Liza Simon 3-22-19

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Chapter I
The Problem and Review of Related Literature
Introduction
Teaching content and context are constantly
changing. The emerging concerns and challenges brought
about by educational reforms influenced the learning
environment and the student achievement. There is a
need therefore of reviewing the instructional practices
and a careful analysis of how learning intercorrelates
with one another.
In her long years of teaching, the researcher
believed that, it is beyond argument that the teacher
plays an important role in the learners search for
knowledge. In every teaching-learning activity, the
teacher influenced the learning styles of the students.
The students respond either positively or

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negatively depending on the teachers’ attributes and
skill in presenting a learning task.
The nature of the subject matter needs to be
considered in determining the strategy to be used.
The choice of an appropriate teaching methodology
is also an important concern for the researcher as
teachers vary in their selection of strategy. As
Chickering, A.W. & Gamson, A.F. (2008) said, particular
content maybe taught successfully at one time using the
strategy which at another time with a different class
would turn out ineffective. There should be a suitable
match between subject matter and strategy to achieve
teaching effectiveness.
This inspired the researcher as she came up with
the study as she believed that teaching competence and

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mastery of a variety of teaching strategies make
teaching effective and productive.
Review of Related Literature and Studies
Direct Instruction: a Definition
Direct instruction is a model for teaching that “…
emphasizes well-developed and carefully planned lessons
designed around small learning increments and clearly
defined and prescribed teaching tasks” (National
Institute for Direct Instruction, 2007). A major benefit
of this form of teaching is that it provides a means of
efficiently communicating large amounts of information in
a short period of time. However, it is often criticized,
as learners take on a passive, rather than an active
role.
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The direct instruction model was created by
Engelmann and colleagues in the 1960s at the University
of Illinois at Champagne-Urbana. The first implementation
of the model was known as Direct Instruction System for
Teaching and Remediation (DISTAR), which consisted of
programs that addressed reading, language, and math.
Elements of the direct-instruction model gained
recognition in 1974 with a work addressing teacher
behaviors and their relation to student performance
(Ryder, R.S., Burton, S.L. & Silberg, A. 2008). These
teacher behaviors include “…emphasizing seatwork,
directing instruction, controlling pace, supervising
seatwork, and working with students in small groups”. It
is rooted behavioral theory, specifically what Skinner
labeled as radical or selectionist behaviorism, as it

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involves behaviors selected by the consequences which
follow them.
Six Function of Direct Instruction
According to Magliaro, S.G., Lockee, B.B. and
Burton, S.K. (2010) there are six functions of each
direct instruction lesson, which are: review,
presentation, guided practice, corrections and feedback,
independent practice, and weekly and monthly reviews.
The idea behind this methodology is that direct
instruction eliminates misconceptions which occur during
the learning process, and allows for accelerated and more
efficient learning. It is a highly organized, teacher
directed approach, in which skills are divided into small
units, ordered sequentially, and taught explicitly. Each

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component of the task associated with the target behavior
is taught by the teacher.
The teacher also models the behavior, provides
practice and feedback, and assesses whether or not the
skill needs to be retaught. It is not a lecture approach,
but rather an instructional model that focuses on the
interaction between teachers and students.
The fundamental principle that connects the
components of Direct Instruction is that “…learners are
actively engaged in the relevant curriculum in order to
build knowledge, skills, and dispositions related to the
goals and objectives of the lesson.
Teacher-centered methods of instruction are
often necessary to educate students on difficult material
that requires multiple steps, and for procedures which
are unlikely for students to discover on their own.

