …} .
ǼȓȞĮȚıĮijȑȢʌȦȢȚıȤȪİȚ [ 0 ]
[ 1] =
.
ȉȠ ʌȡȫIJȠ ıȪȞȠȜȠ İȓȞĮȚ IJȠ ıȪȞȠȜȠ IJȦȞ ȗȣȖȫȞ ĮȡȚșȝȫȞ įȘȜĮįȒ ĮțİȡĮȓȦȞ IJȘȢ
ȝȠȡijȒȢ x = 2
ȝİȡĮțȑȡĮȚȠȉȠįİȪIJİȡȠıȪȞȠȜȠİȓȞĮȚIJȠıȪȞȠȜȠIJȦȞʌİȡȚIJIJȫȞ
ĮȡȚșȝȫȞįȘȜĮįȒĮțİȡĮȓȦȞIJȘȢȝȠȡijȒȢ x = 2
+ 1 Ȓ x = 2

1, ȝİȡĮțȑȡĮȚȠ
ȈȘȝĮȞIJȚțȒʌĮȡĮIJȒȡȘıȘǼȓįĮȝİȩIJȚIJȠıȪȞȠȜȠIJȦȞʌȡȫIJȦȞșİIJȚțȫȞĮȡȚșȝȫȞ
įȚĮIJĮȖȝȑȞȦȞȝİıİȚȡȐȝİȖȑșȠȣȢİȓȞĮȚIJȠıȪȞȠȜȠ { 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, …} . ȆĮȡĮ-
IJȘȡȠȪȝİȩIJȚȠȠȢĮȡȚșȝȩȢIJȠȣıȣȞȩȜȠȣĮȣIJȠȪİȓȞĮȚȠȗȣȖȩȢİȞȫȩȜȠȚȠȚȣʌȩȜȠȚ-
ʌȠȚʌȡȫIJȠȚİȓȞĮȚʌİȡȚIJIJȠȓĮȡȚșȝȠȓǵIJĮȞȜȠȚʌȩȞĮıȤȠȜȠȪȝĮıIJİȝİĮțȑȡĮȚȠȣȢʌȡȫ-
IJȠȣȢįİșĮʌȡȑʌİȚȞĮȟİȤȞȐȝİțĮȚIJȠȞȝȠȞĮįȚțȩșİIJȚțȩȗȣȖȩʌȡȫIJȠʌȠȣİȓȞĮȚȠ

1.6.1 ǺĮıȚțȑȢʌȡȠIJȐıİȚȢ
DzıIJȦ ʌȘȜȓțȠ ʌ țĮȚ ȣʌȩȜȠȚʌȠ ȣ Įʌȩ IJȘ įȚĮȓȡİıȘ IJȠȣ Į įȚȐ IJȠȣ ȕ ȉȩIJİ ȚıȤȪİȚ

=  + , ȝİ  = 0, 1, 2, … ,

1. 
 ǵIJĮȞ ȚıȤȪİȚ
=  + , ȝİ  = 0, 1, 2, … ,

1, țĮȚ ȣʌȐȡȤİȚ ĮțȑȡĮȚȠȢ į
IJȑIJȠȚȠȢȫıIJİ  |
țĮȚ  |
, IJȩIJİ
| . ȂİȐȜȜĮȜȩȖȚĮțȐșİĮȡȚșȝȩȢʌȠȣįȚ-
ĮȚȡİȓ IJȠȣȢ Į țĮȚ ȕ ıIJȘȞ ȚıȩIJȘIJĮ IJȘȢ ĮȜȖȠȡȚșȝȚțȒȢ įȚĮȓȡİıȘȢ șĮ İȓȞĮȚ țĮȚ
įȚĮȚȡȑIJȘȢIJȠȣȣʌȠȜȠȓʌȠȣȣ
ǹʌȩįİȚȟȘ
Ȃİ ȕȐıȘ IJȘȞ ȚıȤȪ IJȠȣ  |
, ıȣȝʌİȡĮȓȞȠȣȝİ IJȘȞ ȪʌĮȡȟȘ ĮțİȡĮȓȠȣ ț IJȑIJȠȚȠȣ
ȫıIJİ
= . ǹʌȩIJȠȩIJȚȚıȤȪİȚ
| , ıȣȝʌİȡĮȓȞȠȣȝİIJȘȞȪʌĮȡȟȘĮțİȡĮȓȠȣȜIJȑ-
IJȠȚȠȣȫıIJİ  = 
. DzIJıȚĮʌȩIJȘıȤȑıȘ
=  + , ʌȡȠțȪʌIJİȚȩIJȚ

= 
+   


=   ( 
 )
= , ĮʌȩȩʌȠȣʌĮȓȡȞȠȣȝİ
| .

2. ǵIJĮȞȚıȤȪİȚ
=  + , ȝİ  = 0, 1, 2, … ,

1, țĮȚȣʌȐȡȤİȚĮțȑȡĮȚȠȢį IJȑ-

IJȠȚȠȢȫıIJİ
|  țĮȚ  |
, IJȩIJİ  |
ĮʌȠįİȚțȞȪİIJĮȚȩʌȦȢțĮȚȘ1

3. ǹȞ ȑȤȠȣȝİĮțȑȡĮȚȠ

0, ȝİIJȠȞȠʌȠȓȠ įȚĮȚȡȠȪȝİȞȠȚ ȠȚ ĮțȑȡĮȚȠȚ Įȕ įȓȞȠȣȞ

IJȠȓįȚȠȣʌȩȜȠȚʌȠIJȩIJİȘįȚĮijȠȡȐ

 İȓȞĮȚʌȠȜȜĮʌȜȐıȚȠIJȠȣ ȞǹȞIJȓıIJȡȠ-
ijĮĮȞȘįȚĮijȠȡȐįȪȠĮțİȡĮȓȦȞĮȕ İȓȞĮȚʌȠȜȜĮʌȜȐıȚȠİȞȩȢĮțİȡĮȓȠȣȞIJȩIJİ
ȠȚĮȡȚșȝȠȓĮȣIJȠȓįȚĮȚȡȠȪȝİȞȠȚȝİIJȠȞȞįȓȞȠȣȞIJȠȓįȚȠȣʌȩȜȠȚʌȠ
ǹʌȩįİȚȟȘ
ǹȞ
= , ʌȡȠijĮȞȒȢ ĬİȦȡȠȪȝİ ȩIJȚ

. ȉȩIJİ Įʌȩ IJȘȞ ȚıȩIJȘIJĮ IJȘȢ ĮȜȖȠȡȚșȝȚ-
țȒȢįȚĮȓȡİıȘȢȑȤȠȣȝİ  =  2 +  țĮȚ  =  2 + . 
ǹȞĮijĮȚȡȑıȠȣȝİIJȚȢıȤȑıİȚȢĮȣIJȑȢțĮIJȐȝȑȜȘʌĮȓȡȞȠȣȝİ

 =  1
 2  
 = (  1
 2 ) , ĮʌȩȩʌȠȣʌȡȠțȪʌIJİȚȩIJȚ  | 
. 


 ǹȆȅȉǾȃǹȇǿĬȂǾȉǿȀǾȈȉǾȃǹȁīǼǺȇǹ

ǹțȠȜȠȣșİȓ ʌĮȡȐįİȚȖȝĮ ȖȚĮ IJȠ ĮȞIJȓıIJȡȠijȠ țĮȚ ıIJȘ ıȣȞȑȤİȚĮ Ș ĮʌȩįİȚȟȘ

ʌȠȣ ȝʌȠȡİȓ ȞĮ ʌĮȡĮȜİȚijșİȓ țĮIJȐ IJȘȞ ʌȡȫIJȘ ĮȞȐȖȞȦıȘ ȆĮȡĮIJȘȡȠȪȝİ ȩIJȚ
2 10  2 35
25. ǹȞ įȚĮȚȡȑıȠȣȝİ IJȠȞ  ȝİ IJȠȞ  ʌĮȓȡȞȠȣȝİ ȦȢ ʌȘȜȓțȠ
IJȠȞ  țĮȚ ȦȢ ȣʌȩȜȠȚʌȠ IJȠȞ ĮȡȚșȝȩ 1 (

35 = 2
17 + 1). ǹȞ įȚĮȚȡȑıȠȣ-
ȝİ IJȠȞ  ȝİ IJȠȞ  ʌĮȓȡȞȠȣȝİ ȦȢ ʌȘȜȓțȠ IJȠȞ  țĮȚ ȦȢ ȣʌȩȜȠȚʌȠ IJȠȞ ĮȡȚșȝȩ
1 ( 25 = 2
12 + 1). Ǽįȫ įȚĮʌȚıIJȫȞȠȣȝİ IJȘȞ ȚıȩIJȘIJĮ ȝİIJĮȟȪ IJȦȞ ȣʌȠȜȠȓ-
ʌȦȞĮʌȩIJȚȢįȚĮȚȡȑıİȚȢIJȠȣȝİIJȠȞțĮȚIJȠȣȝİIJȠȞ
ǹȢ įȠȪȝİ İįȫ IJȘȞ ĮʌȩįİȚȟȘ DzıIJȦ ȩIJȚ Ș įȚĮijȠȡȐ

 įȪȠ ĮțİȡĮȓȦȞ Į ȕ İȓȞĮȚ
ʌȠȜȜĮʌȜȐıȚȠĮțİȡĮȓȠȣȞȉȩIJİșĮȣʌȐȡȤİȚĮțȑȡĮȚȠȢȜIJȑIJȠȚȠȢȫıIJİ 
 = .
ĬİȦȡȠȪȝİIJȚȢİȣțȜİȓįİȚİȢįȚĮȚȡȑıİȚȢIJȦȞĮȕȝİIJȠȞĮȡȚșȝȩȞțĮȚȑIJıȚʌĮȓȡȞȠȣȝİ
IJȚȢıȤȑıİȚȢ  =  1 + 1 ,
=  2 +  2 , ȝİ 0
1 ,  2 <  .
ǹʌȩIJȚȢıȤȑıİȚȢĮȣIJȑȢȑȤȠȣȝİ

 = (  1
 2 )  + 1
 2   = (  1
 2 )  + 1
 2   | 1
 2 ,
ȝİ 0
1 ,  2 <  .
ȆĮȡĮIJȘȡȠȪȝİȩIJȚĮȞȣʌȠșȑıȠȣȝİ 0
1
 2 <  , IJȩIJİʌĮȓȡȞȠȣȝİ
0   2
1   2
1   2 <  . ȅʌȩIJİ ȑȤȠȣȝİ  | 1
 2 
  2
1   , ȐȡĮ
ıȪȝijȦȞĮȝİIJȠȝİșȠįȠȜȠȖȚțȩıȤȩȜȚȠIJȘȢİȞȩIJȘIJĮȢ©ǺĮıȚțȑȢʌȡȠIJȐıİȚȢª
ȚıȤȪİȚ
1

2 = 0 
1 =
2 .

4. ǹȞȖȚĮIJȠȣȢĮțİȡĮȓȠȣȢĮ, ȕ ȚıȤȪİȚ (
,  ) = , IJȩIJİȣʌȐȡȤȠȣȞȝȠȞĮįȚțȠȓĮțȑ-

ȡĮȚȠȚ
1 ,  1 IJȑIJȠȚȠȚȫıIJİ
=
1  țĮȚ
=
1 , ȝİ (
1 ,  1 ) = 1.

ǹʌȩįİȚȟȘ
ĬİȦȡȠȪȝİ (
,  ) = , ȠʌȩIJİȣʌȐȡȤȠȣȞĮțȑȡĮȚȠȚ
1 , 1 IJȑIJȠȚȠȚȫıIJİ
=
1
țĮȚ
=
1. ȂİȕȐıȘIJĮʌȡȠȘȖȠȪȝİȞĮȠȚĮțȑȡĮȚȠȚ
1 , 1 İȓȞĮȚȝȠȞĮįȚțȠȓȝİȑȞĮȞ
ȝȑȖȚıIJȠ țȠȚȞȩ įȚĮȚȡȑIJȘ ȑıIJȦ IJȠȞ

, įȘȜĮįȒ ȑȤȠȣȝİ (
1 , 1 ) = 
. ȉȩIJİ ʌĮȓȡȞȠȣ-
ȝİ
1 =
2 
țĮȚ 1 =  2

, ȐȡĮ ȚıȤȪȠȣȞ ȠȚ ıȤȑıİȚȢ
=
2  
țĮȚ
=
2  
, țȐIJȚ
ʌȠȣ ȝĮȢ ȠįȘȖİȓ ıIJȘ ıȤȑıȘ 0 <



, ĮijȠȪ Ƞ į İȓȞĮȚ Ƞ ȝȑȖȚıIJȠȢ țȠȚȞȩȢ įȚĮȚȡȑIJȘȢ
ȂȀǻ IJȦȞ Į ȕ ȉİȜȚțȐ ȑȤȠȣȝİ 0 <



 0 <

 1 

= 1. ǼʌȠȝȑȞȦȢ
ʌȡȐȖȝĮIJȚȚıȤȪİȚȠIJȪʌȠȢ
DZȝİıȘıȣȞȑʌİȚĮIJȦȞʌĮȡĮʌȐȞȦİȓȞĮȚȘʌȡȩIJĮıȘǹȞȖȚĮIJȠȣȢĮțİȡĮȓȠȣȢĮ, ȕ
ȚıȤȪİȚ (
,  ) = (
,  ) = , IJȩIJİȣʌȐȡȤȠȣȞȝȠȞĮįȚțȠȓĮțȑȡĮȚȠȚ
1 ,  1 IJȑIJȠȚȠȚ
ȫıIJİ
=
1 ,  =  1 , ȝİ (
1 ,  1 ) = 1.

1.7 ǿȈȅȏȆȅȁȅǿȆȅǿǹȇǿĬȂȅǿ02'8/$5$5,7+0(7,&

1.7.1 ǾıȤȑıȘ
=  ( mod  ) Ȓ

 mod 
ȉȠȖİȖȠȞȩȢȩIJȚįȪȠĮȡȚșȝȠȓĮȕ įȚĮȚȡȠȪȝİȞȠȚȝİIJȠȞĮȡȚșȝȩȞĮijȒȞȠȣȞIJȠȓįȚȠȣʌȩȜȠȚ-
ʌȠ (  =  +  
  =  + , μ , 

) íȐȡĮȘįȚĮijȠȡȐIJȠȣȢİȓȞĮȚʌȠȜȜĮʌȜȐıȚȠ

27
ĬǼȍȇǿǹȀǹǿǹȈȀǾȈǼǿȈ

IJȠȣȞįȘȜĮįȒ

 = ( 
 )  = 
, țĮȚĮȞIJȓıIJȡȠijĮíĮʌȠįȓįİIJĮȚȝİIJȠȞıȣȝȕȠȜȚ-

ıȝȩ  =  ( mod  ) Ȓ 
 mod . ǼʌȓıȘȢȜȑȝİȩIJȚȠĮțȑȡĮȚȠȢȕİȓȞĮȚȚıȠȨʌȩȜȠȚʌȠȢ
ʌȡȠȢIJȠȞĮțȑȡĮȚȠĮȩIJĮȞȠȚİȣțȜİȓįİȚİȢįȚĮȚȡȑıİȚȢIJȦȞ
,  ȝİIJȠȞĮțȑȡĮȚȠȞȑȤȠȣȞ
IJȠȓįȚȠȣʌȩȜȠȚʌȠȣ
ǿıȤȪİȚIJȠʌĮȡĮțȐIJȦȕĮıȚțȩșİȫȡȘȝĮ

1.7.2 ǺĮıȚțȩșİȫȡȘȝĮ
DzıIJȦ
, 

țĮȚ 

* . ȉȩIJİ  =  ( mod  )   | 
.

ǹʌȩįİȚȟȘ
‡ DzıIJȦ  =  ( mod  ) . ȉȩIJİȠȚĮțĮȚȕįȚĮȚȡȠȪȝİȞȠȚȝİIJȠȞȞįȓȞȠȣȞIJȠȓįȚȠȣʌȩȜȠȚʌȠ
ȑıIJȦȣȈȪȝijȦȞĮȝİIJȘȞIJĮȣIJȩIJȘIJĮIJȘȢİȣțȜİȓįİȚĮȢįȚĮȓȡİıȘȢIJȦȞĮțĮȚȕȝİIJȠȞȞ
ȑȤȠȣȝİ  =  +  
  =  + , μ , 

, țĮșȫȢțĮȚ 

* ȝİ 0
 < .
ȂİĮijĮȓȡİıȘȠȚıȤȑıİȚȢĮȣIJȑȢįȓȞȠȣȞ 
 = 
 = ( 
 )  μ
,  
, ʌȠȣ
İȓȞĮȚȚıȠįȪȞĮȝȠȝİ  | 
. DZȡĮĮȞ  =  ( mod  ) , IJȩIJİ  | 
.

‡ DzıIJȦ ȩIJȚ  |

, țĮȚ ȩIJȚ Ƞ ȕ įȚĮȚȡȠȪȝİȞȠȢ ȝİ IJȠȞ ijȣıȚțȩ ĮȡȚșȝȩ Ȟ įȓȞİȚ ȣʌȩ-
ȜȠȚʌȠȣĬĮįİȓȟȠȣȝİȩIJȚțĮȚȠĮįȚĮȚȡȠȪȝİȞȠȢȝİIJȠȞȞįȓȞİȚIJȠȓįȚȠȣʌȩȜȠȚʌȠȣ
ǼȓȞĮȚ  | 
  
 = μ, μ 
. ǹȞ
=  + , μ


țĮȚ 0

<
, İȓȞĮȚ
Ș IJĮȣIJȩIJȘIJĮ IJȘȢ İȣțȜİȓįİȚĮȢ įȚĮȓȡİıȘȢ IJȠȣ ȕ ȝİ IJȠȞ Ȟ IJȩIJİ
=  + μ, μ




=  +  + μ = (  + μ )  + , μ
μ, 

țĮȚ 0
 < .
DZȡĮ
= (  + μ )  + , μ
μ, 

țĮȚ 0
 <
. DZȡĮȠȚĮțĮȚȕįȚĮȚȡȠȪȝİȞȠȚȝİ
IJȠȞȞįȓȞȠȣȞIJȠȓįȚȠȣʌȩȜȠȚʌȠ
 =  ( mod  ) .
ȆĮȡĮIJȒȡȘıȘȂʌȠȡȠȪȝİȞĮįȠȪȝİțĮȚIJȘȕĮıȚțȒʌȡȩIJĮıȘIJȘȢ

1.7.3 ǺĮıȚțȑȢȚįȚȩIJȘIJİȢIJȘȢıȤȑıȘȢ
=  ( mod  )

DzıIJȦ , , 


 
 * .
ǹʌȩIJȠȕĮıȚțȩșİȫȡȘȝĮȑȤȠȣȝİ  =  ( mod  )   | 
, ȠʌȩIJİ

‡  =  ( mod  )   | 
, ʌȠȣİȓȞĮȚĮȜȘșȑȢĮijȠȪ  | 0.
‡  =  ( mod  )
 =  ( mod  ) . 
ȆȡȐȖȝĮIJȚȚıȤȪİȚĮijȠȪ  | 
   | 
.

‡ ǹȞ
=  ( mod  ) 
  =  ( mod  ) , IJȩIJİ  =  ( mod  ) .

ȆȡȐȖȝĮIJȚ  =  ( mod  )   | 
 țĮȚ  =  ( mod  )   | 
, ȠʌȩIJİ
 | ( 
 ) + ( 
 )   | 
   =  ( mod  ) .

1.7.4 ǺĮıȚțȩșİȫȡȘȝĮ
ǹȞ  =  ( mod  ) țĮȚ  =  ( mod  ) , IJȩIJİ
 +  =  +  ( mod  ) , 
 = 
 ( mod  ) țĮȚ  =  ( mod  ) .


 ǹȆȅȉǾȃǹȇǿĬȂǾȉǿȀǾȈȉǾȃǹȁīǼǺȇǹ

ǹʌȩįİȚȟȘ
 =  ( mod  ) țĮȚ  =  ( mod  )   | 
 țĮȚ  | 
  
 =  țĮȚ

 = , ȝİ
, 

. ȅʌȩIJİ
( 
 ) + ( 
 ) =  +  = (  +  ) , ȝİ  + 

  +  =  +  ( mod  ) .
( 
 )
( 
 ) = 
 = ( 
 ) , μ

 
 
( 
 )
( 
 ) = 
 = ( 
 ) , μ

 
 
 = 
 ( mod  ) .
īȚĮȞĮĮʌȠįİȓȟȠȣȝİȩIJȚ  =  ( mod  ) , įȘȝȚȠȣȡȖȠȪȝİIJĮȖȚȞȩȝİȞĮĮȖțĮȚȕįʌȠȜ-
ȜĮʌȜĮıȚȐȗȠȞIJĮȢIJȚȢȚıȩIJȘIJİȢ 
 =  țĮȚ 
 = , ȩʌȠȣ
, 

, ȝİIJȠȣȢĮȡȚș-
ȝȠȪȢ Ȗ țĮȚ ȕ ĮȞIJȓıIJȠȚȤĮ țĮȚ ȑȤȠȣȝİ 
 =  țĮȚ 
 = , ȝİ
, 

.
ȅʌȩIJİʌȡȠıșȑIJȠȞIJĮȢțĮIJȐȝȑȜȘȑȤȠȣȝİ 
 =  +  = (  +  ) , ȝİ
 + 

  =  ( mod  ) .
ȆĮȡĮIJȒȡȘıȘ  ȈȪȝijȦȞĮ ȝİ IJȠ ʌĮȡĮʌȐȞȦ șİȫȡȘȝĮ ȝʌȠȡȠȪȝİ ȞĮ ʌȠȜȜĮʌȜĮ-
ıȚȐıȠȣȝİIJĮȝȑȜȘȝȚĮȢȚıȠįȣȞĮȝȓĮȢȝİIJȠȞȓįȚȠĮțȑȡĮȚȠȤȦȡȓȢȞĮȝİIJĮȕȜȘșİȓȘ
ȚıȠįȣȞĮȝȓĮȆȡȠıȠȤȒȩȝȦȢįİȞȚıȤȪİȚIJȠȓįȚȠȖȚĮIJȘįȚĮȓȡİıȘ

„¾ÏÁÂÆÄʾ
ǿıȤȪİȚ 15 = 10 ( mod 5 ) , ĮȜȜȐįİȞȚıȤȪİȚ 3 = 2 ( mod 5 ) ĮijȠȪ 3
2  
5. 

ȆĮȡĮIJȒȡȘıȘȈȪȝijȦȞĮȝİIJȠʌĮȡĮʌȐȞȦșİȫȡȘȝĮĮȞșİȦȡȒıȠȣȝİțIJȠʌȜȒ-
șȠȢȚıȠįȣȞĮȝȓİȢ
=  ( mod  ) , IJȩIJİ   =   ( mod  ) , ȖȚĮțȐșİ


.
ȆĮȡĮIJȒȡȘıȘ  ǹȞ  =   10  +  
110 
1 + ... + 110 1 +  0 10 0 İȓȞĮȚ ȑȞĮȢ ijȣıȚțȩȢ
ĮȡȚșȝȩȢȖȡĮȝȝȑȞȠȢıIJȠįİțĮįȚțȩIJȠȣĮȞȐʌIJȣȖȝĮIJȩIJİ
( )


 0 =   10  +  
110 
1 + … + 110 =   10 
1 +  
110 
2 + … + 1 10 = 
10.
ȅʌȩIJİ  =  0 ( mod 10 ) .
DZȡĮȖȚĮȞĮȕȡȠȪȝİIJȠIJİȜİȣIJĮȓȠȥȘijȓȠİȞȩȢĮȡȚșȝȠȪȃĮȡțİȓȞĮȕȡȠȪȝİĮțȑȡĮȚȠ
x
{ 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 } IJȑIJȠȚȠȞȫıIJİ  = x ( mod 10 ) .
ȀĮȚȖİȞȚțȐȖȚĮȞĮȕȡȠȪȝİIJĮȞIJİȜİȣIJĮȓĮȥȘijȓĮİȞȩȢĮȡȚșȝȠȪȃĮȡțİȓȞĮȕȡȠȪȝİ
{ } (
x  0, 1, 2, … , 10

1 IJȑIJȠȚȠȞȫıIJİ  = x mod 10  . )
ȆĮȡĮIJȒȡȘıȘ  ǹȞ 

țĮȚ Ȉ IJȠ ȐșȡȠȚıȝĮ IJȦȞ ȥȘijȓȦȞ IJȠȣ IJȩIJİ ȚıȤȪİȚ
 =  ( mod 9 ) .
ȆȡȐȖȝĮIJȚ ĮȞ  =   10  +  
110 
1 + … + 110 1 +  0 10 0 ijȣıȚțȩȢ ĮȡȚșȝȩȢ ȖȡĮȝȝȑ-
ȞȠȢıIJȠįİțĮįȚțȩIJȠȣĮȞȐʌIJȣȖȝĮIJȩIJİȠįȚĮȚȡİȓIJȠȞ


, ȩIJĮȞȠįȚĮȚȡİȓIJȠ
ȐșȡȠȚıȝĮIJȦȞȥȘijȓȦȞIJȠȣįȘȜĮįȒȩIJĮȞ 9 |  =   +  
1 + … + 1 +  0 .

29
ĬǼȍȇǿǹȀǹǿǹȈȀǾȈǼǿȈ

1.7.5 ĬİȫȡȘȝĮ
 μ 
ǹʌȠįİȓȟIJİȩIJȚ  =  ( mod μ )
 =   mod , ĮȞ
, 

țĮȚ 

* .
 ( , μ ) 


ǹʌȩįİȚȟȘ
 =  ( mod μ )  μ | ( 
 ) .
ǿıȤȪİȚȩIJȚ μ = μ1 ( , μ ) țĮȚ
=
1 (
, μ ) , ȝİ ( 1 , μ1 ) = 1. 
DzȤȠȣȝİȩIJȚ μ | ( 
 ) , ȠʌȩIJİʌĮȓȡȞȠȣȝİ
μ
μ1 ( , μ ) | ( 
 ) 1 ( , μ )  μ1 | ( 
 ) 1  μ1 | 
  | 
.
( , μ )
ǹȞIJȓıIJȡȠijĮȑȤȠȣȝİ
 μ  μ
 =   mod  | 
  μ | ( 
 ) ( , μ )  μ | ( 
 ) ( , μ ) ,
 ( , μ )  ( , μ )


ȠʌȩIJİȚıȤȪİȚ μ | ( 
 ) ( , μ ) 1   =  ( mod μ ) . 

1.7.6 īȡĮȝȝȚțȒȚıȠįȣȞĮȝȓĮ
īȡĮȝȝȚțȒȚıȠįȣȞĮȝȓĮȠȞȠȝȐȗİIJĮȚțȐșİİȟȓıȦıȘIJȘȢȝȠȡijȒȢ
x =  ( mod  ) (1), ȩʌȠȣ
, ,  ĮțȑȡĮȚȠȚȝİ 
0. ȁȪıȘIJȘȢ İȓȞĮȚțȐșİĮțȑȡĮȚȠȢ x 0 ʌȠȣIJȘȞȚțĮȞȠʌȠȚİȓ

ǻİȤȩȝĮıIJİIJȘȞȚıȤȪIJȘȢİȟȒȢȕĮıȚțȒȢʌȡȩIJĮıȘȢǹȞȠĮțȑȡĮȚȠȢ x 0 İȓȞĮȚȜȪıȘIJȘȢ
 IJȩIJİ țȐșİ ĮțȑȡĮȚȠȢ x ȚıȠȨʌȩȜȠȚʌȠȢ ȝİ IJȠȞ x 0 ȦȢ ʌȡȠȢ Ȟ İȓȞĮȚ İʌȓıȘȢ ȜȪıȘ
IJȘȢ
©ĭȡĮıIJȚțȐªȤȦȡȓȢȝĮșȘȝĮIJȚțȩıȣȝȕȠȜȚıȝȩȑȤȠȣȝİIJȘȞİȟȒȢĮʌȩįȠıȘ©xȚıȠȨʌȩ-
ȜȠȚʌȠȢ x 0 țĮIJȐȝȑIJȡȠȞªįȘȜĮįȒțȐșİĮȡȚșȝȩȢȚıȠȨʌȩȜȠȚʌȠȢȝİIJȠȞ x 0 , țĮIJȐIJȘįȚĮȓ-
ȡİıȒIJȠȣȝİIJȠȞȞĮʌȠIJİȜİȓȜȪıȘIJȘȢ țĮIJȐȝȑIJȡȠȞ

ǹʌȩȩȜȠȣȢĮȣIJȠȪȢIJȠȣȢĮțİȡĮȓȠȣȢʌȠȣĮʌȠIJİȜȠȪȞȜȪıİȚȢIJȘȢ țĮIJȐȝȑIJȡȠȞȝȩȞȠ

ȑȞĮȢİȓȞĮȚıIJȠȚȤİȓȠIJȠȣıȣȞȩȜȠȣ {1, 2, … , 
1} . ȆȡȐȖȝĮIJȚĮȞȠ x =  + , 0
 < 
ȚıȠįȪȞĮȝĮȚıȤȪİȚ x
 = , 0   <  İȓȞĮȚȑȞĮȢIJȑIJȠȚȠȢĮȡȚșȝȩȢșĮİȓȞĮȚȝȠȞĮįȚ-
țȩȢĮijȠȪįȪȠįȚĮijȠȡİIJȚțȠȓĮȡȚșȝȠȓĮʌȩIJȠıȪȞȠȜȠ {1, 2, … , 
1} İȓȞĮȚĮȞȚıȠȨʌȩ-
ȜȠȚʌȠȚțĮIJȐȝȑIJȡȠȞ
ȂȓĮȖȡĮȝȝȚțȒȚıȠįȣȞĮȝȓĮȒȚıȠIJȚȝȓĮIJȘȢȝȠȡijȒȢ x =  ( mod  ) ȑȤİȚȜȪıȘĮȞțĮȚ
ȝȩȞȠĮȞȠȂȀǻIJȦȞĮȞįȚĮȚȡİȓIJȠȞ  (
. ( ,  ) |  ) . ȈIJȘȞʌİȡȓʌIJȦıȘĮȣIJȒȜȑȝİ
ȩIJȚIJȠʌȜȒșȠȢIJȦȞȜȪıİȫȞIJȘȢİȓȞĮȚ ( ,  ) , İȞȫȠȚȜȪıİȚȢIJȘȢįȓȞȠȞIJĮȚĮʌȩIJȠȞIJȪʌȠ

 = x0 +  ,  = 0, 1, … , ( ( ,  )
1) . īȚĮ ȞĮ ȕȡȠȪȝİ IJȠȞ x 0 , ȤȡȘıȚȝȠʌȠȚȠȪȝİ
( ,  )
IJȠȞIJȪʌȠ x 0 =

( )
1  ( mod  ) . ȍȢ
(  ) , șİȦȡȠȪȝİIJȠʌȜȒșȠȢIJȦȞșİIJȚțȫȞĮțİȡĮȓȦȞ
ʌȠȣİȓȞĮȚȝȚțȡȩIJİȡȠȚȒȓıȠȚIJȠȣȞțĮȚʌȡȫIJȠȚȝİIJȠȞȞ


 ǹȆȅȉǾȃǹȇǿĬȂǾȉǿȀǾȈȉǾȃǹȁīǼǺȇǹ

ÐȹÐÂÆÔ
1. ǼʌȚȜȪıIJİIJȘȖȡĮȝȝȚțȒȚıȠįȣȞĮȝȓĮ 3x = 5 ( mod 9 ) . 