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Direct instruction approaches can be tied to three
principles; language is broken down into components
taught in isolation; learning is teacher directed; and
students have little input.
In Support of Direct Instruction
Minimally-guided instructional approaches are very
popular; however these approaches ignore the structures
that constitute human cognitive architecture. A meta-
analysis conducted by Kirschner, P.A., Sweller, J. &
Clark, R.E. (2008) examined minimally-guided
instructional approaches and found, based upon knowledge
of human cognitive structure, discovery learning is
ineffective.
They believe that “minimally guided instruction
appears to proceed with no reference to the

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characteristics of working memory, long-term memory, or
the intricate relations between them”. One of the goals
of instruction is to give learners specific guidance
about how to manipulate information in ways that are
consistent with a goal, and enable the students to store
this knowledge in long-term memory.
Additionally Kirschner, P.A., Sweller, J. &
Clark, R.E. (2006) stated that the methods of effective
instruction must also be sensitive to the limits imposed
on working memory, and how those limits disappear when
working with familiar information. A great deal of
discovery learning ignores the limits of working memory,
as problem-based searching makes heavy demands on it.
This form of instruction also does not enable
information to get stored in long-term memory, because
while working memory is being used to search for

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solutions, it is not available to be used to learn and
store.
Educational Implications
Kingdon, G. (2008) said that it is important to note
that the teaching style used in the direct instruction
intervention was not completely teacher-driven. The
teacher did interact with the students, rather than just
presenting the lesson in a lecture format.
The discovery learning intervention allowed for
minimal guidance. This is important, as most students
learn from a mixture of approaches, and most teachers
implement their lessons using a blend of pedagogical
techniques.
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Direct instruction can also be implemented on a
wide scale, making it especially useful for distance
learning with older students. As education expands to
more areas and is disseminated to increasingly diverse
learners, this method of instruction is likely to be
used. It allows for students from all over to interact
with an instructor and obtain valuable information.
Is Direct Instruction an Answer to the Right
Question?
Capon, N. & Kuhn, D. (2010) make a strong case for
the efficacy, and hence desirability, of what is
currently referred to as “direct instruction,” over its
alternatives, at all age levels. If the students want to
learn something, they claim, they will be most successful
if we convey it to them in as explicit, direct, and

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highly scaffolded manner as possible. Flum, H. & Kaplan,
A. (2010) position comprises two separable claims—that
direct instruction is effective and that other methods
are ineffective. Each of these claims, is debatable, and
some experimental evidence exists that fails to support
them. Their research have shown that direct instruction
does not fare so well when one takes the “long view,”
over time and transfer to new contexts. On the other
hand, well-controlled experimental studies have shown
that students’ learning is enhanced when they have
identified a question or a problem to address.
Rather than pursue a detailed discussion of
this evidence or contrasting evidence supporting claims,
here, instead, to pursue a theme based on the most
striking about the treatment of their topic—the fact that
nowhere in the article do they make any reference to what

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it is that a teacher might be seeking to teach and
students undertaking to learn. Implicit in their
presentation is the assumption that their claims about
how best to teach and learn are universally applicable,
irrespective of what is being taught to whom or why.
Availability and adequacy of Instructional Materials
National Centre for Early Childhood (2006) states
that merely using Instructional Materials (IM) does not
guarantee effective teaching, to make teaching and
participation effective, the Instructional Materials (IM)
must be appropriately selected and used. ECE teachers
must, therefore become familiar with the types of IM if
greater value is to be derived from their use. He
further states that the primary function of (IM)
Instructional Materials as a communication device is to

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serve as a more concrete reference to meaning than spoken
or written word. According to Allen, K.E. and Hart, B.
(2008) in the teaching learning process, IM serves
functions of enhancing retention which makes learning
more permanent. Equally, they stimulate and sustain
interest in learning by providing first-hand experience
with the realities of the physical and social
environment.
It is necessary to note that (IM) Instructional
Materials are important catalysts of social re-
engineering and change in learners. It is obvious that
effective instructions cannot be well accomplished
without the use of instructional materials. The reason is
not farfetched: advances in technology have brought
instructional materials especially the projected and
electronic materials to the forefront as the most radical

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tools of globalization and social development which have
affected the classroom teaching-learning situation
positively. Such technological breakthroughs as networked
and non-networked; projected and non-projected; visual,
auditory, audio-visual electronic materials are important
landmarks in knowledge transfer. With them both teaching
and learning become very pleasant experiences.
According to Boissiere, M., Knight, J.B. and
Sabot, R.H. (2005) instructional materials possess some
inherent advantages that make them unique in teaching.
For one thing, they provide the teacher with interesting
and compelling platforms for conveying information since
they motivate learners to want to learn more and more.
Also, by providing opportunities for private study
and reference, the learner’s interest and curiosity are
increasingly stimulated. Further, the teacher is assisted