ȁȪıȘ
ǾȚıȠįȣȞĮȝȓĮ 3x = 5 ( mod 9 ) įİȞȑȤİȚȜȪıȘțĮșȩIJȚ ( 3, 9 ) = 3, țĮȚȠįİįȚĮȚȡİȓ
IJȠȞ

2. ȆȡȠıįȚȠȡȓıIJİIJȚȢȜȪıİȚȢIJȘȢ 15x = 6 ( mod 21) . 

ȁȪıȘ
ȀȓȞȘıȘȘǼȟİIJȐȗȠȣȝİIJȘȞȪʌĮȡȟȘȜȪıȘȢ
ȆĮȡĮIJȘȡȠȪȝİȩIJȚ ( 15, 21) = 3
3 | 6, ȐȡĮȑȤİȚȜȪıȘ
ȀȓȞȘıȘȘȆȡȠıįȚȠȡȓȗȠȣȝİIJȠʌȜȒșȠȢIJȦȞȜȪıİȦȞ
ǹijȠȪȚıȤȪİȚ ( 15, 21) = 3, ȑȤȠȣȝİIJȡİȚȢȜȪıİȚȢ
ȀȓȞȘıȘȘȆȡȠıįȚȠȡȓȗȠȣȝİĮȡȤȚțȐIJȚȢȜȪıİȚȢ
21
ǹȣIJȑȢİȓȞĮȚȠȚ
= x 0 +  = x 0 + 7, μ
 = 0, 1, 2. 
3
ȀȓȞȘıȘȘȆȡȠıįȚȠȡȓȗȠȣȝİIJȠȞ x 0 . ǾȚıȠIJȚȝȓĮ 15x = 6 ( mod 21) İȓȞĮȚȚıȠ-
įȪȞĮȝȘȝİIJȘȞ 5x = 2 ( mod 7 ) , İʌȠȝȑȞȦȢʌĮȓȡȞȠȣȝİ
x 0 = 5
(7)
12 ( mod 7 ) = 552 ( mod 7 ) = 6 ( mod 7 ) , ĮijȠȪ 55
2 = 7
892 + 6.
ȈȣȞİʌȫȢȑȤȠȣȝİ x 0 = 6 ( mod 21) . ȉİȜȚțȐȠȚȜȪıİȚȢİȓȞĮȚȠȚ

1 = 6 ( mod 21) + 7
0 = 6 ( mod 21) ,
2 = 6 ( mod 21) + 7
1 = 13( mod 21) ,

3 = 6 ( mod 21) + 7
2 = 20 ( mod 21) . 

1.7.7 ĬİȫȡȘȝĮ)HUPDW
ǹȞĮȡșİIJȚțȠȓĮțȑȡĮȚȠȚțĮȚȡʌȡȫIJȠȢȝİ (
,  ) = 1, IJȩIJİ

1 = 1( mod  ) .

ªÐÈÅÐÅ
ȃĮȕȡİșİȓIJȠȣʌȩȜȠȚʌȠIJȘȢįȚĮȓȡİıȘȢ 3 2015 : 7. 

ȁȪıȘ
ȠȢIJȡȩʌȠȢ
ǹȞȐȜȣıȘȒıțȑȥȘ
ȌȐȤȞȦȞĮȕȡȦʌȠȚĮįȪȞĮȝȘIJȠȣİȓȞĮȚȚıȠȨʌȩȜȠȚʌȘȝİIJȠȒ
1( mod 7 ) .
ǼȓȞĮȚ 36 = 729 = 1( mod 7 ) . ǺȡȓıțȦ IJȠ ȣʌȩȜȠȚʌȠ țĮȚ IJȠ ʌȘȜȓțȠ IJȘȢ įȚĮȓȡİ-
ıȘȢ 2015 : 6, 2015 = 335
6 + 5.

(3 )
.2

 μ 36 = 729 = 1( mod 7 )
= 1335 ( mod 7 )

6 335

.1
3 2010 = 1( mod 7 )  3 2010
35 = 35
1( mod 7 ) .


ĬǼȍȇǿǹȀǹǿǹȈȀǾȈǼǿȈ

3 2010
35 = 35
1( mod 7 )
3 2015 = 243( mod 7 )
3 2015 = 5 ( mod 7 ) , ĮijȠȪ

243 = 34
7 + 5. DZȡĮIJȠȣʌȩȜȠȚʌȠIJȘȢįȚĮȓȡİıȘȢ 3 2015 : 7 İȓȞĮȚ
= 5.
ȠȢIJȡȩʌȠȢ
īȚĮ
= 3 țĮȚ
= 7, ȩʌȠȣ ȡ ʌȡȫIJȠȢ țĮȚ (
,  ) = ( 3, 7 ) = 1, ȜȩȖȦ șİȦȡȒȝĮIJȠȢ
)HUPDWȑȤȠȣȝİ

1 = 1( mod  ) , įȘȜĮįȒ 37
1 = 1( mod 7 )  36 = 1( mod 7 )…

1.8 ȂǼīǿȈȉȅȈȀȅǿȃȅȈǻǿǹǿȇǼȉǾȈȂȀǻ

ǻȊȅǹȀǼȇǹǿȍȃ
DzıIJȦįȪȠĮțȑȡĮȚȠȚĮȕ ȀȠȚȞȩȢįȚĮȚȡȑIJȘȢIJȦȞĮȡȚșȝȫȞĮȣIJȫȞİȓȞĮȚțȐșİĮțȑȡĮȚȠȢ
ʌȠȣįȚĮȚȡİȓIJȠȞĮțĮȚIJȠȞȕȆȤȠĮȡȚșȝȩȢİȓȞĮȚțȠȚȞȩȢįȚĮȚȡȑIJȘȢIJȦȞĮȡȚșȝȫȞ
țĮȚDzıIJȦȜȠȚʌȩȞȖȑȞĮȢțȠȚȞȩȢįȚĮȚȡȑIJȘȢIJȦȞ
, . ȉȩIJİʌȚșĮȞȩȞȞĮȣʌȐȡȤȠȣȞțĮȚ
ȐȜȜȠȚțȠȚȞȠȓįȚĮȚȡȑIJİȢIJȠȣȢȆȤȠİȓȞĮȚİʌȓıȘȢțȠȚȞȩȢįȚĮȚȡȑIJȘȢIJȦȞțĮȚ
DzIJıȚȑȤȠȣȝİIJȠȞİȟȒȢȠȡȚıȝȩ
 ȂȑȖȚıIJȠȢ țȠȚȞȩȢ įȚĮȚȡȑIJȘȢ ȂȀǻ įȪȠ ĮțİȡĮȓȦȞ ȑıIJȦ
, , ȠȞȠȝȐȗİIJĮȚ Ƞ
ȝİȖĮȜȪIJİȡȠȢĮʌȩIJȠȣȢțȠȚȞȠȪȢįȚĮȚȡȑIJİȢIJȦȞĮȡȚșȝȫȞĮȣIJȫȞȉȠȞȝȑȖȚıIJȠĮȣIJȩ
țȠȚȞȩįȚĮȚȡȑIJȘIJȦȞĮțİȡĮȓȦȞĮȕıȣȝȕȠȜȓȗȠȣȝİ (
,  ) ȒȂȀǻ (
,  ) .
 ǹȞȠȂȀǻįȪȠĮțİȡĮȓȦȞİȓȞĮȚȠIJȩIJİȠȚĮȡȚșȝȠȓĮȣIJȠȓȠȞȠȝȐȗȠȞIJĮȚıȤİIJȚțȐ
ʌȡȫIJȠȚ Ȓ ʌȡȫIJȠȚ ȝİIJĮȟȪ IJȠȣȢǻȘȜĮįȒ ĮȞ ȖȚĮ IJȠȣȢ ĮțİȡĮȓȠȣȢ Į ȕ ȑȤȠȣȝİ
(
,  ) = 1, IJȩIJİȠȚĮȕİȓȞĮȚıȤİIJȚțȐʌȡȫIJȠȚ
ȆȡȠıȠȤȒ
ǻİȞʌȡȑʌİȚȞĮıȣȖȤȑȠȣȝİIJȘȞȑȞȞȠȚĮ©ʌȡȫIJȠȢĮȡȚșȝȩȢªȝİIJȘȞȑȞȞȠȚĮ©ıȤİIJȚțȐ
ʌȡȫIJȠȚĮȡȚșȝȠȓȒʌȡȫIJȠȚȝİIJĮȟȪIJȠȣȢª
ȆĮȡĮIJȒȡȘıȘǼʌİȚįȒȠȚșİIJȚțȠȓĮȡȚșȝȠȓİȓȞĮȚȝİȖĮȜȪIJİȡȠȚĮʌȩȠʌȠȚȠȞįȒʌȠIJİĮȡȞȘ-
IJȚțȩțȠȚȞȩįȚĮȚȡȑIJȘĮȞĮȗȘIJȠȪȝİIJȠȞȂȀǻȝİIJĮȟȪIJȦȞșİIJȚțȫȞĮȡȚșȝȫȞ

„¾Ï¾ÁºÄʾѾ
ȃĮȕȡİșİȓȠȂȀǻIJȦȞĮȡȚșȝȫȞ
ȅȚșİIJȚțȠȓįȚĮȚȡȑIJİȢIJȠȣİȓȞĮȚȠȚİȞȫIJȠȣȠȚȅȚțȠȚȞȠȓșİ-
IJȚțȠȓįȚĮȚȡȑIJİȢIJȦȞİȓȞĮȚȠȚİȞȫȝİȖĮȜȪIJİȡȠȢĮȞȐȝİıȐIJȠȣȢİȓȞĮȚȠ
DZȡĮȂȀǻIJȦȞțĮȚİȓȞĮȚȠȅʌȩIJİȖȡȐijȠȣȝİ ( 6, 9 ) = 3.

ȃĮȕȡİșİȓȠȂȀǻIJȦȞĮȡȚșȝȫȞ
ȅȚșİIJȚțȠȓįȚĮȚȡȑIJİȢIJȠȣİȓȞĮȚȠȚİȞȫIJȠȣȠȚ
ȅȝȠȞĮįȚțȩȢțȠȚȞȩȢįȚĮȚȡȑIJȘȢIJȠȣȢİȓȞĮȚȠDZȡĮȠȂȀǻIJȦȞĮȡȚșȝȫȞ
İȓȞĮȚȠ
ȅȚĮȡȚșȝȠȓȜȠȚʌȩȞĮȣIJȠȓİȓȞĮȚıȤİIJȚțȐʌȡȫIJȠȚȒʌȡȫIJȠȚȝİIJĮȟȪIJȠȣȢ
ȆĮȡĮIJȒȡȘıȘ ȆĮȡĮIJȘȡȠȪȝİ ȦıIJȩıȠ ȩIJȚ IJȩıȠ Ƞ  ȩıȠ țĮȚ Ƞ  įİȞ İȓȞĮȚ
ʌȡȫIJȠȚĮȡȚșȝȠȓ


 ǹȆȅȉǾȃǹȇǿĬȂǾȉǿȀǾȈȉǾȃǹȁīǼǺȇǹ

 ǺĮıȚțȑȢʌȡȠIJȐıİȚȢ
 ǹȞȖȚĮIJȠȣȢĮțİȡĮȓȠȣȢ
,  ȚıȤȪİȚ (
,  ) = , IJȩIJİȣʌȐȡȤȠȣȞȝȠȞĮįȚțȠȓĮțȑȡĮȚȠȚ

1 , 1 IJȑIJȠȚȠȚȫıIJİ
=
1 țĮȚ
=
1 ȝİ (
1 , 1 ) = 1. 
 ǹȞįȚĮIJȐȟȠȣȝİIJȠȣȢșİIJȚțȠȪȢįȚĮȚȡȑIJİȢĮȡȚșȝȠȪĮțĮIJȐıİȚȡȐȝİȖȑșȠȣȢĮʌȩIJȠȞ
ȑȦȢIJȠȞȝİȖĮȜȪIJİȡȠįȘȜĮįȒIJȘȞĮʌȩȜȣIJȘIJȚȝȒIJȠȣĮIJȩIJİȠįİȪIJİȡȠȢșİIJȚțȩȢ
įȚĮȚȡȑIJȘȢİȓȞĮȚʌȡȫIJȠȢĮȡȚșȝȩȢ
 ȆȤȠȚįȚĮȚȡȑIJİȢIJȠȣțĮIJȐıİȚȡȐȝİȖȑșȠȣȢĮʌȩIJȠȞȑȦȢIJȠȞȝİȖĮȜȪIJİȡȠ
İȓȞĮȚȠȚȆĮȡĮIJȘȡȠȪȝİȩIJȚȠİȓȞĮȚʌȡȫIJȠȢ
 ǹȞ įȪȠ ĮȡȚșȝȠȓ įȚĮȚȡİșȠȪȞ ȝİ IJȠȞ ȂȀǻ IJȠȣȢ ʌȡȠțȪʌIJȠȣȞ ĮȡȚșȝȠȓ ıȤİIJȚ-
țȐ ʌȡȫIJȠȚ ȀĮIJȐ ıȣȞȑʌİȚĮ ĮȞ ȖȚĮ IJȠȣȢ ĮțİȡĮȓȠȣȢ Į ȕ ȚıȤȪİȚ (
,  ) = , IJȩIJİ



  ,   = 1. 

„¾ÏÁÂÆÄʾ
DzıIJȦĮȡȚșȝȠȓ
 24 27 
ȆĮȡĮIJȘȡȠȪȝİȩIJȚ ( 24, 27 ) = 3
 , = ( 8, 9 ) = 1. 
 3 3 
 ǼȪȡİıȘIJȠȣȂȀǻįȪȠĮțİȡĮȓȦȞ
DzıIJȦȩIJȚșȑȜȠȣȝİȞĮʌȡȠıįȚȠȡȓıȠȣȝİIJȠȞȂȀǻįȪȠĮțİȡĮȓȦȞĮȕ ȝİ 

. ȉȩIJİ
țȐȞȠȣȝİIJȚȢİȟȒȢțȚȞȒıİȚȢ
ǻȚĮȚȡȠȪȝİ ȩʌȦȢ ȟȑȡȠȣȝİ IJȠȞ Į ȝİ IJȠȞ ȕ DzIJıȚ ȕȡȓıțȠȣȝİ
=  + . ǹȞ
= 0,
IJȩIJİ (
,  ) = 1. ǹȞ

0, įȚĮȚȡȠȪȝİ IJȠȞ ȕ ȝİ IJȠ ȣ DzIJıȚ ȕȡȓıțȠȣȝİ
=  1 + 1. ǹȞ

1 = 0, IJȩIJİ (
,  ) = ( ,  ) = . ǹȞ
1
0, IJȩIJİ įȚĮȚȡȠȪȝİ IJȠ ȣ ȝİ IJȠ
1. DzIJıȚ ȕȡȓ-
ıțȠȣȝİ
=
1 2 +
2 . ǹȞ
2 = 0, IJȩIJİ (
,  ) = ( ,  ) = ( , 1 ) = 1. ǹȞ
2
0, įȚĮȚȡȠȪ-
ȝİIJȠ
1 ȝİIJȠ
2 țĮȚıȣȞİȤȓȗȠȣȝİțĮIJȐIJȠȞȓįȚȠIJȡȩʌȠȠʌȩIJİIJİȜȚțȐȠȂȀǻșĮİȓȞĮȚ
IJȠIJİȜİȣIJĮȓȠȝȘȝȘįİȞȚțȩȣʌȩȜȠȚʌȠʌȠȣʌȡȠțȪʌIJİȚ
ÐȹÐÂÆÔ
1ǺȡİȓIJİIJȠȞȂȀǻIJȦȞĮȡȚșȝȫȞ
ȁȪıȘ
ȆĮȡĮIJȘȡȠȪȝİȩIJȚ 108 < 306. ǻȚĮȚȡȠȪȝİțĮIJȐIJĮȖȞȦıIJȐIJȠȞȝİIJȠȞțĮȚ
ʌĮȓȡȞȠȣȝİ IJȘȞ ȚıȩIJȘIJĮ IJȘȢ ĮȜȖȠȡȚșȝȚțȒȢ įȚĮȓȡİıȘȢ 306 = 108  2 + 90, 90
0.
ǻȚĮȚȡȠȪȝİIJȠȞȝİIJȠȞțĮȚʌĮȓȡȞȠȣȝİ 108 = 90 1 + 18, 18
0. ǻȚĮȚȡȠȪ-
ȝİIJȠȞȝİIJȠȞțĮȚȑȤȠȣȝİ 90 = 18
5, įȘȜĮįȒȣʌȩȜȠȚʌȠǼʌİȚįȒIJȠIJİ-
ȜİȣIJĮȓȠȝȘȝȘįİȞȚțȩȣʌȩȜȠȚʌȠĮʌȩIJȘįȚĮįȠȤȒIJȦȞʌĮȡĮʌȐȞȦȚıȠIJȒIJȦȞİȓȞĮȚȠ
țĮIJĮȜȒȖȠȣȝİȩIJȚ ( 108, 306 ) = 18. ȆȡĮțIJȚțȐ






ĬǼȍȇǿǹȀǹǿǹȈȀǾȈǼǿȈ

2DzıIJȦįȪȠĮțȑȡĮȚȠȚĮȕȝİȚįȚȩIJȘIJĮ  |
(

1) .
ȊʌȠȜȠȖȓıIJİIJȠȞ ( 2

1,  ) . 

ȁȪıȘ
DzıIJȦ ( 2

1,  ) =
. ȆĮȡĮIJȘȡȠȪȝİȩIJȚ

(

1) =
2

  |
(

1)   | 4
2
4
+ 1
1   | ( 2

1) + 1 ȝİ
2

 | 2

1 țĮȚ
| , ȐȡĮ
| 1

= 1. 
ȆĮȡĮIJȒȡȘıȘ ǿıȤȪİȚ (
, ,  ) = ( (
,  ) ,  ) = (
, ( ,  ) ) = ( (
,  ) ,  ) .

 ǺĮıȚțȩșİȫȡȘȝĮ
ǹȞ (
,  ) = , IJȩIJİ șĮ ȣʌȐȡȤȠȣȞ ʌȐȞIJĮ ĮțȑȡĮȚȠȚ
, , ȤȦȡȓȢ ȞĮ İȓȞĮȚ ĮȞĮȖțĮıIJȚțȐ
ȝȠȞĮįȚțȠȓȝİȚįȚȩIJȘIJĮ  = 
+ . 
ȆĮȡĮIJȒȡȘıȘȉȠ 
+  ȠȞȠȝȐȗİIJĮȚȖȡĮȝȝȚțȩȢıȣȞįȣĮıȝȩȢIJȦȞ
, . 


DZȝİıȘıȣȞȑʌİȚĮ 
+  = 
 +  = 1. 
 
ǹȢįȠȪȝİȝȑıĮĮʌȩȑȞĮʌĮȡȐįİȚȖȝĮʌȫȢʌȡȠıįȚȠȡȓȗȠȞIJĮȚȠȚĮțȑȡĮȚȠȚ
,  ȩIJĮȞȝĮȢ
įȓȞȠȞIJĮȚȠȚĮțȑȡĮȚȠȚ
, :

ªÐÈÅÐÅ
DzıIJȦĮȡȚșȝȠȓȃĮȕȡİȓIJİįȪȠĮȡȚșȝȠȪȢ
, , ȫıIJİ 15
+ 36 = ( 15, 36 ) .

ȁȪıȘ
ǻȚĮȚȡȠȪȝİ IJȠȞ  ȝİ IJȠȞ  țĮȚ ʌĮȓȡȞȠȣȝİ 36 = 15
2 + 6. ǹʌȠȝȠȞȫȞȠȣȝİ IJȠ
ȣʌȩȜȠȚʌȠțĮȚȑIJıȚȑȤȠȣȝİ 6 = 36
15  2 (1).
ȆȡȠıȠȤȒ
ȀĮIJȐIJȘȝȑșȠįȠĮȣIJȒįİȞİțIJİȜȠȪȝİIJĮȖȚȞȩȝİȞĮįȘȜĮįȒįİȜȑȝİ 15
2 = 30. 
ȈȣȞİȤȓȗȠȣȝİįȚĮȚȡȫȞIJĮȢIJȠȞȝİIJȠȞțĮȚʌĮȓȡȞȠȣȝİ 15 = 6  2 + 3  3 = 15
6  2,
ȠʌȩIJİȝİȕȐıȘIJȘıȤȑıȘ ȑȤȠȣȝİ

3 = 15
( 36
15  2 ) 2  3 = 15
( 36  2
15  4 )  
3 = 15
36  2 + 15  4  3 = 5 15 + (
2 ) 36 (2).
ȈȣȞİȤȓȗȠȣȝİȝİIJȘįȚĮȓȡİıȘIJȠȣįȚȐțĮȚʌĮȓȡȞȠȣȝİ 6 = 3
2, įȘȜĮįȒȣʌȩ-
ȜȠȚʌȠȉİȜȚțȐ ( 15, 36 ) = 3, ȠʌȩIJİȕĮıȚȗȩȝİȞȠȚıIJȘıȤȑıȘ ʌȡȠıįȚȠȡȓȗȠȣ-

ȝİ
= 5,  =
2.
ȆĮȡĮIJȒȡȘıȘȅȚIJȚȝȑȢȖȚĮțțĮȚ
2 ȖȚĮȜǻǼȃİȓȞĮȚȠȚȝȠȞĮįȚțȑȢ


 ǹȆȅȉǾȃǹȇǿĬȂǾȉǿȀǾȈȉǾȃǹȁīǼǺȇǹ

 ȆȡȠIJȐıİȚȢ
 ǹȞ (
,  ) = 1 țĮȚ
| , IJȩIJİ
| .
 ǹȞȠȖİȓȞĮȚʌȡȫIJȠȢțĮȚ  |
, IJȩIJİ  |
Ȓ  |
.
 ǹȞ (
,  ) = 1, ȝİ
|  țĮȚ
| , IJȩIJİ
 | .

 ǹȞȐȜȣıȘșİIJȚțȠȪĮțİȡĮȓȠȣıİȖȚȞȩȝİȞȠșİIJȚțȫȞʌȡȫIJȦȞ
ʌĮȡĮȖȩȞIJȦȞ
ȀȐșİșİIJȚțȩȢĮțȑȡĮȚȠȢĮȖȡȐijİIJĮȚțĮIJȐȝȠȞĮįȚțȩIJȡȩʌȠȦȢ
=
11
22
33 …
 ,
ȩʌȠȣȠȚ
1 ,
2 ,
3 , … ,
 İȓȞĮȚĮțȑȡĮȚȠȚʌȡȫIJȠȚțĮȚʌĮȡȐȖȠȞIJİȢIJȠȣĮİȞȫȠȚİțșȑIJİȢ
1 ,  2 , 3 , … , 
İȓȞĮȚijȣıȚțȠȓĮȡȚșȝȠȓįȚȐijȠȡȠȚIJȠȣȝȘįİȞȩȢ
DzıIJȦ ʌȤ Ƞ ĮȡȚșȝȩȢ  Ȃİ ıȣȞİȤİȓȢ IJȑȜİȚİȢ įȚĮȚȡȑıİȚȢ įȘȜĮįȒ įȚĮȚȡȑıİȚȢ ʌȠȣ
įȓȞȠȣȞȣʌȩȜȠȚʌȠȑȤȠȣȝİ
 2
0 90 2
0 45 
0 15 
0 5 5
0 1
0

DZȡĮʌĮȓȡȞȠȣȝİ 180 = 2 2
3 2
51 = 2 2
3 2
5. 
ȈȘȝĮȞIJȚțȒʌĮȡĮIJȒȡȘıȘDzıIJȦįȪȠĮțȑȡĮȚȠȚĮȕ ĮȞĮȜȣȝȑȞȠȚıİȖȚȞȩȝİȞȠʌȡȫ-
IJȦȞʌĮȡĮȖȩȞIJȦȞȣȥȠȪȝİȞȦȞıİİțșȑIJİȢijȣıȚțȠȪȢĮȡȚșȝȠȪȢȉȩIJİȠȕșĮįȚĮȚȡİȓ
IJȠȞĮȩIJĮȞȩȜȠȚȠȚʌȡȫIJȠȚʌĮȡȐȖȠȞIJİȢIJȠȣȕİȓȞĮȚțĮȚʌĮȡȐȖȠȞIJİȢIJȠȣĮȝİİțșȑ-
IJİȢʌĮȡȐȖȠȞIJİȢIJȠȣȕȝȚțȡȩIJİȡȠȣȢĮʌȩȒȓıȠȣȢȝİIJȠȣȢĮȞIJȓıIJȠȚȤȠȣȢʌȠȣȣʌȐȡ-
ȤȠȣȞıIJȘȞĮȞȐȜȣıȘIJȠȣĮ

„¾Ï¾ÁºÄʾѾ
1.ȅ
= 2 3
3 2
11100
13 įȚĮȚȡİȓ IJȠȞ
= 2 3
35
5 6
11100
13 2
23, ĮijȠȪ ȠȚ ĮȞIJȓ-
ıIJȠȚȤȠȚ İțșȑIJİȢ IJȦȞ ʌȡȫIJȦȞ ʌĮȡĮȖȩȞIJȦȞ IJȠȣ ȕ ʌȠȣ İȓȞĮȚ ȩȜȠȚ țĮȚ ʌĮȡȐ-
ȖȠȞIJİȢIJȠȣĮİȓȞĮȚȝȚțȡȩIJİȡȠȚĮʌȩȒȓıȠȚȝİIJȠȣȢĮȞIJȓıIJȠȚȤȠȣȢİțșȑIJİȢʌȠȣ
ȣʌȐȡȤȠȣȞıIJȘȞĮȞȐȜȣıȘIJȠȣĮ
ǹȞIJȓșİIJĮȠĮȡȚșȝȩȢ
= 2 2
33
5 2 įİįȚĮȚȡİȓIJȠȞ
= 2 3
3 2
5 4
1110 , ĮijȠȪȠ
ʌĮȡȐȖȠȞIJĮȢ 33 IJȠȣȕȑȤİȚȝİȖĮȜȪIJİȡȠİțșȑIJȘĮʌȩIJȠȞĮȞIJȓıIJȠȚȤȠ 3 2 IJȠȣĮ

ǼȪȡİıȘIJȠȣȂȀǻįȪȠȒʌİȡȚııȩIJİȡȦȞĮțİȡĮȓȦȞȃĮȕȡİșİȓȠ ( 12, 16, 24 ) .

ȠȢIJȡȩʌȠȢ
ǺȡȓıțȠȣȝİʌȡȫIJĮIJȠȣȢįȚĮȚȡȑIJİȢțĮșİȞȩȢĮȡȚșȝȠȪ

12 = 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12.
16 = 1, 2, 4, 8, 16. 
24 = 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24.

 
ĬǼȍȇǿǹȀǹǿǹȈȀǾȈǼǿȈ

ȈIJȘıȣȞȑȤİȚĮȕȡȓıțȠȣȝİIJȠȣȢțȠȚȞȠȪȢįȚĮȚȡȑIJİȢIJȠȣȢȅȚĮȡȚșȝȠȓİȓȞĮȚ
ȠȚțȠȚȞȠȓįȚĮȚȡȑIJİȢIJȦȞ
ȉȑȜȠȢȕȡȓıțȠȣȝİIJȠȞȝİȖĮȜȪIJİȡȠĮʌȩIJȠȣȢțȠȚȞȠȪȢįȚĮȚȡȑIJİȢ
..
.( 12, 16, 24 ) = 4.

ȠȢIJȡȩʌȠȢ
ȆĮȓȡȞȠȣȝİIJȠȞȝȚțȡȩIJİȡȠĮʌȩIJȠȣȢĮȡȚșȝȠȪȢIJȠȞțĮȚİȟİIJȐȗȠȣȝİĮȞİȓȞĮȚ
ĮȣIJȩȢȠȂȀǻįİȞİȓȞĮȚĮijȠȪįİįȚĮȚȡİȓIJȠȞǹȞįİȞİȓȞĮȚʌĮȓȡȞȠȣȝİįȚĮ
įȠȤȚțȐIJȠȞȝȚțȡȩIJİȡȠįȚȐȒįȚȐȒįȚȐțIJȜțĮȚİȟİIJȐȗȠȣȝİĮȞİȓȞĮȚĮȣIJȩȢȠ
ȂȀǻįȘȜĮįȒĮȞįȚĮȚȡİȓIJȠȣȢȐȜȜȠȣȢ
ȅ 12 : 2 = 6 įİȞİȓȞĮȚȠȂȀǻĮijȠȪįİįȚĮȚȡİȓIJȠȞ
ȅ 12 : 3 = 4 įȚĮȚȡİȓIJȠȞțĮȚIJȠȞDZȡĮ ..
.( 12, 16, 24 ) = 4.

ȠȢIJȡȩʌȠȢ
ǹȞĮȜȪȠȣȝİțĮșȑȞĮȞĮʌȩIJȠȣȢĮȡȚșȝȠȪȢıİȖȚȞȩȝİȞȠʌȡȫIJȦȞʌĮȡĮȖȩȞIJȦȞ
12     
     
     
     
    
DZȡĮ 12 = 2 2
3, 16 = 2 4 , 24 = 2 3
3.
ȆĮȓȡȞȠȣȝİIJȠȣȢțȠȚȞȠȪȢȩȡȠȣȢȝİIJȠȞȝȚțȡȩIJİȡȠİțșȑIJȘ
DZȡĮ ..
.( 12, 16, 24 ) = 2 2 = 4.

ȠȢIJȡȩʌȠȢ
īȡȐijȠȣȝİ IJȠȣȢ ĮȡȚșȝȠȪȢ ıİ ȠȡȚȗȩȞIJȚĮ įȚȐIJĮȟȘ Įʌȩ IJȠȞ ȝȚțȡȩIJİȡȠ ıIJȠȞ
ȝİȖĮȜȪIJİȡȠ
ȄĮȞĮȖȡȐijȠȣȝİ ĮʌȠțȐIJȦ IJȠȞ ȝȚțȡȩIJİȡȠ Įʌȩ ĮȣIJȠȪȢ IJȠȞ  İȞȫ įȓʌȜĮ
țȐIJȦ Įʌȩ IJȠȣȢ ȐȜȜȠȣȢ ȖȡȐijȠȣȝİ IJȠ ȣʌȩȜȠȚʌȠ IJȘȢ įȚĮȓȡİıȒȢ IJȠȣȢ ȝİ IJȠȞ ȝȚ-
țȡȩIJİȡȠįȘȜĮįȒțȐIJȦĮʌȩIJȠȞțĮȚțȐIJȦĮʌȩIJȠȞ
ȄĮȞĮȖȡȐijȠȣȝİ ĮʌȠțȐIJȦ IJȠȞ ȝȚțȡȩIJİȡȠ IJȫȡĮ IJȠȞ  țĮȚ įȚĮȚȡȠȪȝİ IJȠȣȢ
ȐȜȜȠȣȢ ȝİ ĮȣIJȩȞ ıȣȝʌȜȘȡȫȞȠȞIJĮȢ ıIJȚȢ ĮȞIJȓıIJȠȚȤİȢ șȑıİȚȢ IJȠ ȣʌȩȜȠȚʌȠ IJȘȢ
įȚĮȓȡİıȘȢ
ȈȣȞİȤȓȗȠȣȝİIJȘįȚĮįȚțĮıȓĮȝȑȤȡȚȞĮȝİȓȞİȚȝȩȞȠȑȞĮȢĮȡȚșȝȩȢțĮȚȠȚȣʌȩȜȠȚ-
ʌȠȚȞĮİȓȞĮȚȅĮȡȚșȝȩȢʌȠȣȝȑȞİȚİȓȞĮȚȠȂȀǻ
  
1  
  

DZȡĮ ..
.( 12, 16, 24 ) = 4.


 ǹȆȅȉǾȃǹȇǿĬȂǾȉǿȀǾȈȉǾȃǹȁīǼǺȇǹ

 ȉȠȞʌĮȡĮȖȠȞIJȚțȩ (
! )
ȉȠıȪȝȕȠȜȠ ! İțijȡȐȗİȚIJȠȖȚȞȩȝİȞȠȩȜȦȞIJȦȞijȣıȚțȫȞĮȡȚșȝȫȞĮʌȩIJȠȞȑȦȢțĮȚ
IJȠȞȞįȘȜĮįȒ  ! = 1
2
3
…
, ʌȤ 3! = 1
2
3 = 6. 
ȍȢȐȝİıȘıȣȞȑʌİȚĮȑȤȠȣȝİ
(  + 1)! = 1
2
3
…

(  + 1)  (  + 1)! = !(  + 1) . 
ȅȡȓȗȠȣȝİ 0! = 1! = 1.

1.8.6.1 ÂÎÏÅʾ
ȅĮȡȚșȝȩȢ 2! = 1
2 = 2 įȚĮȚȡİȓIJȠȖȚȞȩȝİȞȠįȪȠįȚĮįȠȤȚțȫȞĮȡȚșȝȫȞȆȡȐȖȝĮ-
IJȚȝİIJĮȟȪįȪȠįȚĮįȠȤȚțȫȞȠȑȞĮȢșĮİȓȞĮȚȗȣȖȩȢįȘȜĮįȒʌȠȜȜĮʌȜȐıȚȠIJȠȣ
DZȡĮțĮȚIJȠȖȚȞȩȝİȞȩIJȠȣȢșĮİȓȞĮȚʌȠȜȜĮʌȜȐıȚȠIJȠȣ

 ÂÎÏÅʾ
ǻȪȠ įȚĮįȠȤȚțȠȓ ijȣıȚțȠȓ ĮȡȚșȝȠȓ İȓȞĮȚ ʌȡȫIJȠȚ ȝİIJĮȟȪ IJȠȣȢ ȆȡȐȖȝĮIJȚ ȑıIJȦ
ȩIJȚ ȖȚĮ IJȠȣȢ įȚĮįȠȤȚțȠȪȢ ĮțİȡĮȓȠȣȢ
,
+ 1 ȑȤȠȣȝİ (
,
+ 1) = . ȉȩIJİ ȚıȤȪİȚ

=  1 țĮȚ
+ 1 =  2 , ȝİ
1

2 
 (
1 ,
2 ) = 1. ǹȞĮijĮȚȡȑıȠȣȝİțĮIJȐȝȑȜȘ
IJȚȢıȤȑıİȚȢĮȣIJȑȢʌȡȠțȪʌIJİȚ 1 = (
2

1 )

| 1 
= 1.

 ÂÎÏÅʾ
ȅĮȡȚșȝȩȢ 3! ( 3! = 1
2
3 = 6 ) įȚĮȚȡİȓIJȠȖȚȞȩȝİȞȠIJȡȚȫȞįȚĮįȠȤȚțȫȞĮțİȡĮȓȦȞ
ȆȡȐȖȝĮIJȚ DzıIJȦ ȩIJȚ ȑȤȠȣȝİ IJȡİȚȢ įȚĮįȠȤȚțȠȪȢ ĮțİȡĮȓȠȣȢ
,
+ 1,
+ 2. ȉȩIJİ
șİȦȡȠȪȝİ IJȠ ȖȚȞȩȝİȞȩ IJȠȣȢ
=  (  + 1) (  + 2 ) . ǹȡȤȚțȐ ıIJȘȡȚȗȩȝİȞȠȚ ıIJȠ
ʌĮȡĮʌȐȞȦșİȫȡȘȝĮȚıȤȪİȚȩIJȚȠĮȡȚșȝȩȢįȚĮȚȡİȓIJȠȖȚȞȩȝİȞȠīȈIJȘıȣȞȑ-
ȤİȚĮʌĮȡĮIJȘȡȠȪȝİȩIJȚ
 ǹȞ
= 3, IJȩIJİ
+ 1 = 3 + 1,
+ 2 = 3 + 2, ȠʌȩIJİȑȤȠȣȝİ

= 3 ( 3 + 1) ( 3 + 2 ) , ȐȡĮ 3 |
. 
 ǹȞ
= 3 + 1, IJȩIJİ
+ 1 = 3 + 2,
+ 2 = 3 + 3 = 3(  + 1) , ȠʌȩIJİȑȤȠȣȝİ

= ( 3 + 1) ( 3 + 2 ) 3(  + 1) = 3( 3 + 1) ( 3 + 2 ) (  + 1) , ȐȡĮ 3 |
.
 ǹȞ
= 3 + 2, IJȩIJİ
+ 1 = 3 + 3 = 3(  + 1) ,
+ 2 = 3 + 4, ȠʌȩIJİȑȤȠȣȝİ
 
= ( 3 + 2 ) 3(  + 1) ( 3 + 4 ) = 3( 3 + 2 ) (  + 1) ( 3 + 4 ) , ȐȡĮ 3 |
.
 ǼʌİȚįȒ
 IJȫȡĮ ( 2, 3 ) = 1, ȝİ 2 |

 3 |
, ıȪȝijȦȞĮ ȝİ IJȘȞ ʌȡȩIJĮıȘ  IJȘȢ
ʌĮȡĮȖȡȐijȠȣʌĮȓȡȞȠȣȝİȩIJȚ 2
3 |
 3! |
. 

1.8.6.4 ÂÎÏÅʾ
ĬĮįİȤIJȠȪȝİȤȦȡȓȢĮʌȩįİȚȟȘIJȘȞİȟȒȢȖİȞȓțİȣıȘ
ȅĮȡȚșȝȩȢ ! įȚĮȚȡİȓIJȠȖȚȞȩȝİȞȠȞįȚĮįȠȤȚțȫȞĮțİȡĮȓȦȞ


ĬǼȍȇǿǹȀǹǿǹȈȀǾȈǼǿȈ

ªÐÈÅÐÅ
©DzıIJȦ
, 8

1, įȪȠʌȡȫIJȠȚșİIJȚțȠȓĮțȑȡĮȚȠȚȉȩIJİȠĮȡȚșȝȩȢ 8
+ 1 İȓȞĮȚʌȡȫ-
IJȠȢªȋĮȡĮțIJȘȡȓıIJİȦȢĮȜȘșȒȒȥİȣįȒIJȠȞıȣȜȜȠȖȚıȝȩĮȣIJȩ

ȁȪıȘ
ǹȞ
= 2, IJȩIJİ 8

1 = 15, įȘȜĮįȒ ȐIJȠʌȠ ĮijȠȪ Ƞ ĮȡȚșȝȩȢ  İȓȞĮȚ ıȪȞșİIJȠȢ
țĮȚ Ș ȣʌȩșİıȘ IJȠȞ ©șȑȜİȚª ĮțȑȡĮȚȠ ʌȡȫIJȠ DZȡĮ șĮ ʌȡȑʌİȚ

2. ǹȞ
= 3,
IJȩIJİ Ƞ 8

1 = 23 ʌȡȫIJȠȢ țĮȚ Ƞ 8
+ 1 = 25 ıȪȞșİIJȠȢ DzıIJȦ IJȫȡĮ ȠȚ ʌȡȫIJȠȚ

, 8

1, ȝİ
> 3. ȉȩIJİ IJȠ ȖȚȞȩȝİȞȠ
= ( 8
1) 8 ( 8 + 1) įȚĮȚȡİȓIJĮȚ ȝİ IJȠȞ
ĮijȠȪİȓȞĮȚȖȚȞȩȝİȞȠIJȡȚȫȞįȚĮįȠȤȚțȫȞĮțİȡĮȓȦȞǵȝȦȢȠįİįȚĮȚȡİȓIJȠȣȢ
8

1, 8,
, İʌȠȝȑȞȦȢįȚĮȚȡİȓIJȠȞ 8
+ 1, ıȣȞİʌȫȢȠĮțȑȡĮȚȠȢ 8
+ 1 İȓȞĮȚıȪȞ-
șİIJȠȢȀĮIJĮȜȒȖȠȣȝİȜȠȚʌȩȞıIJȠıȣȝʌȑȡĮıȝĮȩIJȚȠıȣȜȜȠȖȚıȝȩȢİȓȞĮȚȥİȣįȒȢ

 ȀȡȚIJȒȡȚĮȒȤĮȡĮțIJȒȡİȢįȚĮȚȡİIJȩIJȘIJĮȢ
 DzȞĮȢ ĮȡȚșȝȩȢ įȚĮȚȡİȓIJĮȚ įȚȐ IJȠȣ    « ȩIJĮȞ ȜȒȖİȚ ĮȞIJȓıIJȠȚȤĮ ıİ
1, 2, 3, … , IJȠȣȜȐȤȚıIJȠȞȝȘįİȞȚțȐ
 DzȞĮȢĮȡȚșȝȩȢįȚĮȚȡİȓIJĮȚįȚȐȒįȚȐĮȞIJȠIJİȜİȣIJĮȓȠȥȘijȓȠįȚĮȚȡİȓIJĮȚįȚȐȒ
įȚȐĮȞIJȓıIJȠȚȤĮ
 DzȞĮȢĮȡȚșȝȩȢįȚĮȚȡİȓIJĮȚįȚȐȒĮȞIJĮįȪȠIJİȜİȣIJĮȓĮȥȘijȓĮIJȠȣıȤȘȝĮIJȓȗȠȣȞ
ĮȡȚșȝȩʌȠȣįȚĮȚȡİȓIJĮȚįȚȐȒĮȞIJȓıIJȠȚȤĮ
 DzȞĮȢĮȡȚșȝȩȢįȚĮȚȡİȓIJĮȚįȚȐȒįȚȐĮȞIJȠȐșȡȠȚıȝĮIJȦȞȥȘijȓȦȞIJȠȣįȚĮȚȡİȓIJĮȚ
įȚȐȒįȚȐĮȞIJȓıIJȠȚȤĮ
 DzȞĮȢĮȡȚșȝȩȢįȚĮȚȡİȓIJĮȚįȚȐȒįȚȐĮȞIJĮIJȡȓĮIJİȜİȣIJĮȓĮȥȘijȓĮIJȠȣıȤȘȝĮ-
IJȓȗȠȣȞĮȡȚșȝȩʌȠȣįȚĮȚȡİȓIJĮȚįȚȐȒįȚȐĮȞIJȓıIJȠȚȤĮ
 DzȞĮȢĮȡȚșȝȩȢįȚĮȚȡİȓIJĮȚįȚȐĮȞIJȠȐșȡȠȚıȝĮIJȦȞįȚȥȒijȚȦȞIJȝȘȝȐIJȦȞIJȠȣĮʌȩ
IJĮįİȟȚȐʌȡȠȢIJĮĮȡȚıIJİȡȐįȚĮȚȡİȓIJĮȚįȚȐȆȤȠĮȡȚșȝȩȢįȚĮȚȡİȓIJĮȚįȚȐ
ĮijȠȪ 12 + 32 = 44, țĮȚȠįȚĮȚȡİȓIJĮȚįȚȐ

1.9 ǼȁǹȋǿȈȉȅȀȅǿȃȅȆȅȁȁǹȆȁǹȈǿȅǼȀȆ

ǻȊȅǹȀǼȇǹǿȍȃ
ĬİIJȚțȩțȠȚȞȩʌȠȜȜĮʌȜȐıȚȠįȪȠĮțİȡĮȓȦȞĮȕȝİȚįȚȩIJȘIJĮ

0, ȠȞȠȝȐȗȠȣȝİțȐșİ
ijȣıȚțȩĮȡȚșȝȩȜIJȑIJȠȚȠȞȫıIJİ
|  țĮȚ
| , įȘȜĮįȒțȐșİijȣıȚțȩĮȡȚșȝȩȜȝİ
| 
țĮȚ
| . ȆȡȠijĮȞȫȢ Ƞ șİIJȚțȩȢ ĮțȑȡĮȚȠȢ
 İȓȞĮȚ țȠȚȞȩ șİIJȚțȩ ʌȠȜȜĮʌȜȐıȚȠ IJȦȞ
ĮțİȡĮȓȦȞĮȕ ȆȡȠțȪʌIJİȚȜȠȚʌȩȞȐȝİıĮȩIJȚIJȠıȪȞȠȜȠIJȦȞțȠȚȞȫȞșİIJȚțȫȞʌȠȜȜĮ-
ʌȜĮıȓȦȞįȪȠĮțİȡĮȓȦȞĮȕȝİȚįȚȩIJȘIJĮ

0, įİȞİȓȞĮȚIJȠțİȞȩıȪȞȠȜȠ
ǼʌĮȞĮȜĮȝȕȐȞȠȣȝİİįȫȩIJȚIJȠıȪȞȠȜȠIJȦȞijȣıȚțȫȞĮȡȚșȝȫȞ
* ȑȤİȚIJȘȞȚįȚȩIJȘIJĮ
ȖȚĮțȐșİijȣıȚțȩĮȡȚșȝȩȞȠ  + 1 ȞĮİȓȞĮȚİʌȓıȘȢijȣıȚțȩȢĮȡȚșȝȩȢĬİȦȡȠȪȝİİʌȓıȘȢ
ȖȞȦıIJȩ ȩIJȚ IJȠ ıȪȞȠȜȠ IJȦȞ ijȣıȚțȫȞ ĮȡȚșȝȫȞ
* ȑȤİȚ İȜȐȤȚıIJȠ ıIJȠȚȤİȓȠ IJȘ ȝȠȞȐįĮ
 İȞȫįİȞȑȤİȚȝȑȖȚıIJȠıIJȠȚȤİȓȠ


 ǹȆȅȉǾȃǹȇǿĬȂǾȉǿȀǾȈȉǾȃǹȁīǼǺȇǹ

ǼȜȐȤȚıIJȠ țȠȚȞȩ ʌȠȜȜĮʌȜȐıȚȠ ǼȀȆ įȪȠ ĮțİȡĮȓȦȞ ȑıIJȦ Į ȕ ȠȞȠȝȐȗİIJĮȚ
IJȠ ȝȚțȡȩIJİȡȠ Įʌȩ IJĮ șİIJȚțȐ țȠȚȞȐ ʌȠȜȜĮʌȜȐıȚĮ IJȦȞ ĮȡȚșȝȫȞ ĮȣIJȫȞ ȉȠ ǼȀȆ
ıȣȝȕȠȜȓȗİIJĮȚ [
,  ] . 
ǹțȠȜȠȣșȠȪȞȑȟȚșİȦȡȒȝĮIJĮʌȠȣİȓȞĮȚȕĮıȚțȐȖȚĮIJȘȞȑȞȞȠȚĮIJȠȣǼȀȆįȪȠĮțİ-
ȡĮȓȦȞǹʌȠįİȓȟİȚȢIJȠȣȢșĮįȠșȠȪȞıIJȠȆĮȡȐȡIJȘȝĮȕȜıİȜʌĮȡĮțȐIJȦ

 ǺĮıȚțȐșİȦȡȒȝĮIJĮȖȚĮIJȠǼȀȆ
ȠșİȫȡȘȝĮ
( )
ȀȐșİ ȣʌȠıȪȞȠȜȠ ǹ IJȦȞ ijȣıȚțȫȞ ĮȡȚșȝȫȞ
* 

* , ʌȠȣ įİȞ İȓȞĮȚ țİȞȩ ȑȤİȚ
İȜȐȤȚıIJȠıIJȠȚȤİȓȠ

ȠșİȫȡȘȝĮ
ȉȠ ıȪȞȠȜȠ IJȦȞ țȠȚȞȫȞ șİIJȚțȫȞ ʌȠȜȜĮʌȜĮıȓȦȞ įȪȠ ĮțİȡĮȓȦȞ Į ȕ ȝİ ȚįȚȩIJȘIJĮ


0, ȦȢȣʌȠıȪȞȠȜȠIJȦȞijȣıȚțȫȞĮȡȚșȝȫȞȑȤİȚİȜȐȤȚıIJȠıIJȠȚȤİȓȠIJȠȠʌȠȓȠıȣȝ-
ȕȠȜȓȗİIJĮȚ  = [
,  ] țĮȚ ȠȞȠȝȐȗİIJĮȚ ĮʌȜȐ ©ǼȀȆ IJȦȞ ĮțİȡĮȓȦȞ Į ȕª ȆȡȠijĮȞȫȢ
ȚıȤȪİȚ  = [
,  ] = [
,  ] . 

ȠșİȫȡȘȝĮ
īȚĮIJȠȣȢĮțİȡĮȓȠȣȢĮȕȝİȚįȚȩIJȘIJĮ

0, ȚıȤȪİȚȠIJȪʌȠȢ [
,  ]
 , ȩIJĮȞțIJȣȤȩȞ
țȠȚȞȩʌȠȜȜĮʌȜȐıȚȠIJȦȞĮțİȡĮȓȦȞĮȕ

ȠșİȫȡȘȝĮ
īȚĮIJȠȣȢĮțİȡĮȓȠȣȢĮȕ ȝİȚįȚȩIJȘIJĮ

0, ȚıȤȪİȚȩIJȚ [
,  ] | , ĮȞȠĮțȑȡĮȚȠȢțİȓ-
ȞĮȚIJȣȤȩȞʌȠȜȜĮʌȜȐıȚȩIJȠȣȢ

ȠșİȫȡȘȝĮ
īȚĮIJȠȣȢĮțİȡĮȓȠȣȢĮȕȖȝİȚįȚȩIJȘIJĮ

0, ȚıȤȪİȚȘȚıȩIJȘIJĮ
[ 
,  ] =  [
,  ]. 
ȠșİȫȡȘȝĮ
īȚĮIJȠȣȢĮțİȡĮȓȠȣȢĮȕȝİȚįȚȩIJȘIJĮ

0, ȚıȤȪȠȣȞ
L (
,  ) = 

=
1,
= 1, ȝİ (
1 , 1 ) = 1, 
LL  = [
,  ]
 = 1
=
1  . 
LLL (
,  ) [
,  ] =
 . 

ȠșİȫȡȘȝĮ
īȚĮIJȠȣȢĮțİȡĮȓȠȣȢĮȕȝİȚįȚȩIJȘIJĮ

0, ȚıȤȪİȚ (
,  ) [
,  ] =
.


ĬǼȍȇǿǹȀǹǿǹȈȀǾȈǼǿȈ

1.10 ȅǿȇǾȉȅǿǹȇǿĬȂȅǿ
ȇȘIJȒ ʌĮȡȐıIJĮıȘ İȓȞĮȚ țȐșİ ʌĮȡȐıIJĮıȘ ʌȠȣ ȝʌȠȡİȓ ȞĮ ȖȡĮijIJİȓ ȦȢ țȜȐıȝĮ


,


, 

* . DzIJıȚ țȐșİ ĮțȑȡĮȚȠȢ ȖȡȐijİIJĮȚ ȦȢ țȜȐıȝĮ ȝİ ʌĮȡȠȞȠȝĮıIJȒ
 
IJȘ ȝȠȞȐįĮǹȢ șİȦȡȒıȠȣȝİ ȖȞȦıIJȐ IJȩıȠ IJȘ ıȤȑıȘ ȚıȩIJȘIJĮȢ ȝİIJĮȟȪ įȪȠ ȡȘIJȫȞ

 
  = 

 =   , ȩıȠțĮȚIJȚȢʌȡȐȟİȚȢʌȠȣȠȡȓȗȠȞIJĮȚȝİIJĮȟȪįȪȠȡȘIJȫȞȆȡȠijĮ-
ȞȫȢȩȜİȢȠȚȚįȚȩIJȘIJİȢIJĮȣIJȩIJȘIJİȢțIJȜʌȠȣĮȞĮijȑȡșȘțĮȞȩIJȚȚıȤȪȠȣȞıIJȠȣȢĮțİ-
ȡĮȓȠȣȢ ȚıȤȪȠȣȞ țĮȚ ȖȚĮ IJĮ țȜȐıȝĮIJĮ įȘȜĮįȒ IJȠȣȢ ȡȘIJȠȪȢ ȉȠ ıȪȞȠȜȠ IJȦȞ ȡȘIJȫȞ
ĮȡȚșȝȫȞıȣȝȕȠȜȓȗİIJĮȚ
. ȅȡȓȗȠȣȝİ
* =

{ 0 } . ȆĮȡĮIJȘȡȠȪȝİȩIJȚ 


.
ȊʌİȞșȣȝȓȗȠȣȝİ İįȫ IJȘȞ ȪʌĮȡȟȘ IJȦȞ įİțĮįȚțȫȞ ĮȡȚșȝȫȞ ıIJȠȣȢ ȠʌȠȓȠȣȢ İȞIJȐııȠ-
ȞIJĮȚțĮȚȠȚĮțȑȡĮȚȠȚĮijȠȪțȐșİĮțȑȡĮȚȠȢĮșİȦȡİȓIJĮȚįİțĮįȚțȩȢIJȠȣIJȪʌȠȣ
=
,0
Ȓ
=
,00 țIJȜǵȜȠȚȜȠȚʌȩȞȠȚįİțĮįȚțȠȓĮȡȚșȝȠȓíȝĮȗȓȝİIJȠȣȢĮțİȡĮȓȠȣȢíİȓIJİIJĮ
įİțĮįȚțȐIJȠȣȢȥȘijȓĮ©IJİȡȝĮIJȓȗȠȣȞªİȓIJİİʌĮȞĮȜĮȝȕȐȞȠȞIJĮȚĮʌȩȑȞĮıȘȝİȓȠțĮȚȝİIJȐ
ȝİʌİȡȚȠįȚțȩIJȡȩʌȠĮȞIJȚıIJȠȚȤȠȪȞıİțȜȐıȝĮIJĮȡȘIJȠȪȢțĮȚĮȞIJȓıIJȡȠijĮ
ȆĮȡĮIJȒȡȘıȘ ǵȜİȢȠȚȚįȚȩIJȘIJİȢIJȦȞįȣȞȐȝİȦȞʌȠȣȝȐșĮȝİȖȚĮIJȠȣȢĮțİȡĮȓȠȣȢ
ȚıȤȪȠȣȞțĮȚȖȚĮIJȠȣȢȡȘIJȠȪȢǼʌȚʌȜȑȠȞȑȤȠȣȝİ
1
L   * ,  
 
 =  , 


LL   * , , μ 
  
μ = μ , 



  
LLL 
, 
 * , 

   =  , 
  
( )

LY


* , μ, 



μ =
μ . 

1.10.1 ĬİȫȡȘȝĮ



ȀȐșİ țȜȐıȝĮ ,
, 

*+ , ȖȓȞİIJĮȚ ĮȞȐȖȦȖȠ Ȓ ĮʌȜȩ įȘȜĮįȒ IJȘȢ ȝȠȡijȒȢ 1 , ȝİ
 1


(
1 , 1 ) = 1. ȉȩIJİȜȑȝİȩIJȚIJȠțȜȐıȝĮ  ,
, 

*+ , ĮʌȜȠʌȠȚİȓIJĮȚ
ȆȡȐȖȝĮIJȚ ĮȞ (
,  ) = 1, İȓȞĮȚ ȒįȘ ȖȡĮȝȝȑȞȠ ıİ ȝȠȡijȒ ĮȞȐȖȦȖȠȣ țȜȐıȝĮIJȠȢǹȞ
(
,  ) = 
1, IJȩIJİȑȤȠȣȝİ
=
1,  = 1, ȝİ (
,  ) = 1, ȠʌȩIJİ



= 1 
1 = 
1 
1

1 = 0   (
1

1 ) = 0 
 1




1

1 = 0 
1 = 
1  = 1 . 
 1

40
 ǹȆȅȉǾȃǹȇǿĬȂǾȉǿȀǾȈȉǾȃǹȁīǼǺȇǹ

1.11 ȅǿȆȇǹīȂǹȉǿȀȅǿǹȇǿĬȂȅǿ
ǵʌȦȢȟȑȡȠȣȝİʌİȡȚȠįȚțȩȢĮȡȚșȝȩȢİȓȞĮȚȑȞĮȢįİțĮįȚțȩȢȝİȐʌİȚȡĮįİțĮįȚțȐȥȘijȓĮ
IJĮȠʌȠȓĮĮʌȩȝȓĮșȑıȘțĮȚȝİIJȐİʌĮȞĮȜĮȝȕȐȞȠȞIJĮȚ©İʌ¶ȐʌİȚȡȠȞªȅĮȡȚșȝȩȢĮȣIJȩȢ
İȓȞĮȚȡȘIJȩȢȀȐșİįİțĮįȚțȩȢʌȠȣįİȞİȓȞĮȚʌİȡȚȠįȚțȩȢİȞȫIJĮȥȘijȓĮIJȠȣİʌİțIJİȓȞȠ-
ȞIJĮȚ©İʌ¶ȐʌİȚȡȠȞªįİȞĮȞIJȚıIJȠȚȤİȓıİțȐʌȠȚȠȞȡȘIJȩțĮȚțĮIJȐıȣȞȑʌİȚĮȠȞȠȝȐȗİIJĮȚ
ȝȘȡȘIJȩȢȒȐȡȡȘIJȠȢ.

1.11.1 ȉİIJȡĮȖȦȞȚțȒȡȓȗĮ
ǾIJİIJȡĮȖȦȞȚțȒȡȓȗĮșİIJȚțȠȪȡȘIJȠȪĮıȣȝȕȠȜȓȗİIJĮȚ
, țĮȚĮȞ©ȕȖĮȓȞİȚªĮțȡȚȕȫȢ
İȓȞĮȚȑȞĮȢșİIJȚțȩȢȡȘIJȩȢȕʌȠȣȣȥȠȪȝİȞȠȢıIJȠIJİIJȡȐȖȦȞȠįȓȞİȚIJȠȞĮȡȚșȝȩĮǻȘ-
ȜĮįȒ
= 
 2 =
,  > 0.