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in overcoming physical difficulties that could have
hindered his effective presentation of a given topic.
They generally make teaching and learning easier and less
stressful. They are equally indispensable catalysts of
social and intellectual development of the learners.
Relationship between Teaching and Instructional
Materials
Capon, N. & Kuhn, D. (2010) pointed to a good
relationship between effective teachings and using of
instructional materials. He argued that “. . . while some
educators have been fascinated by the potential of
instructional materials to enhance teaching and learning,
teachers lagged behind in using instructional materials
during teaching and learning. Others expressed doubts

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that instructional materials will ever incite teaching
reform on participation”.
Instructional materials are integral components of
teaching-learning situations; it is not just to
supplement learning but to complement its process. It
then shows that, if there must be an effective teaching-
learning activity, utilization of instructional materials
will be necessary.
Chickering, A.W. & Gamson, A.F. (2008) assert
that, “teaching equipment and materials have changed over
the years, not only to facilitate teaching learning
situation but also to address the instructional needs of
individuals and groups”. Instructional materials are made
up of objects such as printed, audio, visual that aid in
the successful delivery of lesson. To this end,
instructional materials are said to be objects or things

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the teacher can use in the classroom while teaching in
order to ease off his teaching activities.
However, instructional materials cannot address all
the teaching-learning problems but it can go a long way
in solving them, simply because, they are additional
apparatus that can influence the reality of teaching and
learning activities.
Teaching Aids Concept
Clark, A., Kjørholt, A.T. and Moss, P. (eds) (2011)
explained that, “the concept of teaching aids has gone
through several evolutionary stages from the simple aids,
instructional technology, and media to communication and
educational technology”.
This however, tells us that instructional materials
are not just objects or equipment used during teaching-

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learning process but those objects improvised by the
teacher make conceptual abstraction more concrete and
practical to the learners. Instructional materials are
the relevant materials utilized by a teacher during
instructional process for the purpose of making the
contents of the instructions more practical and less
vague.
Etsey, K., Amedahe, F.K. & Edjah, K. (2010)
opined that, “without the teacher who is knowledgeable,
instructional materials cannot create change and
progress, the only time it begins to make impact is when
the teacher begins to make use of it and allows it to
take over its values”. This portrays the professional
attributes of the teacher and general knowledge or his
creativity selecting, develop and use instructional
materials effectively.
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Teaching and Learning Materials design, production
and their use facilitate the teaching and learning
outcomes. However, the success of using IM to meet the
teaching objectives demands, effective use and
communication skills of the teacher to satisfy
instructional delivery.
Materials for lessons are gathered and prepared
ahead of time as pre-schools children cannot be expected
to sit diligently while waiting for the teacher to
prepare the materials and collect activity suppliers for
lessons. Accessibility depends upon your available
storage and upon your own usage habits.
Consider how much space you have for storing
relevant (IM) Instructional Materials for the activity to
be carried out in participation in science lesson, and
the location(s). Material that you need to refer to more

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frequently should be kept closer to hand, whether those
are the materials from one or two previous terms or key
reference materials you use during the participation.
Some instructors frequently refer back to previous terms
when preparing classes, and others do not.
Adequacy of Instructional Materials
Flum, H. & Kaplan, A. (2010) cited that the quality
of the education and training on participation given to
pre-schools learners depends greatly on the availability
and adequacy of (IM) Instructional Materials to adjust
their educational content to the changing skill
requirements of the nation. In other words, participation
in science classrooms are expected to provide knowledge
and training that satisfies the learners’ demands of the
nation and the nation’s economy.