„¾ÏÁÂÆÄʾ 
2
2 25 5
5 25
4 = 2, ĮijȠȪ 2 = 4. ǼʌȓıȘȢ = , ĮijȠȪ   = .
4 2  2  4
ǼįȫșĮʌȡȑʌİȚȞĮİʌȚıȘȝȐȞȠȣȝİȩIJȚ 4 
2, ʌĮȡȩȜȠʌȠȣ (
2 ) = 4, țĮȚĮȣIJȩ
2

İʌİȚįȒ
2 < 0.
ǾIJİIJȡĮȖȦȞȚțȒȡȓȗĮșİIJȚțȠȪĮȡȚșȝȠȪĮȒȘȡȓȗĮIJȠȣșİIJȚțȠȪĮIJȐȟȘȢʌȠȣ©įİ
ȕȖĮȓȞİȚĮțȡȚȕȫȢªİȓȞĮȚȝȘȡȘIJȩȢĮȡȚșȝȩȢȆȤȠȚĮȡȚșȝȠȓ 2 , 3, 26 , 58
țIJȜ įİȞ İȓȞĮȚ ȡȘIJȠȓ ȊʌİȞșȣȝȓȗȠȣȝİ ȩIJȚ Ƞ ĮȡȚșȝȩȢ
= 3,14 … IJȠ ȝȒțȠȢ IJȠȣ
țȪțȜȠȣʌȡȠȢIJȠįȚʌȜȐıȚȠIJȘȢĮțIJȓȞĮȢIJȠȣİȓȞĮȚİʌȓıȘȢȝȘȡȘIJȩȢDzIJıȚȑȤȠȣ-
ȝİ ȑȞĮ ıȪȞȠȜȠ ıIJȠ ȠʌȠȓȠ ĮȞȒțȠȣȞ țĮȚ ĮȡȚșȝȠȓ ʌȠȣ įİȞ İȓȞĮȚ ȡȘIJȠȓǹȞĮijȑ-
ȡȠȣȝİ İʌȓıȘȢ ȩIJȚ ȣʌȐȡȤȠȣȞ țĮȚ ȡȓȗİȢ ȡȘIJȫȞ ȝİȖĮȜȪIJİȡȘȢ IJȐȟȘȢ Įʌȩ  īİȞȚ-
țȐ Ȟ IJȐȟȘȢ ȡȓȗĮȒ ȞȚȠıIJȒȡȓȗĮșİIJȚțȠȪĮȡȚșȝȠȪĮıȣȝȕȠȜȓȗİIJĮȚ   İȓȞĮȚ
șİIJȚțȩȢ ĮȡȚșȝȩȢ ȕ IJȑIJȠȚȠȢ ȫıIJİ   = . Ȃİ ȐȜȜĮ ȜȩȖȚĮ ıIJȠ ıȪȞȠȜȠ IJȦȞ
șİIJȚțȫȞ ĮțİȡĮȓȦȞ ȚıȤȪİȚ   = , ĮȞ țĮȚ ȝȩȞȠ ĮȞ   = . DzIJıȚ ʌĮȓȡȞȠȣȝİ
( )



*+    =  țĮȚ 

*    =  . DzıIJȦ ȜȠȚʌȩȞ ıȪȞȠȜȠ ʌȠȣ IJĮ


ıIJȠȚȤİȓĮIJȠȣİȓȞĮȚȝȘȡȘIJȠȓĮȡȚșȝȠȓȉȠıȪȞȠȜȠĮȣIJȩʌȠȣįİȞİȓȞĮȚțİȞȩĮʌȠ-
įİȚțȞȪİIJĮȚ ȖİȦȝİIJȡȚțȐ ʌȤ Ș ȪʌĮȡȟȘ IJȠȣ ĮȡȚșȝȠȪ 2  ȠȞȠȝȐȗİIJĮȚ ıȪȞȠȜȠ
IJȦȞȐȡȡȘIJȦȞĮȡȚșȝȫȞțĮȚIJĮıIJȠȚȤİȓĮIJȠȣȐȡȡȘIJȠȚĮȡȚșȝȠȓȉȠıȪȞȠȜȠIJȦȞ
ĮȡȡȒIJȦȞįİȞȑȤİȚțȠȚȞȐıIJȠȚȤİȓĮȝİIJȠıȪȞȠȜȠIJȦȞȡȘIJȫȞ (
) , țĮȚİʌȠȝȑȞȦȢ
ȠįİȞİȓȞĮȚȐȡȡȘIJȠȢȅȚʌȡȐȟİȚȢʌȠȣȚıȤȪȠȣȞıIJȠȣȢȡȘIJȠȪȢİʌİțIJİȓȞȠȞIJĮȚțĮȚ
ıIJȠȣȢȐȡȡȘIJȠȣȢĮȡȚșȝȠȪȢǾȑȞȦıȘIJȦȞȡȘIJȫȞȝİIJȠȣȢȐȡȡȘIJȠȣȢįȓȞİȚIJȠıȪ-
ȞȠȜȠIJȦȞʌȡĮȖȝĮIJȚțȫȞĮȡȚșȝȫȞıȣȝȕȠȜȓȗİIJĮȚ^İȞȫIJȠıȪȞȠȜȠIJȦȞĮȡȡȒ-
IJȦȞıȣȝȕȠȜȓȗİIJĮȚ
\ 


.

41
ĬǼȍȇǿǹȀǹǿǹȈȀǾȈǼǿȈ

1.11.2 ĬİȫȡȘȝĮ
ǹʌȠįİȓȟIJİȩIJȚȠĮȡȚșȝȩȢ 2 İȓȞĮȚȐȡȡȘIJȠȢ

ǹʌȩįİȚȟȘ
ȂİIJȘȝȑșȠįȠIJȘȢĮʌĮȖȦȖȒȢıİȐIJȠʌȠ
DzıIJȦ ȩIJȚ Ƞ ĮȡȚșȝȩȢ 2 İȓȞĮȚ ȡȘIJȩȢ ȉȩIJİ șĮ ȖȡȐijİIJĮȚ ȦȢ ĮȞȐȖȦȖȠ țȜȐıȝĮ įȘ-
ȜĮįȒ șĮ ȣʌȐȡȤȠȣȞ įȪȠ șİIJȚțȠȓ ĮțȑȡĮȚȠȚ ȝ Ȟ  ȝİ ( μ,  ) = 1, IJȑIJȠȚȠȚ ȫıIJİ

μ
2 = . ǹʌȩ IJȘ ıȤȑıȘ ĮȣIJȒ ʌȡȠțȪʌIJİȚ μ =
2
μ 2 = 2
2 (1). ǹȞ Ƞ ĮȡȚș-
  
ȝȩȢ ȝ İȓȞĮȚ ʌİȡȚIJIJȩȢ IJȩIJİ șĮ ȣʌȐȡȤİȚ ĮțȑȡĮȚȠȢ ȡ IJȑIJȠȚȠȢ ȫıIJİ μ = 2
+ 1, ȠʌȩIJİ
(1)
( 2
+ 1) = 2
2
4
2 + 4
+ 1 = 2
2
2 | 1, ʌȠȣ İȓȞĮȚ ȐIJȠʌȠ ȀĮIJȐ ıȣȞȑʌİȚĮ
2


ȠȝʌȡȑʌİȚȞĮİȓȞĮȚȗȣȖȩȢįȘȜĮįȒIJȘȢȝȠȡijȒȢ μ = 2
ȖȚĮĮțȑȡĮȚȠIJǹȜȜȐIJȩIJİȘ

įȓȞİȚ 4 2 = 2 2
2 2 =  2 . ǹțȠȜȠȣșȫȞIJĮȢ IJȘȞ ȓįȚĮ įȚĮįȚțĮıȓĮ ĮʌȩįİȚȟȘȢ țĮIJĮȜȒ-
ȖȠȣȝİ ȩIJȚ Ƞ Ȟ İȓȞĮȚ ȗȣȖȩȢǹȜȜȐ ȑȤȠȣȝİ țĮȚ İįȫ ȐIJȠʌȠ ĮijȠȪ įİȞ ȝʌȠȡİȓ įȪȠ ȗȣȖȠȓ
ĮțȑȡĮȚȠȚȞĮİȓȞĮȚʌȡȫIJȠȚȝİIJĮȟȪIJȠȣȢDZȡĮȠĮȡȚșȝȩȢ 2 İȓȞĮȚȐȡȡȘIJȠȢ

ǺĮıȚțȒʌȡȩIJĮıȘ

ȂİIJĮȟȪIJȦȞIJİIJȡĮȖȫȞȦȞįȪȠįȚĮįȠȤȚțȫȞĮțİȡĮȓȦȞįİȞȣʌȐȡȤİȚIJİIJȡȐȖȦȞȠĮțİȡĮȓȠȣ
ǾʌȡȩIJĮıȘĮȣIJȒȤȡȘıȚȝȠʌȠȚİȓIJĮȚȖȚĮİʌȚȜȪıİȚȢʌȡȠȕȜȘȝȐIJȦȞȩʌȦȢIJȠʌĮȡĮțȐIJȦ

ªÐÈÅÐÅ
ȋĮȡĮțIJȘȡȓıIJİIJȘȞʌȡȩIJĮıȘʌȠȣĮțȠȜȠȣșİȓȦȢĮȜȘșȒȒȥİȣįȒ©ȊʌȐȡȤȠȣȞIJȑı-
ıİȡȚȢįȚĮįȠȤȚțȠȓĮțȑȡĮȚȠȚʌȠȣIJȠȖȚȞȩȝİȞȩIJȠȣȢİȓȞĮȚIJȑȜİȚȠIJİIJȡȐȖȦȞȠª

ȁȪıȘ
DzıIJȦIJȑııİȡȚȢįȚĮįȠȤȚțȠȓĮțȑȡĮȚȠȚ

1,
,
+ 1,
+ 2 IJȑIJȠȚȠȚȫıIJİȞĮȣʌȐȡ-
ȤİȚĮțȑȡĮȚȠȢĮȖȚĮIJȠȞȠʌȠȓȠȞĮȚıȤȪİȚ ( 
1)  (  + 1) (  + 2 ) =
2 (1).
ȆĮȡĮIJȘȡȠȪȝİȩIJȚ (1)

2
1( ) (
2
)
+ 2
=
2

4 + 2
3

2
2
=
2

 + 2 + 
2
2 =
  (  + 1)
2 (  + 1) + 1
1 =
2 
4 3 2 2 2 2 2

( )
2 2
+ 
1
1 =
2 , ȠʌȩIJİȝİĮʌȜȑȢʌȡȐȟİȚȢʌĮȓȡȞȠȣȝİ
( + 
2) < ( ) ( )
2 2 2 2 2
+ 
1
1 =
2 <  2 + 
1 , ʌȠȣıȪȝijȦȞĮȝİIJȘȞʌȡȠȘ
ȖȠȪȝİȞȘʌȡȩIJĮıȘİȓȞĮȚȐIJȠʌȠDZȡĮțĮIJĮȜȒȖȠȣȝİȩIJȚȘʌȡȩIJĮıȘİȓȞĮȚȥİȣįȒȢ

1.11.3 ǹțȑȡĮȚȠȝȑȡȠȢʌȡĮȖȝĮIJȚțȠȪĮȡȚșȝȠȪ
ĬİȫȡȘȝĮǹȡȤȚȝȒįȘǼȣįȩȟȠȣ
īȚĮ țȐșİ șİIJȚțȩ ʌȡĮȖȝĮIJȚțȩ ț țĮȚ ȖȚĮ țȐșİ ʌȡĮȖȝĮIJȚțȩ Ȝ ȣʌȐȡȤİȚ ȝȠȞĮįȚțȩȢ Įțȑ-
ȡĮȚȠȢĮIJȑIJȠȚȠȢȫıIJİ
 >  
 (

1)   . 

42
 ǹȆȅȉǾȃǹȇǿĬȂǾȉǿȀǾȈȉǾȃǹȁīǼǺȇǹ

ǺĮıȚțȒʌȡȩIJĮıȘ

īȚĮIJȣȤȩȞIJĮʌȡĮȖȝĮIJȚțȩxȣʌȐȡȤİȚȝȠȞĮįȚțȩȢĮțȑȡĮȚȠȢĮIJȑIJȠȚȠȢȫıIJİ

x <
+ 1.

‡ ȅȡȚıȝȩȢ ȅ ȝȠȞĮįȚțȩȢ ĮȣIJȩȢ ĮțȑȡĮȚȠȢ Į ȠȞȠȝȐȗİIJĮȚ ĮțȑȡĮȚȠ ȝȑȡȠȢ IJȠȣ x țĮȚ

ıȣȝȕȠȜȓȗİIJĮȚ [ x ] . DZȡĮ ȚıȤȪİȚ [ x ]  x < [ x ] + 1  x
1 < [ x ]  x. ȅ ʌȡĮȖȝĮIJȚțȩȢ
x
[ x ] ȠȞȠȝȐȗİIJĮȚțȜĮıȝĮIJȚțȩȝȑȡȠȢIJȠȣx țĮȚıȣȝȕȠȜȓȗİIJĮȚ { x } . ȆĮȡĮIJȘȡȠȪȝİ
ȩIJȚțȐșİʌȡĮȖȝĮIJȚțȩȢĮȡȚșȝȩȢȝʌȠȡİȓȞĮȖȡĮijIJİȓȦȢIJȠȐșȡȠȚıȝĮIJȠȣĮțȑȡĮȚȠȣțĮȚ
IJȠȣțȜĮıȝĮIJȚțȠȪIJȠȣȝȑȡȠȣȢ

ǺĮıȚțȒʌȡȩIJĮıȘ

,  
 [
] + [  ]
[
+  ]
[
] + [  ] + 1.

ÐȹÐÂÆÔ 
ǼʌȚȜȪıIJİıIJȠȣȢʌȡĮȖȝĮIJȚțȠȪȢĮȡȚșȝȠȪȢIJȘȞİȟȓıȦıȘ

3x + 1  x +1
 3  + 2 = 2 (1).
 
ȁȪıȘ

3x + 1 
Ǿ ȠįȘȖİȓıIJȘȞ x = 2
+ 3,


, ȝİ
=  .
 3 
1  1 1 x
2 x
3 3x + 1
DzȤȠȣȝİ x +
1 <  x +   x +  <  .
3  3 3 3 2 3
ǹȞIJȚțĮșȚıIJȫȞIJĮȢIJȠxĮʌȩIJȘȞ x = 2
+ 3,


, ʌĮȓȡȞȠȣȝİ
10 7


<
,


=
3, ȠʌȩIJİȦȢȜȪıȘȑȤȠȣȝİIJȘ x =
3.
3 3

ǹʌȠįİȓȟIJİȩIJȚǹȞ
, 

, IJȩIJİ [
]
[  ]  [

 ]  [
]
[  ] .

ȁȪıȘ
īȚĮIJȠȞʌȡĮȖȝĮIJȚțȩĮȑȤȠȣȝİ [
] = [

 +  ]  [

 ] + [  ] + 1.
DzIJıȚʌĮȓȡȞȠȣȝİ [
]
[  ]
1  [

 ] . ȅȝȠȓȦȢȑȤȠȣȝİ
[
] = [

 +  ]  [

 ] + [  ] , ĮʌȩȩʌȠȣʌȡȠțȪʌIJİȚ [

 ]  [
]
[  ].
1.11.4ǿįȚȩIJȘIJİȢIJȦȞȡȚȗȫȞ
ǹȞĮijȠȡȚțȐȝİIJȚȢȚįȚȩIJȘIJİȢIJȦȞȡȚȗȫȞĮȞĮijȑȡȠȣȝİIJȠİȟȒȢȕĮıȚțȩșİȫȡȘȝĮǹȞȠȚ
ȞȚȠıIJȑȢįȣȞȐȝİȚȢįȪȠșİIJȚțȫȞĮȡȚșȝȫȞİȓȞĮȚȓıİȢIJȩIJİȠȚĮȡȚșȝȠȓĮȣIJȠȓİȓȞĮȚȓıȠȚ

43
ĬǼȍȇǿǹȀǹǿǹȈȀǾȈǼǿȈ


 μ =  μ , LL   =       , LLL     =    , 

L

( ) =

  μ  μ  μ μ
LY  = , Y   , YL  = .
 


1.11.5 ǺĮıȚțȒʌȡȩIJĮıȘ
ȂȓĮʌĮȡȐıIJĮıȘIJȘȢȝȠȡijȒȢ
±  ȝʌȠȡİȓȞĮȝİIJĮıȤȘȝĮIJȚıIJİȓıİȐșȡȠȚıȝĮȒįȚĮ
ijȠȡȐĮʌȜȫȞȡȚȗȚțȫȞĮȞțĮȚȝȩȞȠĮȞȣʌȐȡȤİȚĮȡȚșȝȩȢȖIJȑIJȠȚȠȢȫıIJİ
2
 =  2 .

+


ȉȩIJİʌĮȓȡȞȠȣȝİĮȞIJȓıIJȠȚȤĮ
+  = + , Ȓ
2 2

+




 =
.
2 2

1.11.6 ĬİȫȡȘȝĮ
ǹȞ İȟȓıȦıȘ IJȘȢ ȝȠȡijȒȢ   x  +  
1x 
1 + … +  0 = 0, țĮȚ ȝİ ıȪȞȠȜȠ ĮȞĮijȠȡȐȢ IJȠȣȢ
ʌȡĮȖȝĮIJȚțȠȪȢ ĮȡȚșȝȠȪȢ ȑȤİȚ IJİȜȚțȐ ĮțȑȡĮȚȠȣȢ ıȣȞIJİȜİıIJȑȢ țĮȚ įȑȤİIJĮȚ ȦȢ ȡȓȗĮ
ĮȡȚșȝȩ
+  , ȝİ Į ȕ ȡȘIJȠȪȢ țĮȚ
ȐȡȡȘIJȠ șĮ įȑȤİIJĮȚ İʌȓıȘȢ ȦȢ ȡȓȗĮ țĮȚ IJȠȞ
ĮȡȚșȝȩ

 .
ǾĮʌȩįİȚȟȘIJȠȣșİȦȡȒȝĮIJȠȢĮȣIJȠȪȟİijİȪȖİȚĮʌȩIJȠʌȜĮȓıȚȠIJȠȣȕȚȕȜȓȠȣ

ªÐÈÅÐÅ
ǹʌȠįİȓȟIJİ ȩIJȚ ȣʌȐȡȤİȚ ȝȠȞĮįȚțȒ įİȣIJİȡȠȕȐșȝȚĮ İȟȓıȦıȘ IJȘȢ ȝȠȡijȒȢ
x 2 +
x +  = 0, ʌȠȣįȑȤİIJĮȚȦȢȡȓȗĮIJȠȞĮȡȚșȝȩ 1 + 2 .

ȁȪıȘ
ǹȡțİȓȞĮĮʌȠįİȓȟȠȣȝİȩIJȚȠȚıȣȞIJİȜİıIJȑȢ
,  İȓȞĮȚȝȠȞĮįȚțȠȓǹijȠȪȘİȟȓıȦ-
ıȘȑȤİȚȡȓȗĮIJȠȞĮȡȚșȝȩ 1 + 2 , șĮȑȤİȚİʌȓıȘȢȡȓȗĮțĮȚIJȠȞĮȡȚșȝȩ 1
2 .

( ) ( )
2
DzIJıȚʌĮȓȡȞȠȣȝİ 1 + 2 +
1 + 2 +  = 0 (1) țĮȚ

(1
2 ) ( )
2
+
1
2 +  = 0 (2).
ǹȞĮijĮȚȡȑıȠȣȝİIJȚȢ țĮIJȐȝȑȜȘİȪțȠȜĮʌĮȓȡȞȠȣȝİ
=
2. ǾİȟȓıȦıȘȜȠȚʌȩȞ

( ) ( )
2
ȖȓȞİIJĮȚ x 2
2x +
= 0, ȠʌȩIJİȑȤȠȣȝİ 1 + 2
2 1 + 2 +
= 0 
=
1.
ȉİȜȚțȐȘİȟȓıȦıȘİȓȞĮȚȘ x 2
2x
1 = 0, İȓȞĮȚȝȠȞĮįȚțȒțĮȚȑȤİȚȦȢȜȪıİȚȢIJȚȢ
x1 = 1 + 2 țĮȚ x 2 = 1
2 .
ȆĮȡĮIJȒȡȘıȘȉȠʌȡȩȕȜȘȝĮĮȣIJȩİʌȚȜȪİIJĮȚțĮȚĮȜȜȚȫȢʌȤȝİȕȐıȘIJȠȣȢ
IJȪʌȠȣȢIJȠȣ9LHWWDʌȠȣșĮįȠȪȝİıİȐȜȜȠțİijȐȜĮȚȠ

44
 ǹȆȅȉǾȃǹȇǿĬȂǾȉǿȀǾȈȉǾȃǹȁīǼǺȇǹ

‡ īȚĮIJȘȝİIJĮIJȡȠʌȒįȪȞĮȝȘȢȝİțȜĮıȝĮIJȚțȩİțșȑIJȘıİȡȓȗĮțĮȚĮȞIJȓıIJȡȠijĮȑȤȠȣȝİ
μ
IJȠȞİȟȒȢȠȡȚıȝȩ μ, 
 *+ , 

*+    =  μ .


1.11.7 ǺĮıȚțȑȢİʌȚıȘȝȐȞıİȚȢ
 DzȞĮȢȐȡȡȘIJȠȢĮȡȚșȝȩȢįİȞȚıȠȪIJĮȚȝİȑȞĮȞȡȘIJȩ
 ȀȐșİʌȡȐȟȘȝİIJĮȟȪȡȘIJȫȞĮȡȚșȝȫȞįȓȞİȚȦȢĮʌȠIJȑȜİıȝĮȡȘIJȩĮȡȚșȝȩİȞȫțȐșİ
ʌȡȐȟȘȝİIJĮȟȪįȪȠĮȡȚșȝȫȞʌȠȣȠȑȞĮȢİȓȞĮȚȡȘIJȩȢțĮȚȠȐȜȜȠȢȐȡȡȘIJȠȢįȓȞİȚȦȢ
ĮʌȠIJȑȜİıȝĮȐȡȡȘIJȠĮȡȚșȝȩ
L ȆȡȐȟȘȝİIJĮȟȪįȪȠȐȡȡȘIJȦȞĮȡȚșȝȫȞȝʌȠȡİȓȞĮįȓȞİȚȦȢĮʌȠIJȑȜİıȝĮȐȡȡȘIJȠ
( )
ĮȡȚșȝȩ Ȓ ȡȘIJȩ ĮȡȚșȝȩ ʌȤ 5 + 2
5 = 2, Ȓ 2 8 = 16 = 4, ʌȠȣ İȓȞĮȚ
ȡȘIJȠȓ ĮȡȚșȝȠȓ īİȞȚțȐ ȖȚĮ ȡȘIJȩ ĮȡȚșȝȩ Į țĮȚ șİIJȚțȩ ȡȘIJȩ ȕ ʌȠȣ įİȞ İȓȞĮȚ

( ) ( )
IJȑȜİȚȠIJİIJȡȐȖȦȞȠȡȘIJȠȪȑȤȠȣȝİ
+  +

 = 2
, ʌȠȣİȓȞĮȚȡȘIJȩȢ

( )(  )= (
)
(  )
2 2
īİȞȚțȐȑȤȠȣȝİİʌȓıȘȢ


+ =

. 
LL ȀȐșİȚıȩIJȘIJĮ
+  =  +  , ȩʌȠȣ ,
șİIJȚțȠȓȡȘIJȠȓțĮȚȩȤȚIJȑȜİȚĮIJİIJȡȐ-
ȖȦȞĮȡȘIJȫȞȚıȤȪİȚĮȞțĮȚȝȩȞȠĮȞ
=  țĮȚ  =
. 
LLL ȉ ȠıȪȞȠȜȠIJȦȞʌȡĮȖȝĮIJȚțȫȞĮȡȚșȝȫȞ
șĮĮʌȠIJİȜİȓʌȜȑȠȞIJȠİȣȡȪIJİȡȠıȪ-
ȞȠȜȠĮȞĮijȠȡȐȢȖȚĮȝİIJĮȕȜȘIJȑȢțĮȚıȪȝȕȠȜĮİțIJȩȢĮȞIJȠșȑȝĮʌȠȣȝİȜİIJȐȝİ
ȝĮȢ ©ȣʌȠȤȡİȫȞİȚª Įʌȩ IJȘȞ ĮȡȤȒ ȞĮ ȑȤȠȣȝİ ȑȞĮ ıȣȖțİțȡȚȝȑȞȠ ıȪȞȠȜȠ ĮȞĮ-
ijȠȡȐȢĬİȦȡȠȪȝİȖȞȦıIJȑȢIJȩıȠIJȘıȤȑıȘȚıȩIJȘIJĮȢȝİIJĮȟȪįȪȠʌȡĮȖȝĮIJȚțȫȞ
ĮȡȚșȝȫȞȩıȠțĮȚIJȚȢʌȡȐȟİȚȢȝİIJĮȟȪIJȠȣȢĮȜȜȐțĮȚIJȚȢȚįȚȩIJȘIJİȢʌȠȣȑȤȠȣȝİ
ȝȐșİȚȅȚIJĮȣIJȩIJȘIJİȢʌȠȣĮȞĮijȑȡĮȝİȒįȘıIJĮʌȡȠȘȖȠȪȝİȞĮıȪȞȠȜĮ (
,  )
ȚıȤȪȠȣȞțĮȚİįȫ
ȈȣȝʌȜȘȡȫȞȠȣȝİțĮȚȝİIJȚȢİȟȒȢIJĮȣIJȩIJȘIJİȢ
L (
+  +  ) =
2 +  2 +  2 + 2
 + 2 + 2

2

LL (
+  +  ) =
+  +  + 3(
+  ) (  +  ) (  +
) 
3 3 3 3

LLL 'H0RLYUH (
+  +  ) (
+ 
 ) (

 +  ) (

+  +  ) =
= 2
2  2 + 2 2  2 + 2 2
2

4
 4
 4 
LY ( x +
1 ) ( x +
2 ) = x + (
1 +
2 ) x +
1
2 , İʌȓıȘȢȑȤȠȣȝİ
2

 ( x +
1 ) ( x +
2 ) ( x +
3 ) =  
= x 3 + (
1 +
2 +
3 ) x 2 + (
1
2 +
2
3 +
3
1 ) x +
1
2
3 țIJȜ

 ( 
1) 
2 2
Y  
*  (  +  ) =   +  
1  +

  +
2
 ( 
1) ( 
2 ) 
3 3  ( 
1) ( 
2 ) ( 
3 ) 
4 4
+   +   +
 23 2  3 4
 ( 
1) … ( 
 + 1) 
 
+…+   +…+  
 2  3… 

45
ĬǼȍȇǿǹȀǹǿǹȈȀǾȈǼǿȈ

(
YL  
  = ( 
 )  
1 +  
2  +  
3  2 + … +  
1 , ȠʌȩIJİʌĮȓȡȞȠȣȝİ )

(

1 = ( 
1)  +  +  + ... + 1
 
1 
2 
3
)
(
YLL
2 
 2  = (
+  )
2 
1

2 
2  2 +
2 
3  3
…
 2 
1  )
YLLL
2 
1
+ 2 
1
= (
+  )
( 2 
2


2 
3
 +…+  2 
2
)
ȆĮȡĮIJȒȡȘıȘȅIJȪʌȠȢYȖȡȐijİIJĮȚ
  ( 
1) 
2 2  ( 
1) ( 
2 ) 
3 3
 
*  (  +  ) =   +  
1  +

  +   +
1! 2! 3!
 ( 
1) ( 
2 ) ( 
3 ) 
4 4  ( 
1) … ( 
 + 1) 
 
+   +…+   + …+  .
4! !
ǹȢİʌȚıȘȝȐȞȠȣȝİİįȫțĮȚIJȘȞİȟȒȢȕĮıȚțȒİȚįȚțȒʌİȡȓʌIJȦıȘ
 ( 
1)
(  + 1)  =   +  
1 + 2!  
2 + … + 1. 

 ȅȇǿǽȅȊȈǹȘȢȉǹȄǾȈ
ȅȡȓȗȠȣıĮȘȢIJȐȟȘȢİȓȞĮȚțȐșİĮȜȖİȕȡȚțȒʌĮȡȐıIJĮıȘIJȘȢȝȠȡijȒȢ

. ȈȣȝȕȠȜȓ-



ȗİIJĮȚȦȢ , įȘȜĮįȒȚıȤȪİȚȠIJȪʌȠȢ =

.
   
L  /DJUDQJH
ǹijȠȡȐ IJĮ ȗİȪȖȘ IJȦȞ ȞȐįȦȞ ( 1 ,  2 , … ,   ) țĮȚ ( 1 ,  2 , … ,   ) , ʌȠȣ IJȚȢ IJȠʌȠ-

 2 …  
șİIJȠȪȝİȝİIJȡȩʌȠ  1  IJȑIJȠȚȠȞȫıIJİȞĮıȤȘȝĮIJȓȗİIJĮȚȑȞĮȐșȡȠȚ-
 1 2 …  
ıȝĮȠȡȚȗȠȣıȫȞ 2
2 ıİȩȜȠȣȢIJȠȣȢıȣȞįȣĮıȝȠȪȢ ȣȥȦȝȑȞȦȞ ıIJȠ IJİIJȡȐȖȦȞȠIJȠ
ȠʌȠȓȠ șĮ ĮʌȠIJİȜȑıİȚ IJȠ įİȪIJİȡȠ ȝȑȜȠȢ IJȘȢ IJĮȣIJȩIJȘIJĮȢ /DJUDQJH Ǿ IJĮȣIJȩIJȘIJĮ
IJȠȣ/DJUDQJHıIJȘȖİȞȚțȒIJȘȢȝȠȡijȒİȓȞĮȚ
 ( )( )
12 +  22 + … +  2 12 +  22 + … +  2
( 1 1 +  2  2 + … +     ) =
2

2 2 2 2

1
2
1
3
1

2
3
= + +…+ + +
 1 2 1 3 1  2 3
2 2

2


1

+…+ + ... + .
2   
1 
ii) ǹȞ
, ,  ʌȡĮȖȝĮIJȚțȠȓĮȡȚșȝȠȓȝİ
+  +  = 0, Ȓ
(  + 

) (  +

 ) (
+ 
 ) = 0, IJȩIJİȚıȤȪİȚȘȚıȩIJȘIJĮ
(

4 +  4 +  4 = 2
2  2 +  2  2 +  2
2 , țĮȚĮȞIJȓıIJȡȠijĮ )

 ǹȆȅȉǾȃǹȇǿĬȂǾȉǿȀǾȈȉǾȃǹȁīǼǺȇǹ

iii) ǹȞ x, y

țĮȚ x + y = 1, IJȩIJİ 2 ( x + y + xy ) = x 4 + y 4 + 1.