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Institutional training should aim to equip learners
with useful skills and to improve their knowledge and
capabilities. They noted that availability and adequacy
of Instructional Materials (IM) in participation
facilitates learning and enhances pupil achievement
because every learner is involved in the activity given.
Participation involves working with a partner,
or in a small group, and brainstorming in order to create
a stimulating learning environment. Participation in
Early Childhood Education (ECE) involves use of different
mechanisms for the public to express opinions and ideally
exert influence regarding political, economic, management
or other social decision.
Participation is affected by the appropriate and
relevancy of Instructional Materials (IM) used, such as
containers, kites, textbooks, strings and blackboard. For

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examples, a teacher uses textbooks to get information
needed and explains on the blackboard, learners use water
in containers and blow it using straws to produce
bubbles. Blowing water to produce bubbles shows learners
that there is presence of air in water and this enables
them gain the skills of observation.
According to Hanushek, E. (2007) Instructional
Materials (IM) are didactic materials things which are
supposed to make learning and teaching possible. While in
views of Flum, H. & Kaplan, A. (2006) they are materials
or tools locally made or imported that could make
tremendous improvement of a lesson if intelligently used.
In the same vein, Kothari, R.C. (2004) referred
Instructional Materials as objects or devices, which help
the teacher to make a lesson much clearer to the learner.
In support of these views, Harbison, R. and Eric, H.

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(2008) describe Instructional Materials as concrete or
physical objects which provide sound, visual or both to
the sense organs during teaching.
In participation the teacher should ensure that
materials to be used are enough for a particular science
lesson by ensuring she/he has lesson plan before the
lesson. According to Heyneman, S. and William, L.
(2008), the quantity of materials depends on the number
of learners using them, organization of the materials,
group arrangement, time management, and records
management. Ensuring availability and adequacy of IM, the
science lesson will be learner’s centred instead of
teachers centred and therefore motivate learners.
This is because all of them will be involved in
participation using the available Instructional Materials
instead of listening to the teacher explain in class. For

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example Adequacy of Instructional Materials means that
the teacher should ensure that materials to be used for a
particular science class are enough depending on the
number of learners using them.
Heyneman, S. and William L., (2008) were of the
opinions that the use of IM would make discovered facts
glue firmly in the memory of learners. IM make them enjoy
participating in science lessons and even make them
repeat the activity during their free time. This enables
the learners to keep the idea in their long term memory.
A well-planned use of IM in lessons should do much to
banish apathy. In addition, he said that selection of
Instructional Materials which are related to the basic
activity of a lesson helps in in-depth understanding of
such a lesson by the learners, in that it makes the
lesson attractive to them, thereby arresting their

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attention and thus, motivating them to learn and
participate. Participation helps teachers to discover
their learners’ potential, to realize their talents and
raise their self-esteem. In turn this can help them to
question their boundaries and explore issues, voice
aspirations, identify needs and facilitate their learning
and personal development.
Group arrangement and participation in science classroom
Kingdon, G. (2008) said that the pre-schools group
can be an environment of fun if properly organized or
arranged pre-schools learners are a busy bunch of people.
The theory of Maria Montessori states that pre-schools
group should be child sized. Shelving should be at such
low level that the children can see every shelf, table
and chair in order for them to be comfortable. Group

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arrangement in pre-schools centre setting can be
perfected by quality of material used. Quality IM are
essential in teaching about evolution and the nature of
science and participation in classroom activities. It is
also important to consider the context within which
specific materials will be used. Before selecting
specific materials to teach evolution and the nature of
science, it is important to identify criteria that can
help evaluate school science programs and the design of
Instructional Materials.
Instructional Materials, motivation and
Participation in science classroom
According to Kuhn, D. & Dean, D. (2010) motivation
is a term that refers to a process that elicits,
controls, and sustains certain behaviors. Motivation is a

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group of phenomena which affect the nature of an
individual's behavior, the strength of the behavior, and
the persistence of the behavior. Motivation enables
learners to willingly participate using Instructional
Materials in science lessons.
According to Kothari, R.C. (2010) pre-schools
classrooms are normally divided into smaller sections
called centres. There are basic seven Centres namely Art,
Blocks, Dramatic play, Science, Library, Manipulative and
Music Teacher. Some areas like for dramatic play and
blocks require larger space while areas such as
manipulative and library require a quieter atmosphere for
learning.
National Centre for Early Childhood (2006) said
that motivation is also defined as the force that
activates, energizes and sustains a specific goal-