2

2
  2

  2


iv) ǹȞ
, , , x, y, z

* țĮȚ = =  0, IJȩIJİ
x y z
x 2
yz y 2
zx z 2
xy
 = = .

 
Y īȚĮȜȩȖȠȣȢʌȜȘȡȩIJȘIJĮȢʌĮȡĮșȑIJȠȣȝİțĮȚIJȠȣȢİȟȒȢIJȪʌȠȣȢ
 (  + 1)
 1 + 2 + 3 + … +  = , 

ȖȚĮIJȘȞĮʌȩįİȚȟȒIJȠȣȤȡȘıȚȝȠʌȠȚȠȪȝİIJȘȞ
2
IJĮȣIJȩIJȘIJĮ ( x + 1) = x 2 + 2x + 1
2

 (  + 1) ( 2 + 1)
 1 2 + 2 2 + 3 2 + … +  2 = , 

ȖȚĮ IJȘȞ ĮʌȩįİȚȟȒ IJȠȣ ȤȡȘıȚ-
6
ȝȠʌȠȚȠȪȝİIJȘȞIJĮȣIJȩIJȘIJĮ ( x + 1) = x 3 + 3x 2 + 3x + 1
3

  (  + 1)   2 (  + 1)
2 2

 1 3 + 2 3 + 33 + … +  3 =   = , 

ȖȚĮ IJȘȞ ĮʌȩįİȚȟȒ IJȠȣ

 2  4
ȤȡȘıȚȝȠʌȠȚȠȪȝİIJȘȞIJĮȣIJȩIJȘIJĮ ( x + 1) = x 4 + 4x 3 + 6x 2 + 4x + 1
4

 ǻǿǹĭȅȇǼȈīȃȍȈȉǼȈǹȃǿȈȅȉǾȉǼȈ
L ǹȞȖȚĮIJȠȣȢșİIJȚțȠȪȢ 1 ,  2 , … ,   ȚıȤȪİȚ
1

2
…

 = 1, IJȩIJİșĮȚıȤȪİȚ
 1 +  2 + … +  
.
 DZıțȘıȘǹʌȠįİȓȟIJİIJȘȞLȖȚĮ  = 2 țĮȚ
= 3).
LL ǹȞ 1 ,  2 , … ,   șİIJȚțȠȓĮȡȚșȝȠȓIJȩIJİ

1 +
2 + … +
  


1 
2 …

.
 1 1 1
+ +…+

1
2

 īȚĮ IJȠȣȢ șİIJȚțȠȪȢ 1 ,  2 , … ,   , Ƞ ĮȡȚșȝȘIJȚțȩȢ IJȠȣȢ ȝȑıȠȢ İȓȞĮȚ ȝİȖĮȜȪIJİȡȠȢ
ĮʌȩIJȠȞȖİȦȝİIJȡȚțȩIJȠȣȢȝȑıȠțĮȚȝİȖĮȜȪIJİȡȠȢĮʌȩIJȠȞĮȡȝȠȞȚțȩIJȠȣȢȝȑıȠ
 DZıțȘıȘǹʌȠįİȓȟIJİIJȘȞLLȖȚĮ
= 2).
LLL ǹȞ
1 <
,
 0 țĮȚ 0 < μ < 1, IJȩIJİ ( 1 +
) < 1 + μ
. 
μ

LY %XQLDNRZVNL&DXFK\6FKZDU]ȒıȣȞIJȠȝȠȖȡĮijȚțȐB-C-S
 ǹȞ 1 ,  2 , … ,   , 1 ,  2 , … ,  

, IJȩIJİ
 ( 2
1 )( )
+  22 + … +  2 12 +  22 + … +  2
( 1 1 +  2  2 + … +     ) .
2

 ǾȚıȩIJȘIJĮȚıȤȪİȚȩIJĮȞȣʌȐȡȤİȚ


IJȑIJȠȚȠȢȫıIJİ
i =  i , i = 1, 2, … , , ȒĮȞ

  
 i
0, i = 1, 2, … , , IJȩIJİ 1 = 2 = … =  .
1 2 
 ȈȘȝİȓȦıȘ ȂʌȠȡȠȪȝİ ȞĮ ĮʌȠįİȓȟȠȣȝİ IJȘȞ ĮȞȚıȩIJȘIJĮ ĮȣIJȒ ȤȡȘıȚȝȠʌȠȚȫȞIJĮȢ
IJȘȞIJĮȣIJȩIJȘIJĮIJȠȣ/DJUDQJH)

47
ĬǼȍȇǿǹȀǹǿǹȈȀǾȈǼǿȈ

Y +ROGHUDzıIJȦIJĮıȪȞȠȜĮȝȘĮȞȐȜȠȖȦȞșİIJȚțȫȞĮȡȚșȝȫȞ

 { 1 ,  2 , … ,   } țĮȚ { 1 ,  2 , … ,   } . ĬİȦȡȠȪȝİ įȪȠ șİIJȚțȠȪȢ Į ȕ IJȑIJȠȚȠȣȢ
ȫıIJİ
+  = 1. ȉȩIJİȚıȤȪİȚȩIJȚ
 ( 1 +  2 + … +   )  ( 1 +  2 + … +   ) 
1 1 +  2  2 + … +     .
YL &KHE\FKHYǹȞ 1
 2
…
  , 1
 2
…
  , IJȩIJİ
 ( 1 1 +  2  2 + … +     )
( 1 +  2 + … +   ) ( 1 +  2 + … +   ) . 

YLL 6KXUǹȞ  > 0,
, , 
0, IJȩIJİ
   (

 ) (

 ) +   ( 

) ( 
 ) +   ( 

) ( 
 )  0.


ǾȚıȩIJȘIJĮȚıȤȪİȚȩIJĮȞȠȚIJȡİȚȢĮȡȚșȝȠȓİȓȞĮȚȓıȠȚȒȩIJĮȞįȪȠĮʌȩĮȣIJȠȪȢİȓ-
 
ȞĮȚȓıȠȚțĮȚȠIJȡȓIJȠȢȝȘįȑȞǹȞ  = 0,
, , 
0, IJȩIJİ
3 +  3 +  3 + 3
 =
=
 (
+  ) +  (  +  ) + 
(  +
) . ȉȑȜȠȢĮȞțȐȡIJȚȠȢșİIJȚțȩȢĮțȑȡĮȚȠȢIJȩIJİȘ

   (

 ) (

 ) +   ( 

) ( 
 ) +   ( 

) ( 
 )  0 ȚıȤȪİȚ ȖȚĮ țȐșİ



IJȡȚȐįĮʌȡĮȖȝĮIJȚțȫȞ
, , . 
viii) ǹȞIJȠȐșȡȠȚıȝĮȞșİIJȚțȫȞĮȡȚșȝȫȞİȓȞĮȚıIJĮșİȡȩȑıIJȦțIJȩIJİIJȠȖȚȞȩȝİȞȩIJȠȣȢ

ȖȓȞİIJĮȚȝȑȖȚıIJȠȩIJĮȞĮȣIJȠȓİȓȞĮȚȓıȠȚȉȩIJİȠțĮșȑȞĮȢĮʌȩĮȣIJȠȪȢİȓȞĮȚ , İȞȫ




IJȠȝȑȖȚıIJȠȖȚȞȩȝİȞȠȚıȠȪIJĮȚȝİ   .
 
L[ ǹȞIJȠȖȚȞȩȝİȞȠȞșİIJȚțȫȞĮȡȚșȝȫȞİȓȞĮȚıIJĮșİȡȩȑıIJȦțIJȩIJİIJȠȐșȡȠȚıȝȐIJȠȣȢ
ȖȓȞİIJĮȚİȜȐȤȚıIJȠȩIJĮȞĮȣIJȠȓİȓȞĮȚȓıȠȚȉȩIJİȠțĮșȑȞĮȢĮʌȩĮȣIJȠȪȢİȓȞĮȚ   ,
İȞȫIJȠİȜȐȤȚıIJȠȐșȡȠȚıȝĮȚıȠȪIJĮȚȝİ    . 

1.14 ǾǼȃȃȅǿǹȉǾȈǹȀȅȁȅȊĬǿǹȈ
ȂİȡȚțȑȢ ijȠȡȑȢ ȝȐȢ įȓȞİIJĮȚ ȑȞĮȢ IJȡȩʌȠȢ ȝȘȤĮȞȚıȝȩȢ ʌĮȡĮȖȦȖȒȢ ıİȚȡȐȢ ĮȡȚșȝȫȞ
ȆȤȠȝĮșȘȝĮIJȚțȩȢȝȘȤĮȞȚıȝȩȢ 2  , ȩʌȠȣȠȞʌĮȓȡȞİȚIJȚȝȑȢ«ʌĮȡȐȖİȚʌȠȜȜȠȪȢ
ĮȡȚșȝȠȪȢIJȠıȪȞȠȜȠIJȦȞȠʌȠȓȦȞĮʌȠIJİȜİȓȝȓĮĮțȠȜȠȣșȓĮĮȡȚșȝȫȞǻȘȜĮįȒȠ 2  ȖȚĮ
 = 0 ʌĮȡȐȖİȚIJȠȞȩȡȠ 2 0 = 1, ȖȚĮ  = 1 ʌĮȡȐȖİȚIJȠȞȩȡȠ 2 1 = 1, ȖȚĮ  = 2 ʌĮȡȐȖİȚIJȠȞ
ȩȡȠ 2 2 = 4, … ǹȞȖİȞȚțȐıȣȝȕȠȜȓıȠȣȝİIJȠȞȝȘȤĮȞȚıȝȩĮȣIJȩȦȢ   = 2  , IJȩIJİȘįȚĮįȚțĮ-
ıȓĮʌȠȣĮȞĮijȑȡĮȝİʌĮȡȐȖİȚIJȠȣȢȩȡȠȣȢ
 0 = 1, 1 = 2,  2 = 2 2 = 4,  3 = 2 3 = 8, … ,   = 2  , …
ȅȩȡȠȢ   = 2  ȠȞȠȝȐȗİIJĮȚȖİȞȚțȩȢȩȡȠȢIJȘȢĮțȠȜȠȣșȓĮȢ
ȆĮȡĮIJȒȡȘıȘȈİʌȠȜȜȑȢʌİȡȚʌIJȫıİȚȢȠȚĮțȠȜȠȣșȓİȢįİȝĮȢįȓȞȠȞIJĮȚȐȝİıĮȩʌȦȢ
ʌȡȠȘȖȠȣȝȑȞȦȢĮȜȜȐȝȑıĮĮʌȩȑȞĮȞȩȡȠIJȘȢĮțȠȜȠȣșȓĮȢȝİȕȐıȘțȐʌȠȚȠȞȐȜȜȠ
ȩȡȠIJȘȢıȣȞȒșȦȢįȚĮįȠȤȚțȩȈIJȘȞʌİȡȓʌIJȦıȘĮȣIJȒȖȚĮȞĮįȫıȠȣȝİȝȠȡijȒıIJȘȞ
ĮțȠȜȠȣșȓĮ ȤȡİȚĮȗȩȝĮıIJİ ȑȞĮȞ ȩȡȠ ȖȚĮ ȞĮ ȟİțȚȞȒıȠȣȝİ ȉȩIJİ Ȝȑȝİ ȩIJȚ ȑȤȠȣȝİ
ĮȞĮįȡȠȝȚțȩIJȪʌȠȠȡȚıȝȠȪIJȘȢĮțȠȜȠȣșȓĮȢȒĮʌȜȐȩIJȚȑȤȠȣȝİĮȞĮįȡȠȝȚțȒĮțȠ-
ȜȠȣșȓĮȆȤȘĮțȠȜȠȣșȓĮ   ȝİ
1 = 1 țĮȚ  +1 = 1 +   , ȖȚĮțȐșİijȣıȚțȩĮȡȚșȝȩ
ȞʌĮȡȐȖİȚIJȠȣȢȩȡȠȣȢ
1 = 1,
2 = 1 + 1 = 2 ,
3 = 1 + 2 , …


 ǹȆȅȉǾȃǹȇǿĬȂǾȉǿȀǾȈȉǾȃǹȁīǼǺȇǹ

L ǹȪȟȠȣıĮİȓȞĮȚȝȚĮĮțȠȜȠȣșȓĮȝİȩȡȠȣȢʌȠȣĮȣȟȐȞȠȣȞȝİȖĮȜȫȞȠȣȞȩIJĮȞȠȚĮȞIJȓ-

ıIJȠȚȤȠȚįİȓțIJİȢIJȦȞȩȡȦȞĮȣIJȫȞȠȚijȣıȚțȠȓĮȡȚșȝȠȓțȐIJȦțĮȚįİȟȚȐIJȠȣȩȡȠȣȝİ-
ȖĮȜȫȞȠȣȞȆȤȘĮțȠȜȠȣșȓĮ  = 2  İȓȞĮȚĮȪȟȠȣıĮĮijȠȪ
1 = 2,
2 = 4,
3 = 8, …
1 < 2 < 3 < … 
 
ȈȤȘȝĮIJȚțȐȑȤȠȣȝİ 


.

<
<
< …
 1 2 3 
LL ĭ
 șȓȞȠȣıĮİȓȞĮȚȝȚĮĮțȠȜȠȣșȓĮȝİȩȡȠȣȢʌȠȣȝȚțȡĮȓȞȠȣȞȩIJĮȞȠȚĮȞIJȓıIJȠȚȤȠȚįİȓ-
1
țIJİȢIJȦȞȩȡȦȞĮȣIJȫȞȝİȖĮȜȫȞȠȣȞȆȤȘĮțȠȜȠȣșȓĮ   = İȓȞĮȚijșȓȞȠȣıĮĮijȠȪ

1 1 1

1 = 1,
2 = ,
3 = ,
4 = , …
2 3 4

1.15 ǾǼȃȃȅǿǹȉǾȈǻǿȅĭǹȃȉǿȀǾȈǼȄǿȈȍȈǾȈ
‡ ǹȞıİȝȚĮİȟȓıȦıȘȠȚıȣȞIJİȜİıIJȑȢİȓȞĮȚĮțȑȡĮȚȠȚțĮȚIJȠıȪȞȠȜȠĮȞĮijȠȡȐȢIJȘȢİȓȞĮȚ
IJȠ_įȘȜĮįȒȗȘIJȐȝİĮțȑȡĮȚİȢȜȪıİȚȢIJȩIJİȜȑȝİȩIJȚȑȤȠȣȝİȝȚĮįȚȠijĮȞIJȚțȒİȟȓıȦıȘ
‡ DzıIJȦĮȕȖĮțȑȡĮȚȠȚțĮȚȘįȚȠijĮȞIJȚțȒİȟȓıȦıȘ
x + y = . ȀȐșİȗİȪȖȠȢĮțİ
ȡĮȓȦȞ (
, y ) ʌȠȣIJȘȞİʌĮȜȘșİȪİȚİȓȞĮȚȜȪıȘIJȘȢ
ǿıȤȪȠȣȞIJĮİȟȒȢ
 ǾİȟȓıȦıȘȑȤİȚȜȪıȘĮȞȠȂȀǻIJȦȞĮțĮȚȕİȓȞĮȚįȚĮȚȡȑIJȘȢțĮȚIJȠȣȖ
 ǹȞȣʌȐȡȤİȚțȠȚȞȩȢįȚĮȚȡȑIJȘȢIJȦȞĮȕ ʌȠȣįİįȚĮȚȡİȓIJȠȞȖȘİȟȓıȦıȘĮȣIJȒįİȞ
ȑȤİȚȜȪıȘİȞȫĮȞIJȠȞįȚĮȚȡİȓIJȩIJİȑȤİȚIJȠȣȜȐȤȚıIJȠȞȝȓĮȜȪıȘ
 ǹȞȘįȚȠijĮȞIJȚțȒİȟȓıȦıȘ
x + y =  ȑȤİȚȝȓĮȜȪıȘ ( x 0 , y 0 ) , IJȩIJİșĮȑȤİȚȐʌİȚ-


ȡİȢȜȪıİȚȢʌȠȣʌĮȡȐȖȠȞIJĮȚĮʌȩIJȠȣȢIJȪʌȠȣȢ x = x 0 + , y = y 0
,
(
,  ) (
,  )
ȩʌȠȣ (
,  ) ȠȂȀǻIJȦȞĮȕİȞȫIJIJȣȤȫȞĮțȑȡĮȚȠȢ
 Ǿ İȟȓıȦıȘ
x + y = , ȝİ
, , 

țĮȚ (
,  ) = 1, ȑȤİȚȝȚĮĮțȑȡĮȚȘȜȪıȘ
( x 0 , y 0 ) ȖȚĮIJȣȤȩȞIJĮ y 0
, ȝİ  = { 0, 1, 2, … , 
1} .
ªÐÈÅÐÅ
ȃĮȕȡİșȠȪȞȩȜİȢȠȚ ĮțȑȡĮȚİȢȜȪıİȚȢIJȘȢİȟȓıȦıȘȢ 12x + 15y = 6 (1).

ȁȪıȘ
ȆĮȡĮIJȘȡȠȪȝİ ȩIJȚ ( 12, 15 ) = 3 
 3 | 6. DZȡĮ Ș İȟȓıȦıȘ ȑȤİȚ ȜȪıȘǻȚĮȚȡȠȪȝİ
ȩȜȠȣȢIJȠȣȢȩȡȠȣȢȝİIJȠ ( 12, 15 ) = 3 țĮȚʌĮȓȡȞȠȣȝİIJȘȞİȟȓıȦıȘ 4x + 5y = 2, Ș
ȠʌȠȓĮİȓȞĮȚȚıȠįȪȞĮȝȘȝİIJȘȞĮȡȤȚțȒțĮȚȖȚĮIJȘȞȠʌȠȓĮȚıȤȪİȚ ( 4, 5 ) = 1. Ǻȡȓ-
ıțȠȣȝİȝȓĮȜȪıȘ ( x 0 , y 0 ) IJȘȢ 4x + 5y = 2, ĮȞIJȚțĮșȚıIJȫȞIJĮȢIJȠȞyȝİȑȞĮȞĮʌȩ
2
5y
IJȠȣȢĮȡȚșȝȠȪȢDzIJıȚȖȡȐijȠȣȝİIJȘȞİȟȓıȦıȘıIJȘȝȠȡijȒ x =
4

49
ĬǼȍȇǿǹȀǹǿǹȈȀǾȈǼǿȈ

țĮȚʌĮȡĮIJȘȡȠȪȝİȩIJȚȖȚĮ y = 2 İȓȞĮȚ x =
2. DZȡĮȝȚĮȜȪıȘIJȘȢİȟȓıȦıȘȢİȓȞĮȚȘ

( x 0 , y 0 ) = (
2, 2 ) , țĮȚȩȜİȢȠȚĮțȑȡĮȚİȢȜȪıİȚȢIJȘȢįȓȞȠȞIJĮȚĮʌȩIJȚȢıȤȑıİȚȢ
x =
2 + 5
, y = 2
4
, ȝİ


.

1.15.1 ǹțȑȡĮȚİȢțĮȚșİIJȚțȑȢȜȪıİȚȢIJȘȢİȟȓıȦıȘȢ
x + y = 
ȆȠȜȜȑȢijȠȡȑȢʌĮȡȠȣıȚȐȗİIJĮȚȘĮȞȐȖțȘȞĮʌȡȠıįȚȠȡȓıȠȣȝİIJȚȢĮțȑȡĮȚİȢțĮȚșİIJȚțȑȢ
ȜȪıİȚȢ IJȘȢ İȟȓıȦıȘȢ
x + y = , ȝİ
, , 

țĮȚ (
,  ) = 1. ȈȪȝijȦȞĮ ȝİ IJĮ ʌĮ-
ȡĮʌȐȞȦ ĮȞ ( x 0 , y 0 ) İȓȞĮȚ ĮțȑȡĮȚȘ ȜȪıȘ IJȘȢ İȟȓıȦıȘȢ
x + y = , IJȩIJİ ȠȚ ıȤȑıİȚȢ
x = x 0 + , y = y 0

,  
įȓȞȠȣȞȩȜİȢIJȚȢĮțȑȡĮȚİȢȜȪıİȚȢ
īȚĮ ȞĮ ȕȡȠȪȝİ ȜȠȚʌȩȞ IJȚȢ ĮțȑȡĮȚİȢ țĮȚ șİIJȚțȑȢ ȜȪıİȚȢ IJȘȢ İȟȓıȦıȘȢ
x + y = ,
ȝİ
, , 

țĮȚ (
,  ) = 1, ʌȡȑʌİȚ ȞĮ ʌȡȠıįȚȠȡȓıȠȣȝİ İʌȚʌȜȑȠȞ IJȚȢ IJȚȝȑȢ IJȠȣ Įțİ-
ȡĮȓȠȣ IJ ȖȚĮ IJȚȢ ȠʌȠȓİȢ ȚıȤȪȠȣȞ ıȣȖȤȡȩȞȦȢ ȠȚ ıȤȑıİȚȢ x 0 +   0 
 y 0

  0 Ȓ
 
x 0 
 y 0 
.
ǿıȤȪȠȣȞ
ǹȞ Į țĮȚ ȕ ȠȝȩıȘȝȠȚ ĮȡȚșȝȠȓ IJȩIJİ ȠȚ ĮțȑȡĮȚİȢ țĮȚ șİIJȚțȑȢ ȜȪıİȚȢ IJȘȢ İȟȓıȦıȘȢ

x + y = , ȝİ
, , 

țĮȚ (
,  ) = 1, İȓȞĮȚ ıȣȖțİțȡȚȝȑȞİȢ țĮȚ įȓȞȠȞIJĮȚ Įʌȩ IJȚȢ
x y
ıȤȑıİȚȢ x = x 0 + , y = y 0

 

0    0 ,  
.


ǹȞĮțĮȚȕİIJİȡȩıȘȝȠȚĮȡȚșȝȠȓIJȩIJİȠȚĮțȑȡĮȚİȢțĮȚșİIJȚțȑȢȜȪıİȚȢIJȘȢİȟȓıȦıȘȢ

x + y = , ȝİ
, , 

țĮȚ (
,  ) = 1, İȓȞĮȚ ȐʌİȚȡİȢ țĮȚ įȓȞȠȞIJĮȚ Įʌȩ IJȚȢ ıȤȑıİȚȢ
 x y 
x = x 0 + , y = y 0

 țĮȚ   min 
0 , 0  ,  
. dz ȖȚĮ ȞĮ IJȠ ʌȠȪȝİ ȝİ Ȝȩ-
 

ȖȚĮ Ƞ ĮțȑȡĮȚȠȢ IJ ȝʌȠȡİȓ ȞĮ ʌȐȡİȚ IJȚȝȑȢ ȝȚțȡȩIJİȡİȢ Įʌȩ IJȠȞ ȝȚțȡȩIJİȡȠ ȝİIJĮȟȪ IJȦȞ
x y
ĮȡȚșȝȫȞ
0 țĮȚ 0 , ȒIJȚȝȒȓıȘȝİIJȠȞȝȚțȡȩIJİȡȠĮʌȩIJȠȣȢĮȡȚșȝȠȪȢĮȣIJȠȪȢ

ÐȹÐÂÆÔ
1. ȂİʌȩıȠȣȢIJȡȩʌȠȣȢȝʌȠȡİȓȞĮıȣȝʌȜȘȡȦșİȓIJȠʌȠıȩIJȦȞ¼ȝİțȑȡȝĮIJĮ
IJȦȞ¼țĮȚȤĮȡIJȠȞȠȝȓıȝĮIJĮIJȦȞ¼;

ȁȪıȘ
DzıIJȦȩIJȚȤȡȘıȚȝȠʌȠȚȠȪȝİxțȑȡȝĮIJĮIJȦȞ¼țĮȚyȤĮȡIJȠȞȠȝȓıȝĮIJĮIJȦȞ¼
DzȤȠȣȝİ įȘȜĮįȒ ȞĮ ʌȡȠıįȚȠȡȓıȠȣȝİ IJȚȢ ĮțȑȡĮȚİȢ țĮȚ șİIJȚțȑȢ ȡȓȗİȢ IJȘȢ İȟȓıȦ-

ıȘȢ 2x + 5y = 30. ǼʌİȚįȒ ( 2, 5 ) = 1 țĮȚ 1 | 30, ȘİȟȓıȦıȘȑȤİȚȜȪıȘȁȪȞȠȣȝİȦȢ

30
5y
ʌȡȠȢxțĮȚȑȤȠȣȝİ x = . Ȃİ y = 0, İȓȞĮȚ x = 15. ǼʌȠȝȑȞȦȢȝȚĮȜȪıȘIJȘȢ
2
İȟȓıȦıȘȢİȓȞĮȚȘ ( x 0 , y 0 ) = ( 15, 0 ). ǵȜİȢȠȚȜȪıİȚȢșĮįȠșȠȪȞĮʌȩIJȠȣȢIJȪʌȠȣȢ
15 0
x = 15 + 5
, y = 0
2
țĮȚ

 ,

, įȘȜĮįȒ x = 15 + 5
, y =
2

5 2
50
 ǹȆȅȉǾȃǹȇǿĬȂǾȉǿȀǾȈȉǾȃǹȁīǼǺȇǹ

țĮȚ
3 
 0

, ʌȠȣįȓȞİȚ
=
3,
2,
1, 0.

DZȡĮȑȤȠȣȝİIJȚȢȜȪıİȚȢ ( 15, 0 ) ( 10, 2 ) ( 5, 4 ) ( 0, 6 ) . ǹȞįİȤIJȠȪȝİȩIJȚʌȡȑʌİȚȞĮ
ȤȡȘıȚȝȠʌȠȚȘșȠȪȞȞȠȝȓıȝĮIJĮțĮȚIJȦȞįȪȠțĮIJȘȖȠȡȚȫȞIJȩIJİȠȚȜȪıİȚȢ ( 15, 0 ) țĮȚ
( 0, 6 ) ĮʌȠȡȡȓʌIJȠȞIJĮȚțĮȚȘİȟȓıȦıȘįȑȤİIJĮȚȝȩȞȠIJȚȢȜȪıİȚȢ ( 10, 2 ) țĮȚ ( 5, 4 ) .
2.ȃĮ ȕȡİșȠȪȞ ȩȜȠȚ ȠȚ IJȡȚȥȒijȚȠȚ ĮȡȚșȝȠȓ xyz, ʌȠȣ IJȠ ȐșȡȠȚıȝĮ IJȦȞ ȥȘijȓȦȞ
IJȠȣȢ İȓȞĮȚ  İȞȫ ĮȞ ĮȜȜȐȟȠȣȝİ șȑıȘ IJȠ ȥȘijȓȠ IJȦȞ ȝȠȞȐįȦȞ ȝİ IJȠ ȥȘijȓȠ
IJȦȞİțĮIJȠȞIJȐįȦȞʌȡȠțȪʌIJİȚĮȡȚșȝȩȢȓıȠȢȝİIJȠȞĮȡȤȚțȩ

ȁȪıȘ
DzıIJȦ xyz ȠĮȡȚșȝȩȢʌȠȣȥȐȤȞȠȣȝİȉȩIJİ xyz = zyx, țĮȚİʌȠȝȑȞȦȢ x = z. 
ǼʌȓıȘȢ x + y + z = 7, ȐȡĮ x + y + x = 7 Ȓ 2x + y = 7, ʌȠȣįȓȞİȚ y = 7
2x.
ȂȚĮ ʌȡȠijĮȞȒȢ ȜȪıȘ IJȘȢ İȟȓıȦıȘȢ İȓȞĮȚ Ș x 0 = 1 țĮȚ y 0 = 5. DzIJıȚ ȩȜİȢ ȠȚ ȜȪ-
5
ıİȚȢįȓȞȠȞIJĮȚĮʌȩIJȚȢıȤȑıİȚȢ x = 1 +
, y = 5
2
țĮȚ
1 
 ,

. ǼʌȠ-
2
ȝȑȞȦȢȠIJȝʌȠȡİȓȞĮʌȐȡİȚIJȚȢIJȚȝȑȢ
1, 0, 1, 2. ȂİIJȚȢIJȚȝȑȢĮȣIJȑȢȖȚĮIJȠȚıȤȑ-
ıİȚȢ x = 1 +
țĮȚ y = 5
2
įȓȞȠȣȞ ȦȢ ȜȪıİȚȢ ( x, y ) IJĮ ıIJȠȚȤİȓĮ IJȠȣ ıȣȞȩȜȠȣ
{( 0, 7 ) , ( 1, 5 ) , ( 2, 3 ) , ( 3, 1) } . ȂİIJȚȢIJȚȝȑȢĮȣIJȑȢȖȚĮxțĮȚyȠȚIJȡȚȥȒijȚȠȚ xyz
IJȠȣʌȡȠȕȜȒȝĮIJȠȢȝİ x = z İȓȞĮȚȠȚĮȡȚșȝȠȓĮijȠȪȠįİșİȦ-
ȡİȓIJĮȚȖȞȒıȚȠȢIJȡȚȥȒijȚȠȢ

3. ǹȖȠȡȐȗȠȣȝİĮʌȩIJȠIJĮȤȣįȡȠȝİȓȠȖȡĮȝȝĮIJȩıȘȝĮIJȦȞ¼IJȦȞ¼IJȦȞ¼
țĮȚIJȦȞ¼ȦȢİȟȒȢȉĮȖȡĮȝȝĮIJȩıȘȝĮIJȦȞ¼İȓȞĮȚȓıĮıIJȠȞĮȡȚșȝȩȝİ
2
IJĮ IJȦȞ ȖȡĮȝȝĮIJȠıȒȝȦȞ IJȦȞ  ¼ İȞȫ IJĮ ȖȡĮȝȝĮIJȩıȘȝĮ IJȦȞ  ¼ İȓȞĮȚ
5
3
ȓıĮıIJȠȞĮȡȚșȝȩȝİIJĮ IJȦȞȖȡĮȝȝĮIJȠıȒȝȦȞIJȦȞ¼ǹȖȠȡȐȗȠȣȝİțĮȚʌȑȞIJİ
4
ȖȡĮȝȝĮIJȩıȘȝĮIJȦȞ¼ȆȜȘȡȫȞȠȣȝİȝİȑȞĮȤĮȡIJȠȞȩȝȚıȝĮțĮȚįİȞʌĮȓȡ-
ȞȠȣȝİȡȑıIJĮȆȩıĮȖȡĮȝȝĮIJȩıȘȝĮĮʌȩțȐșİİȓįȠȢĮȖȠȡȐıĮȝİ