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oriented behavior. All behavior of an organism is
motivated (cause-effect), whether this motivation is
known (conscious) or unknown (unconscious) to the
organism. It may also be attributed to less-apparent
reasons such as altruism, selfishness, morality, or
avoiding mortality. According to National Centre for
Early Childhood (2006) motivation is important in
participation as learners who are motivated participate
more effectively. It will direct and regulate behavior
for example motivated learners work hard and focus their
in achieving their goals. Motivation energizes and
sustains behavior.
According to Odhiambo, G. (2008) instinct is
derived from our biological make-up. All learners are
born with specific innate knowledge about how to learn
and use IM in participation in science lesson. These

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innate tendencies are preprogrammed at birth, they are in
our genes, and even if the spider never saw a web before,
never witnessed its creation, it would still know how to
create one. Humans have the same types of innate
tendencies. We are also born with particular reflexes
which promote learning and participation in science
classroom.
Dissonance Reduction in Three ways
According to Onsomu, N. (2008) learners engage in a
process he termed dissonance reduction which can be
achieved in one of three ways, lowering the importance of
one of the discordant factors, adding consonant elements
or changing one of the dissonant factors. Dissonance
is aroused when learners are confronted with information
that is inconsistent with their ability. If dissonance is

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not reduced by changing one's belief, the dissonance can
result in restoring consonance through misperception,
rejection or refutation of the information, seeking
support from others who share the beliefs and attempting
to persuade others. For instance when learners are told
they could freely participate in science classroom with
whatever Instructional Materials they wanted, the ones in
the mild punishment condition are less likely to be used
even though the threat had been removed.
According to White, H. (2004), learners who are only
mildly threatened had to justify to themselves why they
did not participate with the Instructional Materials
(IM).
The degree of punishment by itself is not strong
enough, so the learners have to convince themselves the
Instructional Materials (IM) is not worth using it in

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participation in order to resolve their dissonance.
Dissonance is aroused whenever learners voluntarily
engage in an unpleasant activity to achieve some desired
goal. It can be reduced by exaggerating the desirability
of the goal.
As suggested by Patel, M.M. (2008) dissonance
occurs when an individual experiences some degree of
discomfort resulting from an incompatibility between two
cognitions. For example, a consumer may seek to reassure
himself regarding a purchase, feeling, in retrospect,
that another decision may have been preferable. Another
example of cognitive dissonance is when a belief and
behavior are in conflict. A person may wish to be
healthy, believes smoking is bad for one's health, and
yet continues to smoke. A person may also believe that an
extra marital is immoral though he/she is in one for

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certain benefits. This creates a dissonance or disharmony
in the person which can only be reduced if the individual
changes their way of looking at things or avoids the
behavior that is contradicting the belief system.
According to Patel, M.M. (2004) an individual’s
accruing behavior is aimed at dissonance reduction.
Maslow proposed that learners have different needs
which can be arranged in order of priority he called it a
hierarchy of needs. Maslow's hierarchy of needs is often
portrayed in the shape of a pyramid, with the largest and
most fundamental levels of needs at the bottom, and the
need for self-actualization at the top. The most
fundamental and basic four layers of the pyramid contain
what Maslow called "deficiency needs" or "D-needs":
esteem, friendship and love, security, and physical
needs. With the exception of the most fundamental

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(physiological) needs, if these "deficiency needs" are
not met, the body gives no physical indication but the
individual feels anxious and tense. Maslow's theory
suggests that the most basic level of needs must be met
before the individual will strongly desire (or focus
motivation upon) the secondary or higher level needs.
Maslow also coined the term Meta-motivation to
describe the motivation of people who go beyond the scope
of the basic needs and strive for constant betterment.
Meta-motivated people are driven by B-needs (Being
Needs), instead of deficiency needs (D-Needs).
Safety/ Security needs, use of Instructional Devices
Ryder, R.J., Burton, J.L. & Silberg, A. (2006)
stated that the concern is learner to be free from fear
and anxiety while using Instructional Materials in
participation in science classroom. The kind of language

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the teacher uses is very important because it can make a
child fear the teacher and they prefer to keep quiet.
The teacher must use good language and should be an
encourager. Teachers should be sensitive to the learners
mothering or fathering qualities that are very important
so that the learners can be able to tell the teacher
everything for example if they have problems in handling
Instructional Materials while participating in science
classroom.
Generally develop good-teacher relationship based on
mutual respect. Making sure that there is a cup-board in
classroom to secure their things. With their physical
needs relatively satisfied, the learner's safety needs
take precedence and dominate behavior.