ȁȪıȘ
DzıIJȦȩIJȚĮȖȠȡȐıĮȝİxȖȡĮȝȝĮIJȩıȘȝĮIJȦȞ¼țĮȚʌȜȘȡȫıĮȝİȝİȑȞĮȤĮȡIJȠȞȩȝȚıȝĮ
ʌȠȜȜĮʌȜȐıȚȠIJȦȞ¼ĮijȠȪIJĮȖȡĮȝȝĮIJȩıȘȝĮIJȦȞ¼ıIJȠȚȤȓȗȠȣȞȒįȘ¼
2 2 3
ȉȩIJİȑȤȠȣȝİIJȘȞİȟȓıȦıȘ 5x + 10
x + 20

x + 5
40 = 100 y, ȘȠʌȠȓĮ
5 5 4
20 y
40
ȖȓȞİIJĮȚ 15x
100 y =
200 Ȓ 3x
20 y =
40 Ȓ x = .
3
ȂȚĮȜȪıȘIJȘȢİȟȓıȦıȘȢĮȣIJȒȢİȓȞĮȚȘ x 0 = 0, y 0 = 2. DZȡĮȩȜİȢȠȚȜȪıİȚȢįȓȞȠȞIJĮȚ
y x  2 
Įʌȩ IJȚȢ ıȤȑıİȚȢ x =
20t, y = 2
3t țĮȚ t  min  0 ,
0  = min  , 0  = 0,

  3 
ĮijȠȪĮȞĮȗȘIJȠȪȝİȝȩȞȠșİIJȚțȑȢȜȪıİȚȢDzIJıȚȠȚȜȪıİȚȢİȓȞĮȚ x =
20t, y = 2
3t
ȝİ t < 0. Ǿ İȟȓıȦıȘ íțĮȚ İʌȠȝȑȞȦȢ IJȠ ʌȡȩȕȜȘȝĮí ijĮȓȞİIJĮȚ ȞĮ ȑȤİȚ ȐʌİȚȡİȢ

51
ĬǼȍȇǿǹȀǹǿǹȈȀǾȈǼǿȈ

ȜȪıİȚȢǵȝȦȢȠȚȜȪıİȚȢĮȣIJȑȢʌİȡȚȠȡȓȗȠȞIJĮȚĮȞȜȐȕȠȣȝİȣʌȩȥȘȝĮȢȩIJȚIJĮȖȡĮȝ-
ȝĮIJȩıȘȝĮ ʌȜȘȡȫșȘțĮȞ ȝİ ȑȞĮ ȤĮȡIJȠȞȩȝȚıȝĮ ǼʌİȚįȒ IJĮ ȤĮȡIJȠȞȠȝȓıȝĮIJĮ
ĮȟȓĮȢ ȝİȖĮȜȪIJİȡȘȢ IJȦȞ  ¼ İȓȞĮȚ ĮȣIJȐ IJȦȞ  ¼ țĮȚ IJȦȞ  ¼ ȑʌİIJĮȚ ȩIJȚ
100 y = 200 Ȓ 100 y = 500, țĮȚİʌȠȝȑȞȦȢ y = 2 Ȓ y = 5. ȂİIJȚȢIJȚȝȑȢĮȣIJȑȢȖȚĮy
ıIJȘȞİȟȓıȦıȘ y = 2
3t, ȑȤȠȣȝİ t = 0 ȩIJĮȞ y = 2, țĮșȫȢțĮȚ t =
1 ȩIJĮȞ y = 5.
ǼʌȠȝȑȞȦȢȠȚȜȪıİȚȢIJȘȢİȟȓıȦıȘȢ 3x
20 y =
40, țĮșȫȢțĮȚIJȠȣʌȡȠȕȜȒȝĮIJȩȢ
ȝĮȢįȓȞȠȞIJĮȚĮʌȩIJȚȢıȤȑıİȚȢ x =
20t, y = 2
3t ȖȚĮ t = 0 Ȓ t =
1. DzIJıȚȑȤȠȣȝİ
ȦȢȜȪıİȚȢIJĮȗİȪȖȘ ( x, y ) ȝİ ( x, y ) = ( 0, 2 ) țĮȚ ( x, y ) = ( 0, 2 ) ( x, y ) = ( 20, 5 ) .
ǹȞ ( x, y ) = ( 0, 2 ) , IJȩIJİIJĮȖȡĮȝȝĮIJȩıȘȝĮʌȠȣĮȖȠȡȐıĮȝİİȓȞĮȚȦȢİȟȒȢȝȘ-
įȑȞIJȦȞ¼ȝȘįȑȞIJȦȞ¼ȝȘįȑȞIJȦȞ¼țĮȚʌȑȞIJİȖȡĮȝȝĮIJȩıȘȝĮIJȦȞ
¼İȞȫʌȜȘȡȫıĮȝİȝİȑȞĮȤĮȡIJȠȞȩȝȚıȝĮIJȦȞ¼
ǹȞ ( x, y ) = ( 20, 5 ) , IJȩIJİ IJĮ ȖȡĮȝȝĮIJȩıȘȝĮ ʌȠȣ ĮȖȠȡȐıĮȝİ İȓȞĮȚ ȦȢ İȟȒȢ
2 3 2
İȓțȠıȚIJȦȞ¼ 20 =  IJȦȞ¼
20 =
 IJȦȞ¼țĮȚʌȑȞIJİȖȡĮȝ-
5 4 5
ȝĮIJȩıȘȝĮIJȦȞ¼İȞȫʌȜȘȡȫıĮȝİȝİȑȞĮȤĮȡIJȠȞȩȝȚıȝĮIJȦȞ¼

ȆĮȡȐȡIJȘȝĮ
ȠșİȫȡȘȝĮ
(
ȀȐșİ ȝȘ țİȞȩ ȣʌȠıȪȞȠȜȠ ǹ IJȦȞ ijȣıȚțȫȞ ĮȡȚșȝȫȞ
* 

* ȑȤİȚ İȜȐȤȚıIJȠ )
ıIJȠȚȤİȓȠ

ǹʌȩįİȚȟȘ
DzıIJȦȩIJȚIJĮıIJȠȚȤİȓĮIJȠȣıȣȞȩȜȠȣǹįȚĮIJȐııȠȞIJĮȚȝİȕȐıȘIJȘıȤȑıȘįȚȐIJĮȟȘȢIJȦȞ
ijȣıȚțȫȞĮȡȚșȝȫȞǹȞȠıIJȠȚȤİȓȠIJȠȣǹIJȩIJİĮʌȠIJİȜİȓțĮȚIJȠİȜȐȤȚıIJȠıIJȠȚȤİȓȠIJȠȣ
ǹȊʌȠșȑIJȠȣȝİIJȫȡĮȩIJȚȠįİȞİȓȞĮȚıIJȠȚȤİȓȠIJȠȣǹȉȩIJİIJȠǹİȓȞĮȚȖȞȒıȚȠȣʌȠıȪ-
ȞȠȜȠIJȠȣ
* . 
ĬĮ İȡȖĮıIJȠȪȝİȝİIJȘȝȑșȠįȠIJȘȢĮʌĮȖȦȖȒȢ ıİ ȐIJȠʌȠ DzıIJȦ ȜȠȚʌȩȞ ȩIJȚ IJȠ ǹįİȞ
ȑȤİȚİȜȐȤȚıIJȠıIJȠȚȤİȓȠǹȣIJȩıȘȝĮȓȞİȚȩIJȚȖȚĮIJȣȤȩȞıȘȝİȓȠȞIJȠȣǹȣʌȐȡȤİȚijȣıȚțȩȢ
ĮȡȚșȝȩȢȝIJȑIJȠȚȠȢȫıIJİ ( 
μ ) 
(1). ȆȡȠijĮȞȫȢ

μ > 1  μ <

1 (2).
DzıIJȦIJȫȡĮıȪȞȠȜȠǺIJȦȞijȣıȚțȫȞȝʌȠȣʌȡȠijĮȞȫȢįİȞİȓȞĮȚțİȞȩǹʌȩIJȘȞȚįȚȩ-
IJȘIJĮ ıȣȝʌİȡĮȓȞȠȣȝİȩIJȚIJȠǺȑȤİȚȝȑȖȚıIJȠıIJȠȚȤİȓȠȑıIJȦ μ 0 . ȉȩIJİIJȠ 
μ 0 İȓȞĮȚ

ıIJȠȚȤİȓȠIJȠȣǹȂİȕȐıȘIJȘȞȣʌȩșİıȘȩIJȚIJȠǹįİȞȑȤİȚİȜȐȤȚıIJȠıIJȠȚȤİȓȠțĮIJĮȜȒ-
ȖȠȣȝİ ȩIJȚ ȣʌȐȡȤİȚ ijȣıȚțȩȢ ț IJȑIJȠȚȠȢ ȫıIJİ ( 
 )   țĮȚ 
 < 
μ 0  μ 0 < ,
ʌȠȣ İȓȞĮȚ ȐIJȠʌȠ ĮijȠȪ Ƞμ 0 İȓȞĮȚ Ƞ ȝȑȖȚıIJȠȢ ijȣıȚțȩȢ ȖȚĮ IJȠȞ ȠʌȠȓȠ ȚıȤȪİȚ Ș ıȤȑıȘ
 ǼʌȠȝȑȞȦȢȘȣʌȩșİıȘȩIJȚIJȠǹįİȞȑȤİȚİȜȐȤȚıIJȠıIJȠȚȤİȓȠȠįȘȖİȓıİȐIJȠʌȠÂțĮIJȐ

ıȣȞȑʌİȚĮIJȠǹȑȤİȚİȜȐȤȚıIJȠıIJȠȚȤİȓȠ

ȠșİȫȡȘȝĮ
ȉȠ ıȪȞȠȜȠ IJȦȞ țȠȚȞȫȞ șİIJȚțȫȞ ʌȠȜȜĮʌȜĮıȓȦȞ įȪȠ ĮțİȡĮȓȦȞ Į ȕ ȝİ ȚįȚȩIJȘIJĮ


0, ȑȤİȚİȜȐȤȚıIJȠıIJȠȚȤİȓȠ

52
 ǹȆȅȉǾȃǹȇǿĬȂǾȉǿȀǾȈȉǾȃǹȁīǼǺȇǹ

ǹʌȩįİȚȟȘ
ȅ ijȣıȚțȩȢ ĮȡȚșȝȩȢ
 İȓȞĮȚ ʌȡȠijĮȞȫȢ șİIJȚțȩ țȠȚȞȩ ʌȠȜȜĮʌȜȐıȚȠ IJȦȞ ĮțİȡĮȓȦȞ
Į, ȕȠʌȩIJİIJȠıȪȞȠȜȠIJȦȞțȠȚȞȫȞșİIJȚțȫȞʌȠȜȜĮʌȜĮıȓȦȞIJȦȞĮțİȡĮȓȦȞĮ, ȕȝİȚįȚȩ
IJȘIJĮ

0, įİȞİȓȞĮȚțİȞȩțĮȚİʌȠȝȑȞȦȢȝİȕȐıȘIJȠʌȡȠȘȖȠȪȝİȞȠșİȫȡȘȝĮ ȑȤİȚ
İȜȐȤȚıIJȠ ıIJȠȚȤİȓȠ ʌȠȣ İȓȞĮȚ Ƞ İ țĮȚ Ƞ ȠʌȠȓȠȢ ıȣȝȕȠȜȓȗİIJĮȚ  = [
,  ] . ȉȩIJİ Ƞ
 = [
,  ] ȠȞȠȝȐȗİIJĮȚ ĮʌȜȐ ©ǼȀȆ IJȦȞ ĮțİȡĮȓȦȞ Į ȕ» ȆȡȠijĮȞȫȢ ȚıȤȪİȚ
 = [
,  ] = [
,  ] .

ȠșİȫȡȘȝĮ
īȚĮĮțİȡĮȓȠȣȢĮ, ȕ, ȝİȚįȚȩIJȘIJĮ

0, ȚıȤȪİȚȠIJȪʌȠȢ [
,  ]
 , ȩIJĮȞțIJȣȤȩȞțȠȚ
ȞȩʌȠȜȜĮʌȜȐıȚȠIJȦȞĮțİȡĮȓȦȞĮ, ȕ.

ǹʌȩįİȚȟȘ
( )
ȀĮIJȐ IJĮ ȖȞȦıIJȐ ȑȤȠȣȝİ  
* ,  
 (  |  ,
 |  ) . īȚĮ IJȣȤȩȞ ȐȡĮ țȠȚȞȩ
ʌȠȜȜĮʌȜȐıȚȠ ț IJȦȞ Į, ȕ, ʌĮȓȡȞȠȣȝİ ȩIJȚ Ƞ
țȠȚȞȩ șİIJȚțȩ ʌȠȜȜĮʌȜȐıȚȠ IJȦȞ
, ,
ȠʌȩIJİĮȞȒțİȚıIJȠıȪȞȠȜȠIJȦȞțȠȚȞȫȞșİIJȚțȫȞʌȠȜȜĮʌȜĮıȓȦȞIJȦȞ
, , ʌȠȣȝİȕȐıȘ
IJĮʌȡȠȘȖȠȪȝİȞĮȑȤİȚİȜȐȤȚıIJȠıIJȠȚȤİȓȠIJȠȞ  = [
,  ] .

ȠșİȫȡȘȝĮ
īȚĮĮțİȡĮȓȠȣȢĮ, ȕ, ȝİIJȘȞȚįȚȩIJȘIJĮ

0, ȚıȤȪİȚȩIJȚ [
,  ] | , ĮȞȠĮțȑȡĮȚȠȢțİȓȞĮȚ
IJȣȤȩȞțȠȚȞȩʌȠȜȜĮʌȜȐıȚȩIJȠȣȢ

ǹʌȩįİȚȟȘ
DzıIJȦ 
 = [
,  ] . ǿıȤȪİȚIJȩIJİȠIJȪʌȠȢIJȘȢĮȜȖȠȡȚșȝȚțȒȢįȚĮȓȡİıȘȢįȘȜĮįȒȑȤȠȣ
ȝİĮțİȡĮȓȠȣȢ ,
IJȑIJȠȚȠȣȢȫıIJİ  =
 + , 0
 <
. ĬİȦȡȠȪȝİ 0 <
. ȅȚ
,  įȚĮȚ
ȡȠȪȞIJȩıȠIJȠȞ
ȩıȠțĮȚIJȠȞİȐȡĮįȚĮȚȡȠȪȞțĮȚIJȠȞȣȈȣȞİʌȫȢȠȣ İȓȞĮȚțȠȚȞȩșİIJȚțȩ
ʌȠȜȜĮʌȜȐıȚȠIJȦȞ
, , İʌȠȝȑȞȦȢ

, ʌȠȣȠįȘȖİȓıIJȠȐIJȠʌȠ
<
. ȉİȜȚțȐʌĮȓȡȞȠȣ
ȝİ  = 0
 =


| 

| .

ȠșİȫȡȘȝĮ
īȚĮĮțİȡĮȓȠȣȢĮ, ȕ ȝİȚįȚȩIJȘIJĮ

0 ȚıȤȪȠȣȞ
1.  = [
,  ]
 = 1
=
1  .
2. [
,  ] (
,  ) =
 .

ǹʌȩįİȚȟȘ
 īȞȦȡȓȗȠȣȝİȩIJȚ (
,  ) = (
,  )=

=
1 ,  = 1 , ȝİ (
1 , 1 ) = 1.
ĬİȦȡȠȪȝİ [
,  ] = [
,  ] = , ȠʌȩIJİțĮIJȐIJĮȖȞȦıIJȐȑȤȠȣȝİ  =  1
țĮȚ

=
2  . ǹȞ (
1 ,
2 ) =

, IJȩIJİ
1 =
1


,
2 =

2

ȝİ (
1
,

2 ) = 1.


 ǼʌȠȝȑȞȦȢʌĮȓȡȞȠȣȝİ  = 
 1

 =  1

,
=



2   =

2  ,


53
ĬǼȍȇǿǹȀǹǿǹȈȀǾȈǼǿȈ

ıȣȞİʌȫȢ Ƞ İȓȞĮȚ țȠȚȞȩ ʌȠȜȜĮʌȜȐıȚȠ IJȦȞ
,  , įȘȜĮįȒ ȝİȖĮȜȪIJİȡȠȢ Ȓ ȓıȠȢ





IJȠȣǼȀȆIJȠȣȢDZȡĮ 
 1 

, ʌȠȣȠįȘȖİȓıIJȘȞ

= 1  (
1 ,
2 ) = 1. ȉİȜȚțȐ



ȑȤȠȣȝİ [
,  ] = 
 =  1
=  1
1  =  2  =  2 1 , ĮʌȩȩʌȠȣʌȡȠțȪʌIJİȚ
 1
1  =  2 1 
 1
1 =  2 1 , įȘȜĮįȒʌĮȓȡȞȠȣȝİ

1 |
1 ,
1 | 1

1 = 1 țĮȚ
1 |  2 ,  2 |
1
 2 =
1 .
ȀĮIJĮȜȒȖȠȣȝİȜȠȚʌȩȞıIJȘȞ  = [
,  ]
 = 1
=
1  .
1 
1 
 DzȤȠȣȝİ [
,  ] = [
,  ]= 
= 

1 1 1 = ,

ȠʌȩIJİ [
,  ]  = 

[
,  ] (
,  ) = 
.

ȠșİȫȡȘȝĮ
īȚĮĮțİȡĮȓȠȣȢĮȕȖȝİȚįȚȩIJȘIJĮ

0, ȚıȤȪİȚȘȚıȩIJȘIJĮ [ 
,  ] =  [
,  ].

ǹʌȩįİȚȟȘ


DzȤȠȣȝİ [ 
,  ] = [ 
,  ] = ( 
, =  [
,  ]. 
 )
ȠșİȫȡȘȝĮ
ȉȠʌȡȩȕȜȘȝĮIJȠȣ(XOHU©ȂİʌȩıȠȣȢIJȡȩʌȠȣȢȤȦȡȓȗİIJĮȚȑȞĮțȣȡIJȩȞȖȦȞȠıİIJȡȓ-
ȖȦȞĮȝİȝȘIJİȝȞȩȝİȞİȢįȚĮȖȦȞȓȠȣȢIJȠȣªȉȠʌȡȩȕȜȘȝĮĮȣIJȩȑșİıİIJȠȑIJȠȢ1751Ƞ
/(XOHUıIJȠȞ&*ROGEDFK

$ʌȐȞIJȘıȘ
2 10 14 … ( 4
10 )
ȅȚIJȡȩʌȠȚİȓȞĮȚ
(  ) = ( 
  Euler ) . 
( 
1 )!
ȆȡȩțİȚIJĮȚȖȚĮIJȘȞĮȞĮįȡȠȝȚțȒĮțȠȜȠȣșȓĮ  (  ) , 

* ȝİ  ( 2 ) =  ( 3 ) = 1 țĮȚ
 (  ) = (  ( 
1) ) (  ( 2 ) ) + (  ( 
2 ) ) (  ( 3 ) ) +
+ … + (  ( 3 ) ) (  ( 
2 ) ) + (  ( 2 ) ) (  ( 
1) ) ,  
* \ {1, 2 } .
ǾĮʌȩįİȚȟȘȖȓȞİIJĮȚȝİIJȘȝȑșȠįȠIJȘȢIJȑȜİȚĮȢİʌĮȖȦȖȒȢ

ȠșİȫȡȘȝĮȘİȚțĮıȓĮIJȠȣ&DWDODQ

ȆȜȑȠȞİȓȞĮȚșİȫȡȘȝĮĮijȠȪĮʌȠįİȓȤIJȘțİIJȠȑIJȠȢĮʌȩIJȠȞȝİȖȐȜȠȇȠȣȝȐȞȠȝĮ-
șȘȝĮIJȚțȩ3UHGD0LKăLOHVFX©ȅȚȝȩȞȠȚįȚĮįȠȤȚțȠȓijȣıȚțȠȓĮȡȚșȝȠȓʌȠȣİȓ-
ȞĮȚįȣȞȐȝİȚȢijȣıȚțȫȞİȓȞĮȚȠȚĮȡȚșȝȠȓțĮȚªǾĮʌȩįİȚȟȒIJȠȣȣʌİȡȕĮȓȞİȚIJȠʌȜĮȓ-
ıȚȠIJȠȣȕȚȕȜȓȠȣĮȣIJȠȪ

54
 ˆ—•ˆ“–ˆ„ £•ž  ¡–˜•£–—•ˆ£•ž  ‚“’¡
ǹǯȀĮIJȘȖȠȡȓĮĮıțȒıİȦȞ
ªÐÈÅÐÅ1.01
ȃĮ ĮʌȠįİȓȟİIJİ ȩIJȚ IJȠ IJİIJȡȐȖȦȞȠ țȐșİ ʌİȡȚIJIJȠȪ ĮȡȚșȝȠȪ ʌĮȓȡȞİȚ IJȘ ȝȠȡijȒ 8
+ 1,
ȩʌȠȣțijȣıȚțȩȢĮȡȚșȝȩȢ

ªÐÈÅÐÅ1.02
ǺȡİȓIJİijȣıȚțȩȝȠȞȠȥȒijȚȠxIJȑIJȠȚȠȞȫıIJİȠIJȡȚȥȒijȚȠȢ 2
5 ȞĮİȓȞĮȚʌȠȜȜĮʌȜȐıȚȠ
IJȠȣțĮȚIJȠȣ

ªÐÈÅÐÅ1.03
ǻȓȞİIJĮȚȘıȪȞșİIJȘʌȡȩIJĮıȘ©ǹȞȑȞĮIJİIJȡȐʌȜİȣȡȠȑȤİȚȩȜİȢIJȠȣIJȚȢȖȦȞȓİȢȒIJȚȢįȚĮ
ȖȦȞȓȠȣȢIJȠȣȓıİȢțĮȚȠȚįȚĮȖȫȞȚȠȚIJȑȝȞȠȞIJĮȚțȐșİIJĮIJȩIJİIJȠIJİIJȡȐʌȜİȣȡȠİȓȞĮȚIJİ-
IJȡȐȖȦȞȠª ȃĮ ȕȡİșȠȪȞ ȠȚ ĮʌȜȑȢ ʌȡȠIJȐıİȚȢ Įʌȩ IJȚȢ ȠʌȠȓİȢ ĮʌȠIJİȜİȓIJĮȚ Ș ʌĮȡĮʌȐȞȦ
ıȪȞșİIJȘʌȡȩIJĮıȘțĮȚıIJȘıȣȞȑȤİȚĮȞĮĮȞĮʌĮȡĮıIJĮșİȓȝȑıȦȜȠȖȚțȫȞıȣȞįȑıȝȦȞ

ªÐÈÅÐÅ1.04
ȃĮ ĮʌȠįİȓȟİIJİ ȩIJȚ 
(    ) = ( 
 )  ( 
 ) , ȩʌȠȣ ǹ Ǻ ī ȣʌȠıȪȞȠȜĮ ıȣ-
ȞȩȜȠȣȍ

ªÐÈÅÐÅ1.05
ȃĮȕȡİȓIJİȩȜȠȣȢIJȠȣȢijȣıȚțȠȪȢĮȡȚșȝȠȪȢȠȚȠʌȠȓȠȚȩIJĮȞįȚĮȚȡİșȠȪȞȝİIJȠȞįȓȞȠȣȞ
ʌȘȜȓțȠ

ªÐÈÅÐÅ1.06
ǹȞIJȠʌȠșİIJȒıȠȣȝİIJȠȣȢȝĮșȘIJȑȢİȞȩȢıȤȠȜİȓȠȣıİıİȚȡȑȢIJȦȞ țĮȚȝĮșȘ-
IJȫȞIJȩIJİʌİȡȚııİȪİȚʌȐȞIJĮȑȞĮȢȝĮșȘIJȒȢǹȞIJȠʌȠșİIJȒıȠȣȝİIJȠȣȢȝĮșȘIJȑȢıİıİȚȡȑȢ
IJȦȞIJȩIJİȩȜİȢȠȚıİȚȡȑȢİȓȞĮȚʌȜȒȡİȚȢțĮȚįİȞʌİȡȚııİȪİȚțĮȞȑȞĮȢȝĮșȘIJȒȢǺȡİȓIJİ
IJȠȞİȜȐȤȚıIJȠĮȡȚșȝȩȝĮșȘIJȫȞʌȠȣȑȤİȚIJȠıȤȠȜİȓȠ

ªÐÈÅÐÅ1.07
LǻİȓȟIJİȩIJȚȠĮȡȚșȝȩȢİȓȞĮȚȐșȡȠȚıȝĮIJȡȚȫȞįȚĮįȠȤȚțȫȞĮțİȡĮȓȦȞ
LLǻİȓȟIJİȩIJȚȠ 35 İȓȞĮȚȐșȡȠȚıȝĮIJȡȚȫȞįȚĮįȠȤȚțȫȞĮțİȡĮȓȦȞ
LLLǻİȓȟIJİȩIJȚȠʌȠȚȠįȒʌȠIJİʌȠȜȜĮʌȜȐıȚȠIJȠȣİȓȞĮȚȐșȡȠȚıȝĮIJȡȚȫȞįȚĮįȠȤȚțȫȞĮțİȡĮȓȦȞ

ªÐÈÅÐÅ
ȃĮĮʌȠįİȓȟİIJİȩIJȚțȐșİʌİȡȚIJIJȩȢĮȡȚșȝȩȢİȓȞĮȚȓıȠȢȝİIJȘįȚĮijȠȡȐIJİIJȡĮȖȫȞȦȞįȪȠ
įȚĮįȠȤȚțȫȞijȣıȚțȫȞĮȡȚșȝȫȞ

55
ĬǼȍȇǿǹȀǹǿǹȈȀǾȈǼǿȈ

ªÐÈÅÐÅ
ȅ ĮȡȚșȝȩȢ ț İȓȞĮȚ ʌȡȫIJȠȢ șİIJȚțȩȢ ĮțȑȡĮȚȠȢ țĮȚ įȚĮȚȡȑIJȘȢ IJȠȣ ȂȀǻ IJȦȞ Įțİ-
ȡĮȓȦȞ   țĮȚ  ȃĮ ȕȡİȓIJİ IJȚȢ įȣȞĮIJȑȢ IJȚȝȑȢ IJȦȞ ț țĮȚ IJȘȢ ʌĮȡȐıIJĮıȘȢ

3


2

A= 2 : 2 
1




2 ǻȚĮȖȦȞȚıȝȩȢǼȂǼĬĮȜȒȢ

ªÐÈÅÐÅ1.10
x +1 1
ȃĮȜȪıİIJİIJȘȞİȟȓıȦıȘ 2

= 0 (1).
x
2x
3 x
2
ªÐÈÅÐÅ1.11

( )
2
ȃĮȖȓȞİȚȖȚȞȩȝİȞȠʌĮȡĮȖȩȞIJȦȞȘʌĮȡȐıIJĮıȘ  2 + 3 + 1
1.

ªÐÈÅÐÅ1.12
21 42 21
$ȞȚıȤȪİȚȘĮȞȚıȩIJȘIJĮ < < ȖȚĮșİIJȚțȩĮțȑȡĮȚȠĮȞĮȕȡİșİȓȘĮȡȚșȝȘIJȚțȒ
5
4
IJȚȝȒIJȘȢʌĮȡȐıIJĮıȘȢ  =  + 5 ( 4 +  ) + 3( 
4 ) + 1925 
ǻȚĮȖȦȞȚıȝȩȢǼȂǼĬĮȜȒȢ

ªÐÈÅÐÅ1.13
ǹȞȠșİIJȚțȩȢĮțȑȡĮȚȠȢȕȚțĮȞȠʌȠȚİȓIJȘįȚʌȜȒĮȞȓıȦıȘ
4 < 1
2
< 5, ȞĮȜȪıİIJİIJȘȞ
3 x
ĮȞȓıȦıȘ 2 ( x + 1)
( x + 1) < . 
2

ǻȚĮȖȦȞȚıȝȩȢǼȂǼĬĮȜȒȢ

ªÐÈÅÐÅ1.14
ȃĮĮʌȠįİȓȟİIJİIJȘȞȚıȩIJȘIJĮ 17
12 2 + 3
2 2 + 3 + 2 2 = 3.

ªÐÈÅÐÅ1.15

(
ǻȓȞİIJĮȚȘȚıȩIJȘIJĮ x + x 2 + 1 )(y+ )
y 2 + 1 = 1 (1). ȃĮĮʌȠįİȓȟİIJİȩIJȚ x + y = 0.

ªÐÈÅÐÅ1.16
ȃĮȖȓȞİȚȖȚȞȩȝİȞȠȘʌĮȡȐıIJĮıȘ  = ( 
 ) + ( 
 ) + ( 
 ) .
3 3 3

ǺǯȀĮIJȘȖȠȡȓĮĮıțȒıİȦȞ
ªÐÈÅÐÅ1.17
ȃĮȕȡİșİȓIJİIJȡĮȥȒijȚȠȢijȣıȚțȩȢĮȡȚșȝȩȢĮȞȚıȤȪȠȣȞIJĮʌĮȡĮțȐIJȦ
LIJȠȥȘijȓȠIJȦȞȝȠȞȐįȦȞIJȠȣİȓȞĮȚʌȠȜȜĮʌȜȐıȚȠIJȠȣ

 ǹȆȅȉǾȃǹȇǿĬȂǾȉǿȀǾȈȉǾȃǹȁīǼǺȇǹ

LLIJȠȥȘijȓȠIJȦȞįİțȐįȦȞIJȠȣİȓȞĮȚIJȠȝȚıȩIJȠȣȥȘijȓȠȣIJȦȞȝȠȞȐįȦȞIJȠȣ
LLLIJȠȥȘijȓȠIJȦȞİțĮIJȠȞIJȐįȦȞIJȠȣİȓȞĮȚįȚĮȚȡȑIJȘȢIJȠȣ
LYIJȠȥȘijȓȠIJȦȞȤȚȜȚȐįȦȞIJȠȣİȓȞĮȚȓıȠȝİIJȠȥȘijȓȠIJȦȞİțĮIJȠȞIJȐįȦȞIJȠȣȝİȚȦȝȑȞȠ
țĮIJȐ

ªÐÈÅÐÅ

ǹȞȖȚĮʌȡĮȖȝĮIJȚțȠȪȢĮȡȚșȝȠȪȢĮȕȖțĮȚįȚıȤȪȠȣȞ
+ 2 +
= 0 țĮȚ
 = 10, ȞĮ
2
2
2

ȣʌȠȜȠȖȓıİIJİIJȘȞĮȡȚșȝȘIJȚțȒIJȚȝȒIJȘȢʌĮȡȐıIJĮıȘȢ  =    +  (  + 2 ) .
2

 2
ªÐÈÅÐÅ
ȃĮȖȓȞİȚȖȚȞȩȝİȞȠȘʌĮȡȐıIJĮıȘ  = ( 2

 ) + ( 2

 ) + ( 2

 ) .
3 3 3

ªÐÈÅÐÅ1.20
1 1 1
ǹȞ
, , 

* , țĮȚȚıȤȪİȚ + + =
, ȞĮĮʌȠįİȓȟİIJİȩIJȚ

 
= ( 2
2 +1 )( 2 2
 +1 ) ( 
2 2
)
+ 1



ªÐÈÅÐÅ1.21
ǻȓȞİIJĮȚȠȡșȠȖȫȞȚȠıIJȠǹIJȡȓȖȦȞȠȝİȝȒțȘʌȜİȣȡȫȞĮȕțĮȚȖȃĮʌĮȡĮȖȠȞIJȠʌȠȚȒıİ-
IJİIJȘȞʌĮȡȐıIJĮıȘ  =  3 +  3 +  3 .
ǾȆǹ

ªÐÈÅÐÅ1.22
ȃĮĮʌȠįİȚȤșİȓȩIJȚȠ
= 2222 5555 + 5555 2222 įȚĮȚȡİȓIJĮȚȝİIJȠȞ

īǯȀĮIJȘȖȠȡȓĮĮıțȒıİȦȞ

ªÐÈÅÐÅ1.23
ȃĮĮʌȠįİȓȟİIJİȩIJȚȠĮȡȚșȝȩȢ An = n 3 + 3n 2 + 5n + 3 įȚĮȚȡİȓIJĮȚȝİIJȠȞȖȚĮțȐșİșİIJȚ-
țȩĮțȑȡĮȚȠn

ªÐÈÅÐÅ1.24
ȃĮȕȡİȓIJİȩȜȠȣȢIJȠȣȢʌȡȫIJȠȣȢĮȡȚșȝȠȪȢpȖȚĮIJȠȣȢȠʌȠȓȠȣȢȣʌȐȡȤȠȣȞĮțȑȡĮȚȠȚx\
IJȑIJȠȚȠȚȫıIJİ p + 1 = 2x 2 
 p 2 + 1 = 2 y 2 .

ªÐÈÅÐÅ1.25

2 2 2 3
ǹȞ
, ,  > 0 țĮȚ
 = 1, ȞĮĮʌȠįİȓȟİIJİȩIJȚ + +
.
+ +

+  2
57
ĬǼȍȇǿǹȀǹǿǹȈȀǾȈǼǿȈ

ªÐÈÅÐÅ1.26
1 1 1 3
ǹȞĮȕȖșİIJȚțȠȓȝİ
 = 1, ȞĮĮʌȠįİȚȤșİȓȩIJȚ 3 + 3 + 3
.

(  +
)
( +
)  (
+
) 2
(,02ȀĮȞĮįȐȢ

ªÐÈÅÐÅ1.27
ȈİȑȞĮıȤȠȜİȓȠIJȠ 55% IJȦȞȝĮșȘIJȫȞİȓȞĮȚĮȖȩȡȚĮȉȠʌȜȒșȠȢIJȦȞĮȖȠȡȚȫȞʌȠȣįİ
ȝȚȜȠȪȞȖĮȜȜȚțȐİȓȞĮȚȓıȠȝİIJȠʌȜȒșȠȢIJȦȞțȠȡȚIJıȚȫȞʌȠȣȝȚȜȠȪȞȖĮȜȜȚțȐȉĮĮȖȩȡȚĮ
7
ʌȠȣȝȚȜȠȪȞȖĮȜȜȚțȐİȓȞĮȚIJĮ IJȦȞȝĮșȘIJȫȞʌȠȣȝȚȜȠȪȞȖĮȜȜȚțȐȉĮțȠȡȓIJıȚĮʌȠȣ
11
įİȝȚȜȠȪȞȖĮȜȜȚțȐİȓȞĮȚǺȡİȓIJİʌȩıȠȣȢȝĮșȘIJȑȢȑȤİȚIJȠıȤȠȜİȓȠ
ǻȚĮȖȦȞȚıȝȩȢǼȂǼǼȣțȜİȓįȘȢǺǯīȣȝȞĮıȓȠȣ

ªÐÈÅÐÅ
ȃĮĮʌȠįİȓȟİIJİȩIJȚįİȞȣʌȐȡȤİȚ 

IJȑIJȠȚȠȢȫıIJİȠȚĮȡȚșȝȠȓ  =  3 + 3 2 + 2 + 1 țĮȚ
 = 3 2 + 3
1 ȞĮȑȤȠȣȞIJȠȓįȚȠȐșȡȠȚıȝĮȥȘijȓȦȞ

ªÐÈÅÐÅ

+ 

+ 
īȚĮIJȠȣȢșİIJȚțȠȪȢĮțİȡĮȓȠȣȢ
,  ĮʌȠįİȓȟIJİȩIJȚ 

 
(1). 
 2 

ªÐÈÅÐÅ1.30
ǹȞĮȜȪıIJİIJȘȞʌĮȡȐıIJĮıȘ 3 4
+1 + 1, μ



* , ıİȐșȡȠȚıȝĮIJȡȚȫȞIJİIJȡĮȖȫȞȦȞĮțİȡĮȓȦȞ


 ‚ ¨ˆ “ –ˆ   ˆ —•ˆ “œž
ǹǯȀĮIJȘȖȠȡȓĮĮıțȒıİȦȞ 1.04  ȆĮȓȡȞȠȣȝİ IJȡȓĮ ıȪȞȠȜĮ ǹ Ǻ țĮȚ ī
țĮȚıȤȘȝĮIJȓȗȠȣȝİıİįȪȠįȚĮȖȡȐȝȝĮIJĮIJȚȢIJȠȝȑȢ
1.01  īȞȦȡȓȗȠȣȝİȩIJȚțȐșİʌİȡȚIJIJȩȢĮȡȚșȝȩȢ 
 țĮȚ 
.
ȑȤİȚ IJȘ ȝȠȡijȒ 2 + 1. ȉȠ IJİIJȡȐȖȦȞȩ IJȠȣ İȓȞĮȚ
( 2 + 1) 2 = 4 2 + 4 + 1 = 4 (  + 1) + 1. DzȤȠȣȝİ
ĮʌȠįİȓȟİȚȩIJȚIJȠȖȚȞȩȝİȞȠįȪȠįȚĮįȠȤȚțȫȞijȣıȚ-
țȫȞĮȡȚșȝȫȞİȓȞĮȚʌȠȜȜĮʌȜȐıȚȠIJȠȣįȘȜĮįȒ
 (  + 1) = 2, ȠʌȩIJİ
( 2 + 1) 2 = 4 (  + 1) + 1 = 4
2 + 1 = 8 + 1. 
1.02  īȚĮȞĮİȓȞĮȚȑȞĮȢijȣıȚțȩȢĮȡȚșȝȩȢʌȠȜ-
ȜĮʌȜȐıȚȠIJȠȣțĮȚIJȠȣʌȡȑʌİȚIJȠȐșȡȠȚıȝĮIJȦȞ
ȥȘijȓȦȞIJȠȣȞĮİȓȞĮȚʌȠȜȜĮʌȜȐıȚȠIJȠȣțĮȚIJȠȣ īȡȐijȠȣȝİ IJȘȞ ʌȡȩIJĮıȘ ʌȠȣ ıȣȝȕȠȜȓȗİȚ IJȘȞ
ĮȞIJȓıIJȠȚȤĮ ǻȘȜĮįȒ Ƞ ĮȡȚșȝȩȢ 2 + x + 5 = 7 + x ȑȞȦıȒIJȠȣȢ ( 
 )  ( 
 ) 
șĮʌȡȑʌİȚȞĮİȓȞĮȚʌȠȜȜĮʌȜȐıȚȠIJȠȣǼʌȠȝȑȞȦȢ
ʌȡȑʌİȚ x = 2, ȠʌȩIJİ Ƞ ĮȡȚșȝȩȢ ʌȠȣ ʌȡȠțȪʌIJİȚ İȓ-
ȞĮȚȠ 225, ȠȠʌȠȓȠȢİȓȞĮȚʌȠȜȜĮʌȜȐıȚȠIJȠȣțĮȚ
IJȠȣ

1.03  ǾıȪȞșİIJȘĮȣIJȒʌȡȩIJĮıȘʌİȡȚȑȤİȚIJȚȢ
ĮʌȜȑȢʌȡȠIJȐıİȚȢ
p©ȅȚȖȦȞȓİȢIJȠȣIJİIJȡĮʌȜİȪȡȠȣİȓȞĮȚȩȜİȢȓıİȢª
q©ȅȚįȚĮȖȫȞȚȠȚİȓȞĮȚȓıİȢª
ǺȜȑʌȠȣȝİȩIJȚIJȠıȪȞȠȜȠʌȠȣʌȡȠțȪʌIJİȚįİȞİȓȞĮȚ
r©ȅȚįȚĮȖȫȞȚȠȚIJȑȝȞȠȞIJĮȚțȐșİIJĮª
ȐȜȜȠĮʌȩIJȠ 
(    ) . 
s©ȉȠIJİIJȡȐʌȜİȣȡȠİȓȞĮȚIJİIJȡȐȖȦȞȠª
ȉȠ ʌĮȡĮʌȐȞȦ ıȤȒȝĮ ȝʌȠȡİȓ ȞĮ ĮʌȠįİȚȤșİȓ ȦȢ
ȂİIJȘȕȠȒșİȚĮIJȦȞʌȡȠIJȐıİȦȞ p, q, r, s țĮȚIJȦȞ
İȟȒȢ
ȜȠȖȚțȫȞıȣȞįȑıȝȦȞ ,
, , ȖȡȐijȠȣȝİIJȘȞĮȡ-
īȚĮțȐșİ x

ȚıȤȪİȚ
ȤȚțȒıȪȞșİIJȘʌȡȩIJĮıȘ
x ( 
(    ) )  
ǾʌȡȩIJĮıȘ©ȉȠIJİIJȡȐʌȜİȣȡȠȑȤİȚȩȜİȢIJȚȢȖȦ-
ȞȓİȢ IJȠȣ ȓıİȢ țĮȚ ȠȚ įȚĮȖȫȞȚȠȚ IJȑȝȞȠȞIJĮȚ țȐșİ- x   
 ( 
 )  
IJĮªȖȡȐijİIJĮȚ p
r. x
  ( x
  x
 )  
Ǿ ʌȡȩIJĮıȘ ©ȉȠ IJİIJȡȐʌȜİȣȡȠ ȑȤİȚ įȚĮȖȦȞȓȠȣȢ ( x
  x
 )  ( x
  x
 )  
ȓıİȢʌȠȣIJȑȝȞȠȞIJĮȚțȐșİIJĮªȖȡȐijİIJĮȚ q
r. ( x  
)  ( x  
 )  
ǾʌȡȩIJĮıȘ©ȉȠIJİIJȡȐʌȜİȣȡȠȑȤİȚȩȜİȢIJȚȢȖȦ-
( x  
)  ( x  
 )  
ȞȓİȢ IJȠȣ ȓıİȢ Ȓ IJȚȢ įȚĮȖȦȞȓȠȣȢ IJȠȣ ȓıİȢ țĮȚ ȠȚ
x ( ( 
 )  ( 
 ) ) 
įȚĮȖȫȞȚȠȓ IJȠȣ IJȑȝȞȠȞIJĮȚ țȐșİIJĮª İȓȞĮȚ Ș įȚȐ-
ȗİȣȟȘ IJȦȞ įȪȠ ʌĮȡĮʌȐȞȦ ʌȡȠIJȐıİȦȞ țĮȚ ȖȡȐ-
ijİIJĮȚ ( p
r )  ( q
r ) . 1.05  īȞȦȡȓȗȠȣȝİ IJȠȞ IJȪʌȠ IJȘȢ İȣțȜİȓįİȚĮȢ
ǾIJİȜİȣIJĮȓĮʌȡȩIJĮıȘȝʌȠȡİȓȞĮȖȡĮijIJİȓțĮȚȦȢ įȚĮȓȡİıȘȢ
=  + , ȝİ 0
 <
. 
İȟȒȢ ( p  q )
r. ǼʌȠȝȑȞȦȢȩIJĮȞȠįȚĮȚȡȑIJȘȢİȓȞĮȚIJȠȣʌȩȜȠȚ-
Ǿ IJİȜİȣIJĮȓĮ ĮȣIJȒ ʌȡȩIJĮıȘ ıȣȞİʌȐȖİIJĮȚ ȩIJȚ IJȠ ʌȠșĮİȓȞĮȚ ǼʌȓıȘȢȖȞȦȡȓȗȠȣȝİȩIJȚıIJȘ
IJİIJȡȐʌȜİȣȡȠ İȓȞĮȚ IJİIJȡȐȖȦȞȠ ȅʌȩIJİ Ș ĮȡȤȚțȒ ıȣȖțİțȡȚȝȑȞȘ ʌİȡȓʌIJȦıȘ IJȠ ʌȘȜȓțȠ İȓȞĮȚ 
ʌȡȩIJĮıȘȖȡȐijİIJĮȚ ( p  q )
r  s. DzȤȠȣȝİȜȠȚʌȩȞ

59
ĬǼȍȇǿǹȀǹǿǹȈȀǾȈǼǿȈ



 = 0

= 3
11 + 0 = 33
  DzȤȠȣȝİ ..
. ( 12, 30, 54 ) = 6. ȅȚ



 = 1

= 3
11 + 1 = 34  
įȚĮȚȡȑIJİȢIJȠȣİȓȞĮȚȠȚțĮȚĮʌȩĮȣIJȠȪȢ


 = 2

= 3
11 + 2 = 35 ʌȡȫIJȠȚĮȡȚșȝȠȓİȓȞĮȚȠȚțĮȚ
DZȡĮȠȚȗȘIJȠȪȝİȞȠȚĮȡȚșȝȠȓİȓȞĮȚȠȚ īȚĮ
= 2 ȑȤȠȣȝİ
2 3
2
1.06  ǹȞ Ȃ IJȠ ʌȜȒșȠȢ IJȦȞ ȝĮșȘIJȫȞ ıȪȝ- 2

A= 2 : 2 = 1 :1 = 24 = 8
ijȦȞĮȝİIJȘȞIJĮȣIJȩIJȘIJĮIJȘȢİȣțȜİȓįİȚĮȢįȚĮȓȡİ- 1 2 3 4 3 1 3
2

ıȘȢșĮȑȤȠȣȝİ 2 2
M = 2 1 + 1,
= 3 2 + 1,
= 4 3 + 1, īȚĮ
= 3 ȑȤȠȣȝİ

= 5 4 + 1,
= 6 5 + 1,
= 7 6 . 3 3
3 1
2

ȅʌȩIJİ

1 = 
2,

1 = 
3,
A= 2 : 2 = 2 : 0 = 1 :0 


1 = 
4,
= 
5,
= 
6. 1 3 5 3 5
3

DZȡĮIJȠ 
1 șĮİȓȞĮȚʌȠȜȜĮʌȜȐıȚȠIJȠȣ 2 2
..
. ( 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 ) , įȘȜĮįȒ ǵIJĮȞȠįȚĮȚȡȑIJȘȢİȓȞĮȚ ȘʌȡȐȟȘIJȘȢįȚĮȓȡİıȘȢ


1 = 60



= 60 + 1.  įİȞȠȡȓȗİIJĮȚDZȡĮȘȝȩȞȘįȣȞĮIJȒIJȚȝȒIJȠȣǹİȓ-
ǽȘIJİȓIJĮȚ ȞĮ ȕȡȠȪȝİ IJȠȞ ȝȚțȡȩIJİȡȠ ț ȑIJıȚ ȞĮȚ  = 8 . 
ȫıIJİȠȂȞĮİȓȞĮȚȠİȜȐȤȚıIJȠȢįȣȞĮIJȩȢĮȡȚș- 3
ȝȩȢ ȝĮșȘIJȫȞ ʌȠȣ įȚĮȚȡİȓIJĮȚ ȝİ IJȠȞ  ǼȪțȠ-
ȜĮȝİįȠțȚȝȑȢĮȞĮțĮȜȪʌIJȠȣȝİȩIJȚ
= 5, Ƞʌȩ-
1.10  ǹȞĮȜȪȠȣȝİIJȠȣȢʌĮȡȠȞȠȝĮıIJȑȢıİȖȚ-
IJİ  = 60
5 + 1 = 301.  ȞȩȝİȞȠʌȡȫIJȦȞʌĮȡĮȖȩȞIJȦȞīȚĮȞĮĮȞĮȜȪıȠȣ-
DZȡĮȠİȜȐȤȚıIJȠȢĮȡȚșȝȩȢȝĮșȘIJȫȞʌȠȣȑȤİȚIJȠ ȝİıİȖȚȞȩȝİȞȠIJȠIJȡȚȫȞȣȝȠ x 2
2x
3, ȜȪȞȠȣ-
2
ıȤȠȜİȓȠİȓȞĮȚ ȝİʌȡȫIJĮIJȘȞİȟȓıȦıȘ x
2x
3 = 0.
DzȤȠȣȝİ

=  2
4 = (
2 )
4 1(
3 ) = 4 + 12 = 16,
2

1.07 
ȠʌȩIJİȠȚȜȪıİȚȢIJȘȢİȟȓıȦıȘȢİȓȞĮȚ
L ǹȞȠȚIJȡİȚȢįȚĮįȠȤȚțȠȓĮȡȚșȝȠȓİȓȞĮȚȠȚ
,

+ 1,
+ 2, IJȩIJİIJȠȐșȡȠȚıȝȐIJȠȣȢİȓȞĮȚ
(
2) + 16 2+4 6
x1 = = = = 3, țĮȚ

+
+ 1 +
+ 2 = 27, Ȓ 3
+ 3 = 27, Ȓ 2 1 2 2

(
2)
16 2
4
2
3
= 24, Ȓ
= 8. x2 = = = =
1.
ȅʌȩIJİȠȚȗȘIJȠȪȝİȞȠȚĮȡȚșȝȠȓİȓȞĮȚȠȚțĮȚ 2 1 2 2
LLȆĮȡĮIJȘȡȠȪȝİȩIJȚ 35 = 243. ǹȞȣʌȐȡȤİȚĮȡȚș- x +1 1
DZȡĮȘ ȖȓȞİIJĮȚ
= 0, ʌȠȣ
ȝȩȢ ț IJȩIJİ
+
+ 1 +
+ 2 = 243, ȐȡĮ
 ( x
3 ) ( x + 1) x
2
ȖȚĮȞĮȑȤİȚȞȩȘȝĮʌȡĮȖȝĮIJȚțȠȪĮȡȚșȝȠȪʌȡȑʌİȚ
3
= 240 Ȓ
= 80. ǼʌȠȝȑȞȦȢ RȚ ȗȘIJȠȪȝİȞȠȚ
ĮȡȚșȝȠȓİȓȞĮȚȠȚ
( x
3 ) ( x + 1)  0 țĮȚ x
2  0. 
ǻȘȜĮįȒĮȡțİȓ x
3  0, țĮȚ x + 1
0,
LLLȆĮȡĮIJȘȡȠȪȝİȩIJȚĮȞ

1,
,
+ 1 İȓȞĮȚIJȡİȚȢ
țĮȚ x
2  0, ȐȡĮ x
3, țĮȚ x 
1, țĮȚ x
2,
įȚĮįȠȤȚțȠȓĮȡȚșȝȠȓIJȩIJİ
įȘȜĮįȒ x 
1, 2, 3.
(

1) +
+ (
+ 1) = 3
, įȘȜĮįȒ . .
.  μ = ( x
3 ) ( x + 1) ( x
2 ) .
(

1) +
+ (
+ 1) = 
3. DZȡĮ IJȠ ȐșȡȠȚ- ȆȠȜȜĮʌȜĮıȚȐȗȠȣȝİȝİIJȠǼȀȆțĮȚIJĮįȪȠȝȑ-
ıȝĮ IJȡȚȫȞ įȚĮįȠȤȚțȫȞ ĮȡȚșȝȫȞ İȓȞĮȚ ʌȠȜ- ȜȘIJȘȢ țĮȚĮȣIJȒȖȓȞİIJĮȚ

ȜĮʌȜȐıȚȠIJȠȣ
( x + 1) ( x
2 )
( x
3 ) ( x + 1) = 0. Ǻ Ȗ Ȑ ȗȠ ȣ ȝ İ
țȠȚȞȩʌĮȡȐȖȠȞIJĮIJȠ x + 1 țĮȚȑȤȠȣȝİ
  ȅȚĮȡȚșȝȠȓȞțĮȚ  + 1 İȓȞĮȚįȚĮįȠȤȚțȠȓ ( x + 1) [ ( x
2 )
( x
3 ) ] = 0
ijȣıȚțȠȓĮȡȚșȝȠȓȅʌȩIJİȑȤȠȣȝİ ( x + 1) ( x
2
x + 3 ) = 0 
(
+ 1) 2

2 =
2 + 2
+ 1

2 = 2
+ 1 ʌİȡȚIJIJȩȢ x + 1 = 0, ȐȡĮ x =
1.
ĮijȠȪ țȐșİ ʌİȡȚIJIJȩȢ ĮȡȚșȝȩȢ ȑȤİȚ IJȘ ȝȠȡijȒ ȀĮșȫȢ x 
1, 2, 3, Ș x =
1 ĮʌȠȡȡȓʌIJİIJĮȚDZȡĮ
2 + 1, ȩʌȠȣȞijȣıȚțȩȢĮȡȚșȝȩȢ ȘİȟȓıȦıȘ įİȞȑȤİȚțĮȝȓĮȜȪıȘİȓȞĮȚĮįȪȞĮIJȘ



 ǹȆȅȉǾȃǹȇǿĬȂǾȉǿȀǾȈȉǾȃǹȁīǼǺȇǹ

1.11  (
2 + 3
+ 1) 2
1 = (
2 + 3
+ 1) 2
12 = ( )
2
țĮȚ 3 + 2 2 = 2 + 1 . ǼʌȠȝȑȞȦȢ
= (  2 + 3 + 1 + 1) (  2 + 3 ) 
17
12 2 + 3
2 2 + 3 + 2 2 = 
= (  2 + 3 + 2 ) (  2 + 3 ) 
(3
2 2 ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2
2 = + 2
1 + 2 +1 =
ǾʌĮȡȐıIJĮıȘ  + 3 + 2 ȖȓȞİIJĮȚ
 2 + 3 + 2 =  2 +  + 2 + 2 = = 3
2 2 + 2
1 + 2 + 1 = 3.
=  (  + 1) + 2 (  + 1) = (  + 1) (  + 2 )
1.15  ȆȠȜȜĮʌȜĮıȚȐȗȠȣȝİ țĮȚ IJĮ įȪȠ ȝȑȜȘ
DZȡĮ (  2 + 3 + 1)
1
2

IJȘȢȚıȩIJȘIJĮȢ ȝİ x
x 2 + 1, țĮȚȑȤȠȣȝİ
= (  + 1) (  + 2 )  (  + 3 ) = 
=  (  + 1) (  + 2 ) (  + 3 ) .  ( )( )(
x
x2 +1 x + x2 +1 y + y2 +1 = )
= ( x
x + 1 ) . 
2

1.12  ȆĮȡĮIJȘȡȠȪȝİȩIJȚ 21 < 42 < 21 Ȓ

5
4 2 2
( x
x
1) ( y + y + 1 ) = x
x + 1. DZȡĮ
2 2

42 42 42
10
<


<
8
Ȓ 8 <
< 10, ȖȚĮIJȓ ȩIJĮȞ ȑȤȠȣȝİ
(
1) ( y + y + 1 ) = x
x + 1. ȅʌȩIJİ
2 2

țȜȐıȝĮIJĮȝİȓıȠȣȢĮȡȚșȝȘIJȑȢȝİȖĮȜȪIJİȡȠİȓȞĮȚ 2 2
ĮȣIJȩȝİIJȠȞȝȚțȡȩIJİȡȠʌĮȡȠȞȠȝĮıIJȒȅȗȘIJȠȪ- y + y + 1 = x + 1
x (2)

ȆȠȜȜĮʌȜĮıȚȐȗȠȣȝİțĮȚIJĮįȪȠȝȑȜȘIJȘȢ
ȝİȞȠȢĮȡȚșȝȩȢİȓȞĮȚȠțĮȚȘĮȡȚșȝȘIJȚțȒIJȚȝȒ
IJȘȢʌĮȡȐıIJĮıȘȢİȓȞĮȚ ȚıȩIJȘIJĮȢ ȝİ y
y 2 + 1, țĮȚȑȤȠȣȝİ

 = 9 + 5 ( 4 + 9 ) + 3 ( 9
4 ) + 1925 = 2014. ( )(
x + x2 +1 y + y2 +1 y
y2 +1 = )( )
1.13  Ȃİ ȕȐıȘ IJȘȞ
4 < 1
2
< 5, ȑȤȠȣȝİ = y
( ) (
y2 +1 = x + x2 +1 )(y 2

y 2
1) =

5 <
2
< 4, ȠʌȩIJİ ʌȠȜȜĮʌȜĮıȚȐȗȠȞIJĮȢ ȝİ
= y
y 2 + 1. DZȡĮ

5
2
4

2, Ș ʌĮȡȐıIJĮıȘ ȖȓȞİIJĮȚ
5

2
>

2
>

2
, ȐȡĮ
(x + x2 +1 ) (
1) = y
y 2 + 1, ȠʌȩIJİ
>
>
2. īȞȦȡȓȗȠȣȝİ ȩIJȚ Ƞ ȕ İȓȞĮȚ șİIJȚțȩȢ
2 x + x 2 + 1 = y 2 + 1
y (3).
țĮȚ ĮțȑȡĮȚȠȢ ȐȡĮ ȠȚ įȣȞĮIJȑȢ IJȚȝȑȢ ʌȠȣ ȝʌȠȡİȓ ǹʌȩIJȘȞȚıȩIJȘIJĮ ȑʌİIJĮȚ

ȞĮʌȐȡİȚİȓȞĮȚ
= 1 Ȓ
= 2. 
y + y 2 + 1
x 2 + 1 + x = 0 (4),
īȚĮ
= 1 ȘĮȞȓıȦıȘȖȓȞİIJĮȚ
3 țĮȚĮʌȩIJȘȞȚıȩIJȘIJĮ ȑʌİIJĮȚ
2 ( x + 1)
( x + 1) < x, ȠʌȩIJİ 
2 x + x 2 + 1
y 2 + 1 + y = 0 (5).
3x 3
2x

x <
2 țĮȚIJİȜȚțȐ x > 1. ȆȡȠıșȑIJȠȞIJĮȢIJȚȢ țĮȚ ʌĮȓȡȞȠȣȝİ
2 2  
īȚĮ
= 2 ȘĮȞȓıȦıȘȖȓȞİIJĮȚ 2x + 2 y = 0, ȐȡĮ 2 ( x + y ) = 0, ȠʌȩIJİ x + y = 0.
3 x
2 ( x + 1)
( x + 1) < , ȠʌȩIJİ 1.16  ȆĮȡĮIJȘȡȠȪȝİȩIJȚ
2 2
1 x (

 ) + ( 
) + (

) =
2
( x + 1) < 2 , ȐȡĮ x + 1 < x. ȅʌȩIJİ x
x <
1, =

 + 
 + 

= 0.
ȅʌȩIJİ  = ( 
 ) + ( 
 ) + ( 
 ) =
3 3 3
įȘȜĮįȒ 0  x <
1, ʌȠȣİȓȞĮȚȐIJȠʌȠ
DZȡĮȠȚȜȪıİȚȢIJȘȢĮȞȓıȦıȘȢİȓȞĮȚ x > 1. = 3 (

 ) (

 ) ( 

). 