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Instructional Materials, Esteem needs and
participation in science classroom
White, H. (2010) said that this is the desire for
self-respect and recognition for particular talents and
qualities. Also known as the belonging need, esteem
presents the normal human desire to be accepted and
valued by others. Teachers should recognize learners’
talents and abilities, for example, a good learner in
participation should be given a present and most improve
can be given a certificate. Teachers can build in
learners’ self-confidence by using encouraging remarks.
Learners need to engage themselves to gain
recognition and have an activity or activities that give
the person a sense of contribution, to feel accepted and
self-valued, be it in a profession or hobby. Imbalances

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at this level can result in low self-esteem or an
inferiority complex.
People with low self-esteem need respect from
others. They may seek fame or glory, which again depends
on others. Note, however, that many people with low self-
esteem will not be able to improve their view of
themselves simply by receiving fame, respect, and glory
externally, but must first accept themselves internally.
Psychological imbalances such as depression can also
prevent one from obtaining self-esteem on both levels.
Most people have a need for a stable self-respect and
self-esteem. Maslow noted two versions of esteem needs, a
lower one and a higher one. The lower one is the need for
the respect of others, the need for status, recognition,
fame, prestige, and attention. The higher one is the need
for self-respect, the need for strength, competence,

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mastery, self-confidence, independence and freedom. The
latter one ranks higher because it rests more on inner
competence won through experience. Deprivation of these
needs can lead to an inferiority complex, weakness and
helplessness.
Instructional Materials, Self-actualization, and
Participation in science class
Patel, M.M. (2008) added that the motive to become
all that a learner is able to be. Being given the
opportunity to be the best learner in participation in
science classroom one can be. A teacher can encourage the
learner to be the best that a child is able to do, bring
out the best from a child giving them self-actualized
activities that are pleasurable and can lead to self-

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directed learning. The teacher should be a good role
model in that regard by ensuring that learners are being
helped to reach the self-actualized level. “What a man
can be, he must be.” This forms the basis of the
perceived need for self-actualization.
Instructional materials, intrinsic motivation and
Intrinsic motivation comes from inside of the
learner. Intrinsic motivation entails doing something for
internal satisfaction as opposed to external reward.
According to Onsomu, N. (2008), research has
established that intrinsic motivation is usually
associated with high educational achievement and
enjoyment by learners and teachers while using
Instructional Materials in participation in science

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classroom. Learners are likely to be intrinsically
motivated if they attribute their participation results
to internal factors that they can control (for example
the amount of effort they put in), believe they can be
effective agents in reaching desired goals in
participation in science classroom in ECE centre and are
interested in mastering a topic rather than just rote-
learning to achieve good grades. Teachers who enjoy their
work are also likely to record a higher output compared
to their counterparts who are only working for the
external reward like money or fear of losing the job.
Instructional materials, extrinsic motivation and
According to Odhiambo, G. (2008) extrinsic
motivation comes from outside of the learners. Here,

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learners perform a task for external reward. Money is the
most obvious example of an extrinsic motivator, though
coercion and threat of punishment are also common
extrinsic motivations. Cheers, verbal praise, tours,
parties and trophies also motivate the learner, to do
well in participation in science classroom in ECE centre
hence they are extrinsic incentives. For example, while
experiencing air in water using straws, the teacher can
give sweets and biscuits to those who participated well.
Competition is in general extrinsic because it
encourages the learner to win not to enjoy the intrinsic
rewards of the activity. Social psychological research
has indicated that extrinsic rewards can lead to over
justification and a subsequent reduction in intrinsic
motivation. In one study demonstrating this effect,
learner who expected to be (and were) rewarded with a