ǺǯȀĮIJȘȖȠȡȓĮĮıțȒıİȦȞ
1.14 1.17  DzıIJȦ
 ȆĮȡĮIJȘȡȠȪȝİȩIJȚ
xyzw = 1000x + 100 y + 10z + w Ƞ ȗȘIJȠȪȝİȞȠȢ
( ), ( )
2 2
17
12 2 = 3
2 2 3
2 2 = 2
1 IJİIJȡĮȥȒijȚȠȢijȣıȚțȩȢĮȡȚșȝȩȢȉȩIJİıȪȝijȦȞĮȝİ


ĬǼȍȇǿǹȀǹǿǹȈȀǾȈǼǿȈ

IJȠLșĮİȓȞĮȚ w = 0 ȒȒ ȠʌȩIJİıȪȝijȦȞĮȝİ (
+  ) (
+ )

2 2
IJȠLLșĮİȓȞĮȚ z = 0 ȒȒĮȞIJȓıIJȠȚȤĮǼʌȓıȘȢ ȅȝȠȓȦȢȕȡȓıțȠȣȝİ   + 1 =

2
ıȪȝijȦȞĮ ȝİ IJȠ LLL șĮ İȓȞĮȚ y = 1 Ȓ  DzIJıȚ ȠȚ (  +
) (  + ) .
įȣȞĮIJȑȢȝȠȡijȑȢIJȠȣĮȡȚșȝȠȪİȓȞĮȚ țĮȚ  2
2 + 1 =
2
x100, x124, x148, x500, x524, x548 
ȅʌȩIJİ  = (  2  2 + 1) (  2  2 + 1) (  2  2 + 1) =
ȁĮȝȕȐȞȠȞIJĮȢ ȣʌȩȥȘ țĮȚ IJȠ LY țĮIJĮȜȒȖȠȣ-
ȝİ ıIJȠȣȢ ĮȡȚșȝȠȪȢ    ĮijȠȪ IJȠ
=
(  +
)(  +  ) (
+  )(
+  ) (  +
)(  +  )

ʌȡȫIJȠȥȘijȓȠIJİIJȡĮȥȒijȚȠȣijȣıȚțȠȪĮȡȚșȝȠȪįİȞ 2
2 2
ȝʌȠȡİȓȞĮİȓȞĮȚIJȠ
=
(  +  )2 (  +  )2 (  +  )2 =
 2  2 2
  ǹijȠȪ
+ 2 +  = 0, IJȩIJİ (
+  ) (  +  ) (  +
) , ʌȠȣİȓȞĮȚȡȘIJȩȢ
2 =
2




+ =
2, ȐȡĮțĮȚ 
+  = 4 2 . ȅȝȠȓȦȢ
2  2
 2 1.21  ǼʌİȚįȒIJȠIJȡȓȖȦȞȠİȓȞĮȚȠȡșȠȖȫȞȚȠȝİ

+ 2 =
, ȐȡĮțĮȚ (
+ 2 ) =
2
.
2 4

= 90°, ȜȩȖȦʌȣșĮȖȩȡİȚȠȣșİȦȡȒȝĮIJȠȢȑȤȠȣ-
2

2
ȝİ
2 =  2 +  2 . ȅʌȩIJİ
DZȡĮ A =

+  (
+ 2 ) = 
2

 2  = 3 +  3 + 3 = 3 +  2 + 3 =
2 =
3 +  (
2
2 ) + 3 =
3 + 3 +  (
2
2 ) 
=
2  2  2 = (
 ) = 100.
2

2 4 2
4  = 3 + 3 +  (2
2 ) =

 ȈȪȝijȦȞĮȝİIJȘȖȞȦıIJȒIJĮȣIJȩIJȘIJĮȖȚĮIJȠ = (
+  ) (


 +  ) +  (

 ) (
+  ) = 
2 2

ȐșȡȠȚıȝĮ țȪȕȦȞ ĮȞ
+  +  = 0 Ȓ
=  = , = (
+  ) 


 +  +  (

 )  
2 2

IJȩIJİ
3 +  3 +  3 = 3
. ȅʌȩIJİȑȤȠȣȝİ  = (  +  ) (  2
 +  2
 2 + 
 ) =

( 2


 ) + ( 2


) + ( 2


 ) = 0, ȐȡĮ = (
+  )
2 +
 +
2
 2


 
( )
 = ( 2

 ) + ( 2

 ) + ( 2

 ) =
3 3 3

= (  +  )[  (  +  ) + (  +  )( 
 )
(  +  ) ] =
= 3 ( 2


 ) ( 2


) ( 2


 ) .
= (
+  ) (
+  ) [
+ (

 )

] , İʌȠȝȑȞȦȢ
1.20  DzȤȠȣȝİ  = (  +  ) (  +  ) ( 2

 ) .
1 1 1
+ + =

 +
 +
 =
2  2  2  1.22  ȠȢIJȡȩʌȠȢ

 
ǼʌİȚįȒșȑȜȠȣȝİȞĮȣʌȠȜȠȖȓıȠȣȝİIJȠȣȢʌĮȡȐȖȠ- īȚĮȞĮįȚĮȚȡİȓIJĮȚȠĮȡȚșȝȩȢĮȝİIJȠȞĮȡțİȓȞĮ
ȞIJİȢ (
2  2 + 1) (  2  2 + 1) (  2
2 + 1) ȝȑıĮ ıIJȘ įȚĮȚȡȠȪȞIJĮȚȝİIJȠȞȠȚʌȡȠıșİIJȑȠȚʌȠȣIJȠȞĮʌȠ-
IJİȜȠȪȞ ȆĮȡĮIJȘȡȠȪȝİ ȩIJȚ 2222 = 7
317 + 3
ȡȓȗĮ Įʌȩ IJȘ ıȤȑıȘ
2  2  2 =  +
 +
, ĮȞ
2 țĮȚ 5555 = 7
793 + 4. ǼʌȠȝȑȞȦȢ ĮȞ ıIJȠȞ 
įȚĮȚȡȑıȠȣȝİțĮȚIJĮįȪȠȝȑȜȘȝİ
, ȑȤȠȣȝİ
ʌȡȠıIJİșİȓ Ƞ  țĮȚ Įʌȩ IJȠȞ  ĮijĮȚȡİșİȓ Ƞ

2  2  2  +
 +
 2 2  +
 +

=

 =
 șĮ ʌȡȠțȪȥȠȣȞ ʌȠȜȜĮʌȜȐıȚĮ IJȠȣ  ȅʌȩIJİ
2 2 2
= 2222 5555 + 5555 2222 =
 +
 +
 = 2222 5555 + 4 5555
4 5555 + 5555 2222
4 2222 + 4 2222 = 

2 2 +1 = 2
+ 1


2222 5555 + 5555 2222 = ( 2222 5555 + 4 5555 ) +
2 2  +
 +
 +  2

 +1=
2

+ ( 5555 2222
4 2222 )
( 4 5555
4 2222 ) = 

 +  +
 +  2 = ( 2222 + 4 ) ( 2222 5554
… + 4 5554 ) +

2 2 +1 = =
+ ( 5555
4 )( 5555 2221 + … +4 2221 )
4 2222 ( 4 3333
1)= 
2

 (
+ ) + (
+ ) ( +
) ( +
) = 2226 ( 2222 5554
… + 4 5554 ) +
= = 
2
2
+ 5551( 5555 2221 + … + 4 2221 )
4 2222 ( 4 3333
1) (1). 


 ǹȆȅȉǾȃǹȇǿĬȂǾȉǿȀǾȈȉǾȃǹȁīǼǺȇǹ

ȆĮȡĮIJȘȡȠȪȝİȩIJȚ 4 3333 = ( 4 3 ) n+1 = ( n + 1) + 3 ( n + 1) + 5 ( n + 1) + 3 =

1111 3 2
, ȠʌȩIJİ
= n + 3 ( n 2 + 3n + 3 ) , ȠʌȩIJİ ȜȩȖȦ IJȘȢ ȣʌȩșİ-
4 2222 ( 4 3333
1) = 4 2222  ( 4 3 )
11111  =
1111

  ıȘȢIJȘȢİʌĮȖȦȖȒȢȑʌİIJĮȚȩIJȚ 3 | n+1.
 ( 4 )
1   ( 4 )
2222 3  3 1110 1110 
=4 +…+1 . DZȡĮȠĮȡȚșȝȩȢ An = n 3 + 3n 2 + 5n + 3 įȚĮȚȡİȓIJĮȚ

DZȡĮȘ ȖȓȞİIJĮȚ


= 7  318 ( 2222 5554
… + 4 5554 ) +
+ 7  793 ( 5555 2221 + … + 4 2221 )


4 2222 ( 63 ) ( 64 1110 + … + 1) , İʌȠȝȑȞȦȢ

= 7  318 ( 2222 5554
… + 4 5554 ) +
+7793( 5555 2221 + … +4 2221 )
4 2222 79 ( 64 1110 +…+1)
ȝİIJȠȞȖȚĮțȐșİ n

* .
1.24  ǼʌİȚįȒ ȠȚ ıȤȑıİȚȢ IJȘȢ ȐıțȘıȘȢ İȝijĮ-
ȞȓȗȠȣȞIJȠȣȢxyıIJȠIJİIJȡȐȖȦȞȠșĮʌİȡȚȠȡȚıIJȠȪ-
ȝİıIJȘȞĮȞĮȗȒIJȘıȘșİIJȚțȫȞĮțİȡĮȓȦȞxy
ȆĮȡĮIJȘȡȠȪȝİ ȩIJȚ Ƞ 2x 2 İȓȞĮȚ ȐȡIJȚȠȢ ȠʌȩIJİ Ƞ
ʌȡȫIJȠȢĮȡȚșȝȩȢpʌȡȑʌİȚȞĮİȓȞĮȚʌİȡȚIJIJȩȢȈIJȠ
 ȓįȚȠıȣȝʌȑȡĮıȝĮțĮIJĮȜȒȖȠȣȝİĮȞĮʌȠțȜİȓıȠȣȝİ
țĮȚ
= 7  318 ( 2222 5554
… + 4 5554 ) + IJȘȞȚıȩIJȘIJĮȝİIJĮȟȪĮȡȚșȝȠȪpțĮȚȂİĮijĮȓ-
+793( 5555 2221 +…+4 2221 )
4 2222 9 ( 64 1110 +…+1)  = ȡİıȘțĮIJȐȝȑȜȘIJȦȞįȪȠıȤȑıİȦȞȜĮȝȕȐȞȠȣȝİ
= 7
, ȝİ


, ȩʌȠȣ p2
p = 2( y2
x2 ) 

= 318 ( 2222 5554
… + 4 5554 ) + p ( p
1) = 2 ( y
x ) ( y + x ) (1). 

ǼʌİȚįȒSʌİȡȚIJIJȩȢįİȞȝʌȠȡİȓȞĮįȚĮȚȡİȓIJȠȞ 
+793( 5555 2221 +…+4 2221 )
4 2222 9 ( 64 1110 +…+1). 
‡ ǹȞ p ( y
x ) , IJȩIJİ p  y
x, ȠʌȩIJİĮʌȩIJȘȞ
DZȡĮ 7 |
.
ȚıȩIJȘIJĮ  ʌȡȠțȪʌIJİȚ ȩIJȚ p
1  2 y + 2x,
ȠȢIJȡȩʌȠȢ 
țȐIJȚʌȠȣİȓȞĮȚȐIJȠʌȠ
ȈțȑȥȘ
‡ ǹȞ p ( y + x ) , IJȩIJİ p
y + x, ȠʌȩIJİĮʌȩIJȘȞ
Ǿ ȝȠȡijȒ IJȠȣ ĮșȡȠȓıȝĮIJȠȢ 2222 5555 + 5555 2222
ȚıȩIJȘIJĮ  ʌȡȠțȪʌIJİȚ ȩIJȚ p
1  2 y
2x.
ȝĮȢȠįȘȖİȓȞĮȤȡȘıȚȝȠʌȠȚȒıȠȣȝİIJȠȣȢIJȪʌȠȣȢ 
ǹʌȩIJȘȞIJİȜİȣIJĮȓĮıȤȑıȘȜĮȝȕȐȞȠȣȝİ

2  +  2  = (
+  )  


  = (

 ) μ.
p
1 + 2x
ȁȪıȘ y , ȠʌȩIJİ
5555 2222 5555 5555 2
DzȤȠȣȝİ 2222 + 5555 = 2222 + 5555
 p
1 + 2x

55555555 + 5555 2222  2222 5555 + 5555 2222 = p y+x + x  p + 1  4x (2). 
2
= 7777

5555 2222 ( 5555 3333
1) (1).  ǼʌİȚįȒ p + 1 = 2x 2 , ĮʌȩIJȘıȤȑıȘ ȜĮȝȕȐ-

ǼʌȓıȘȢȑȤȠȣȝİ ȞȠȣȝİIJȘȞĮȞȚıȩIJȘIJĮ 2x 2
4x  x
2.
5555 3333
1 = 5555 3333
4 3333 + 4 3333
1 = īȚĮ x = 1
p = 1 ȝȘ ʌȡȫIJȠȢ ĮȡȚșȝȩȢ İȞȫ
= 7
+ 64 1111
1 = 7
+ 7μ = 7 (2). ȖȚĮ x = 2 ȜĮȝȕȐȞȠȣȝİ p = 7.
ǹʌȩIJȚȢıȤȑıİȚȢ ʌȡȠțȪʌIJİȚIJȠȗȘIJȠȪȝİȞȠ

1.25  ȈȪȝijȦȞĮȝİIJȘȞĮȞȚıȩIJȘIJĮ
%XQLDNRYVNL&DXFK\6FKZDU]
īǯȀĮIJȘȖȠȡȓĮĮıțȒıİȦȞ
( 12 +  22 +  32 +…+  2 )( 12 +  22 +  32 + … +  2 )


(
1 1 +
2  2 +
3  3 + … +
   ) , ȖȚĮ IJȚȢ IJȡȚ-
2
1.23  ȠȢIJȡȩʌȠȢ
ȅĮȡȚșȝȩȢ n ȖȡȐijİIJĮȚ An = n 3 + 3n 2 + 5n + 3 =
= n 3
n + 3 ( n + 1) = n ( n
1) ( n + 1) + 3 ( n + 1) . 
2 2
ȐįİȢIJȦȞĮȡȚșȝȫȞ (  + ,  +
,
+  , )


  
ǼʌİȚįȒ Ƞ ȩȡȠȢ n ( n
1) ( n + 1) İȓȞĮȚ ȖȚȞȩȝİȞȠ  , ,  ȑȤȠȣȝİ
IJȡȚȫȞ įȚĮįȠȤȚțȫȞ ĮțİȡĮȓȦȞ ȩʌȦȢ ȖȞȦȡȓȗȠȣȝİ
 + +

+  
įȚĮȚȡİȓIJĮȚȝİIJȠȞ ǼʌİȚįȒțĮȚȠȩȡȠȢ 3 ( n + 1)
2  2 2 2 
( (  + )+( +
)+(
+  ) ) 
+ + +
+

+  

įȚĮȚȡİȓIJĮȚȝİIJȠȞȑʌİIJĮȚȩIJȚțĮȚ 3 | n .
ȠȢIJȡȩʌȠȢ 
2 2 2 
ǼȞĮȜȜĮțIJȚțȐșĮȝʌȠȡȠȪıĮȝİȞĮİȡȖĮıIJȠȪȝİȝİ
(
+  + ) 2 2(
+  + ) + +
 + +

+  

İʌĮȖȦȖȒ īȚĮ n = 1, ȑȤȠȣȝİ 1 = 12 = ʌȠȜȜĮ-
2 2 2
+  +
ʌȜȐıȚȠIJȠȣȊʌȠșȑIJȠȣȝİȩIJȚ 3 | n . ȉȩIJİȑȤȠȣȝİ (
+  + ) 2   + + +
+
+ 
2
(1).


ĬǼȍȇǿǹȀǹǿǹȈȀǾȈǼǿȈ

+ + 3 x2 y2 z2 3
ǹȜȜȐ

  DZȡĮȘ ȖȓȞİIJĮȚ + +
.
3  y+z x+z x+ y 2

+  + 
3 3
 (2). ǼʌİȚįȒ
 = 1, Ș Ȗȓ-
 1.27  RȢIJȡȩʌȠȢ
ȞİIJĮȚ
+  + 
3. ǼʌȠȝȑȞȦȢĮʌȩIJȘȞ ıȣ-
 ǹijȠȪ IJȠ ʌȜȒșȠȢ IJȦȞ ĮȖȠȡȚȫȞ ʌȠȣ įİ ȝȚȜȠȪȞ

2 2 2 3
ȞİʌȐȖİIJĮȚ + +
. ȖĮȜȜȚțȐ İȓȞĮȚ ȓıȠ ȝİ IJȠ ʌȜȒșȠȢ IJȦȞ țȠȡȚIJıȚȫȞ
+ +

+  2
ʌȠȣ ȝȚȜȠȪȞ ȖĮȜȜȚțȐ ȑʌİIJĮȚ ȩIJȚ IJȠ ʌȜȒșȠȢ IJȦȞ
ȝĮșȘIJȫȞ ʌȠȣ ȝȚȜȠȪȞ ȖĮȜȜȚțȐ ȚıȠȪIJĮȚ ȝİ IJȠ
1 1 1
1.26  ĬȑIJȠȣȝİ
= ,  = ,  = . ȅʌȩIJİ 55% IJȠȣ ıȣȞȩȜȠȣ IJȦȞ ȝĮșȘIJȫȞ ǼʌȠȝȑȞȦȢ IJȠ
x y z ʌȠıȠıIJȩ IJȦȞ ĮȖȠȡȚȫȞ ʌȠȣ ȝȚȜȠȪȞ ȖĮȜȜȚțȐ İʌȓ
1 1 1 IJȠȣ ıȣȞȩȜȠȣ IJȦȞ ȝĮșȘIJȫȞ IJȠȣ ıȤȠȜİȓȠȣ İȓȞĮȚ

 = 1 

= 1  xyz = 1 (1)
x y z 7 55 35
ǼʌȠȝȑȞȦȢ
= , įȘȜĮįȒIJȠ 35% İʌȓIJȠȣıȣȞȩ-
11 100 100
1 1 1 3
+ +
 ȜȠȣ IJȦȞ ȝĮșȘIJȫȞ ǼʌȠȝȑȞȦȢ ( 55
35 ) = 20%

3(  +  )  3(  +
)  3(
+  ) 2
İȓȞĮȚ IJȠ ʌȠıȠıIJȩ IJȦȞ ĮȖȠȡȚȫȞ ʌȠȣ įİ ȝȚȜȠȪȞ
1 1 1 3
+ +
 ȖĮȜȜȚțȐ
 İʌȓ IJȠȣ ıȣȞȩȜȠȣ IJȦȞ ȝĮșȘIJȫȞ ĮȜȜȐ
1  1 1 1  1 1 1  1 1 2
 +   +   +  țĮȚIJȦȞțȠȡȚIJıȚȫȞʌȠȣȝȚȜȠȪȞȖĮȜȜȚțȐǼʌȠȝȑ-
x3  y z  y3  z x  z3  x y  ȞȦȢ IJȠ ʌȠıȠıIJȩ IJȦȞ țȠȡȚIJıȚȫȞ ʌȠȣ įİ ȝȚȜȠȪȞ
x 3 yz xy 3 z
+ +
xyz 3 3 (1)
+
 ȖĮȜȜȚțȐ İȓȞĮȚ ( 100
55
20 ) = 25%, ȠʌȩIJİ IJȠ
y+z x+z x+ y 2 25% IJȦȞ țȠȡȚIJıȚȫȞ ʌȠȣ įİ ȝȚȜȠȪȞ ȖĮȜȜȚțȐ
x2 y2 z2 3 ĮȞIJȚıIJȠȚȤİȓıİȝĮșȘIJȑȢDZȡĮIJȠʌȜȒșȠȢIJȦȞ
+ + +
. ȋȡȘıȚȝȠʌȠȚȠȪȝİ 100
y+z x+z x+ y 2 ȝĮșȘIJȫȞ IJȠȣ ıȤȠȜİȓȠȣ İȓȞĮȚ 60
= 240. Ǿ
IJȘȞĮȞȚıȩIJȘIJĮ%XQLDNRYVNL&DXFK\6FKZDU]ȖȚĮ 25
x y z ʌĮȡĮʌȐȞȦ įȚĮįȚțĮıȓĮ ȝʌȠȡİȓ ȞĮ ʌİȡȚȖȡĮijİȓ ȝİ

1 = ,
2 = ,
3 = țĮȚ IJȠıȤȒȝĮʌȠȣĮțȠȜȠȣșİȓȦȢİȟȒȢ
y+z x+z x+ y

1 = y + z ,
2 = x + z ,
3 = x + y , 
ȠʌȩIJİȑȤȠȣȝİ
2 2 2

x 
y 
z 

  +   +   
  y + z x+z  x + y 

( ) ( ) (
 y+ z 2+ x+ z 2+ x+ y 2


)

2
 x y z 
 y+ z + x+ z + x+ y 

 y+ z x+ z x+ y 

x2 y2 z2 
 y + z + x + z + x + y 

[( y + z ) + ( x + z ) + ( x + y )]
( x + y + z ) ȈȣȝȕȠȜȚțȐ ȑȤȠȣȝİ A = ıȪȞȠȜȠ ĮȖȠȡȚȫȞ ıȤȠ-

2


55x
 x2 y2 z2  ȜİȓȠȣȝİ  = .
 y + z x + z x + y  [ 2 ( x + y + z ) ]

+ + 100
45x
K = ıȪȞȠȜȠțȠȡȚIJıȚȫȞıȤȠȜİȓȠȣȝİ  = .

(x + y + z) 
2
 100
x2 y2 z2 x+ y+z  = ıȪȞȠȜȠĮȖȠȡȚȫȞʌȠȣįİȝȚȜȠȪȞȖĮȜȜȚțȐ
+ +
(2)   = ıȪȞȠȜȠĮȖȠȡȚȫȞʌȠȣȝȚȜȠȪȞȖĮȜȜȚțȐ
y+z x+z x+ y 2
x+ y+z 3  = ıȪȞȠȜȠțȠȡȚIJıȚȫȞʌȠȣįİȝȚȜȠȪȞȖĮȜȜȚțȐ
ǹȜȜȐ
xyz , țĮȚİʌİȚįȒ xyz = 1,  = ıȪȞȠȜȠțȠȡȚIJıȚȫȞʌȠȣȝȚȜȠȪȞȖĮȜȜȚțȐ
3
Ȃİ ȕȐıȘ IJȘȞ ȣʌȩșİıȘ ȑȤȠȣȝİ ȩIJȚ IJȠ ʌȜȒșȠȢ
ȑȤȠȣȝİ x + y + z
3 3 xyz  x + y + z
3.
IJȦȞıIJȠȚȤİȓȦȞĮʌȩIJĮıȪȞȠȜĮǹȅī țĮȚȀȃī


 ǹȆȅȉǾȃǹȇǿĬȂǾȉǿȀǾȈȉǾȃǹȁīǼǺȇǹ

İȓȞĮȚ IJȠ ȓįȚȠ įȘȜĮįȒ   =  , ȠʌȩIJİ   ǹȞįİȤIJȠȪȝİȩIJȚȣʌȐȡȤİȚ 

, ȫıIJİȠȚ
ȑȤȠȣȝİ
ĮȡȚșȝȠȓ  =  3 + 3 2 + 2 + 1 țĮȚ  = 3 2 + 3
1
ĮȡȚșȝȩȢȝĮșȘIJȫȞʌȠȣȝȚȜȠȪȞȖĮȜȜȚțȐ
ȞĮȑȤȠȣȞIJȠȓįȚȠȐșȡȠȚıȝĮȥȘijȓȦȞțĮȚȈİȓȞĮȚIJȠ
 +  =   +  =
ȐșȡȠȚıȝĮIJȦȞȥȘijȓȦȞIJȠȣ ĮIJȩIJİȈșĮİȓȞĮȚțĮȚ
55x
=
100
(  μ
 
 ) , IJȠȐșȡȠȚıȝĮIJȦȞȥȘijȓȦȞIJȠȣȕ
ǿıȤȪİȚ
=  ( mod 9 ) țĮȚ  =
( mod 9 )
7 55x 35x
 =
= , ǺĮıȚțȩșİȫȡȘȝĮıİȜ ȕȜȑʌİʌĮ-
11 100 100 
ȡĮIJȒȡȘıȘ
x 20x
  = ( 55
35 ) = =  ,  ȅȚʌĮȡĮʌȐȞȦıȤȑıİȚȢįȓȞȠȣȞ
100 100


 = 0 ( mod 9 )
x 25x ǹȜȜȐ

 = 0 ( mod 9 )  9 |

 (2).
 = ( 45
20 ) = = 60 
100 100
x = 240. 
ȠȢIJȡȩʌȠȢ
DzıIJȦxIJȠʌȜȒșȠȢIJȦȞĮȖȠȡȚȫȞțĮȚyIJȠʌȜȒșȠȢ
IJȦȞ țȠȡȚIJıȚȫȞ DzıIJȦ ĮțȩȝȘ Į IJȠ ʌȜȒșȠȢ IJȦȞ
ĮȖȠȡȚȫȞʌȠȣȖȞȦȡȓȗȠȣȞȖĮȜȜȚțȐțĮȚțIJȠʌȜȒ-
șȠȢIJȦȞțȠȡȚIJıȚȫȞʌȠȣȖȞȦȡȓȗȠȣȞȖĮȜȜȚțȐ
ǹʌȩ IJĮ įİįȠȝȑȞĮ IJȠȣ ʌȡȠȕȜȒȝĮIJȠȢ ʌȡȠțȪ-
ʌIJȠȣȞȠȚʌĮȡĮțȐIJȦİȟȚıȫıİȚȢ ȅʌȩIJİ 3 | 2, ʌȠȣ İȓȞĮȚ ȐIJȠʌȠDZȡĮ ȠȚ ĮȡȚșȝȠȓ
ǼijȩıȠȞ IJȠ 55% IJȦȞ ȝĮșȘIJȫȞ İȓȞĮȚ ĮȖȩȡȚĮ șĮ
55
ȚıȤȪİȚ x =
100
ǹʌȩIJȘıȤȑıȘıȣȝʌİȡĮȓȞȠȣȝİ 3 |

.
DzȤȠȣȝİȩȝȦȢ

 =  3 + 3 2 + 2 + 1


( 3
2 + 3

1) =
3

+ 2 =
(
2
1) + 2  


( 
1)  (  + 1) = 2. 
ǼʌİȚįȒ 3 |

 țĮȚ 3 | ( 
1)  (  + 1) ȦȢ ȖȚȞȩ-
ȝİȞȠIJȡȚȫȞįȚĮįȠȤȚțȫȞijȣıȚțȫȞșĮįȚĮȚȡİȓțĮȚ
IJȘ įȚĮijȠȡȐ įȘȜĮįȒ 3 | 

( 
1)  (  + 1) . 
ĮȕȑȤȠȣȞįȚĮijȠȡİIJȚțȩȐșȡȠȚıȝĮȥȘijȓȦȞ
( x + y )
100x = 55x + 55y
  ȉȠįİȪIJİȡȠȝȑȜȠȢIJȘȢ įȘȜĮįȒIJȠ
9 
9x = 11y
y = x (1). 

=


 …

    …  , ȠįȘȖİȓ ıIJȘȞ
11










 
ǼijȩıȠȞIJȠʌȜȒșȠȢIJȦȞĮȖȠȡȚȫȞʌȠȣįİȝȚȜȠȪȞ İȟȒȢȜȪıȘ
ȖĮȜȜȚțȐ İȓȞĮȚ ȓıȠ ȝİ IJȠ ʌȜȒșȠȢ IJȦȞ țȠȡȚIJıȚȫȞ ǹʌȩIJȘȖȞȦıIJȒĮȞȚıȩIJȘIJĮIJȠȣ&DXFK\ȑȤȠȣȝİ
ʌȠȣȝȚȜȠȪȞȖĮȜȜȚțȐșĮȚıȤȪİȚ 








 










x

=   x =  +
(2) 
+
+ ... +
+  +  + ... + 
+  


 ,
7
+ 
ȉĮĮȖȩȡȚĮʌȠȣȝȚȜȠȪȞȖĮȜȜȚțȐİȓȞĮȚIJĮ IJȦȞ
11 2


 
(2) ,

+ 
ȠʌȩIJİʌĮȓȡȞȠȣȝİ

ȝĮșȘIJȫȞʌȠȣȝȚȜȠȪȞȖĮȜȜȚțȐDZȡĮ
+ 
7 (2)
7 țĮȚİʌȓıȘȢ
2 +  2
2
  (
+  )
4
 
2

11
(  +
) =


11
x =
(3)

+  2

ǼʌİȚįȒIJȠʌȜȒșȠȢIJȦȞțȠȡȚIJıȚȫȞʌȠȣȝȚȜȠȪȞȖĮȜ-
(3). 
ȜȚțȐ İȓȞĮȚ  șĮ ȚıȤȪİȚ Ș ȚıȩIJȘIJĮ y =
+ 60. 2
+ 
ȆȡȠıșȑIJȠȞIJĮȢțĮȚıIJĮįȪȠȝȑȜȘIJȘȢIJİȜİȣIJĮȓĮȢ ǹʌȩIJȚȢıȤȑıİȚȢ țĮȚ ȑȤȠȣȝİ
 
+ 
ȚıȩIJȘIJĮȢIJȠĮȑȤȠȣȝİ
+ 
+  

+ 


 



(2)
2  2 
y =  + 60
y +
=  +
+ 6

 9 7 1.30  ȆȡȠıʌĮșȠȪȝİȞĮįȘȝȚȠȣȡȖȒıȠȣȝİĮȞĮ-
y +
= x + 60 x+ x = x + 60

11 11 ʌIJȪȖȝĮIJĮIJİIJȡĮȖȫȞȦȞ
5
x = 60
x = 132  3 4+1 + 1 = 3
3 4 + 1 =
11
= 3 4 + 3 4 + 3 4
2  3 2 + 1 + 2  3 2 = 
DZȡĮIJȠʌȜȒșȠȢIJȦȞĮȖȠȡȚȫȞİȓȞĮȚIJȠʌȜȒșȠȢ
= 3 4
2  3 2 + 1 + 3 4 + 3 4 + 3 2 + 3 2 = 
9 9
IJȦȞ țȠȡȚIJıȚȫȞ y = x=
132 = 108, ȠʌȩIJİ = ( 3 2
1) + 3 4 + 2  33 + 3 2 + 3 4
2  33 + 3 2 =
2
11 11
= ( 3 2

1) + ( 3 2
+ 3
) + ( 3 2

3
) 
2 2 2
IJȠıȣȞȠȜȚțȩʌȜȒșȠȢIJȦȞȝĮșȘIJȫȞİȓȞĮȚ