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ribbon and a gold star for drawing pictures spent less
time playing with the drawing materials in subsequent
observations than children who were assigned to an
unexpected reward condition and to children who received
no extrinsic reward.
According to Odhiambo, G. (2008) intrinsic
motivation is associated with higher performance.
Instructional materials, time management and
Proper time management leads to effective learning
in class. Hanushek, E. (2007) pointed out that time
management techniques and strategies have implication for
using Instructional Materials. Time management techniques
have great implications for participation in pre-schools
and if implemented well, can go a long way to optimizing

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time spent on instruction. Time management is the thread
running through almost all aspect of teaching, organizing
the day, organizing the time to be spent by learners
while using a certain type of materials, deciding how
long and how often to use various Instructional Materials
(IM), recording learners’ progress or keeping time
consuming behavior problems to a minimum.
Effective use of school time begins with
efficient classroom organization and management. The
teachers plan a regular work schedule and stick to it.
Learners who otherwise waste time in class talking or
fooling around may lose valuable hours that would be
better spent on participation.
Instructional materials, management of records and

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Angelo, T.A. & Cross, K.P. (2010) said that accurate
education records do not happen by accident. The teacher
must use right materials and set up a system that would
be easy to follow and track grades as well as the many
paper records that must be kept in a file. Records such
as progress records kept on a regular basis enable the
teachers to fully understand their learners and keep
track of developmental milestones and other important
events. This is crucial when there is concern about a
child’s development in participation. Proper record
keeping would require a measure of performance in
participation in a science classroom.
Heyneman, S. and William, L. (2008) stressed
that a teachers’ record of work reminds the teacher of
what he has covered in class to avoid asking learners
where he had left. The record helps in coordinating

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teaching and monitoring the progress made by the teacher.
The visitors’ book is maintained in pre-schools centres
and is usually presented to distinguished official
visitors who usually write their names, addresses and
anything of interest to them about the school.
Its usefulness is in providing a permanent and
useful record of interest taken in the school by
outsiders. The punishment book controls the nature of
punishment meted out to the children and this prevents
teacher from administering excessive punishment. It
protects teachers from unwarranted criticism by parents
or gives tangible evidence where a teacher is used by a
parent for punishing a pupil. It also helps to check
misbehavior by learners.
Attendance registers for both learners and
teachers are kept in pre-schools centres for various

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uses. They are used to check for learners’ daily
attendance in order to detect those who are frequently
absent from school.
The registers help in explaining the cause of poor
participation in science classroom by a pupil as well as
help in understanding of learners who are a cause of
availability and adequacy of IM problems. The records are
used to plan for the issuing of learning materials to a
given class. The records are also kept in order to ensure
that alternative arrangements are made to cater for the
needs of learners where a teacher is absent.
Guidelines, requirement for the use of instructional
materials and participation
Utilization judges the value of instructional
materials, process or personnel by the degree they singly

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or collectively satisfy the derived instructional needs.
The foresight instructional behavior controls, to a large
extent, the means for achieving them. Instructional
Materials are not ends in themselves but means of
attaining specific instructional functions. Teachers
ability to effectively utilize the available IM and this
optimize the attainments of instructional situation
varies with their level of utilization.
However, once materials have been selected,
careful preparation comes first by the user and other
subsequent preparation.
Harbison, R. and Eric, H. (2006) identified
three ways by which the teacher should prepare for the
use of IM, these are: By previewing before they brought
to the class, the teacher has to have a first knowledge
by using it before the class, teacher should have a full

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knowledge of the parts, names, operational level of the
intended instructional materials and actual presentation.
This is the period the teacher operates and uses these
materials in instructing the learners. The following
however, are the basic guidelines and requirement for
utilization and use of instructional materials in
effective instructional delivery:
Specification-of objectives: clear objectives which are
behaviorally stated are user ring guides in IM using
process, they direct the sequence, methods, content and
techniques of instructional processes. They provide
scientific basis of valid evaluation instruments
construction and administration.
The Impact of Media and Technology in Schools

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Beichner, R. J. (2014) cited that there are two
major approaches to using media and technology in
schools. First, students can learn “from” media and
technology, and second, they can learn “with” media and
technology. Learning “from” media and technology is often
referred to in terms such as instructional television,
computer-based instruction, or integrated learning
systems. Learning “with” technology is referred to in
terms such as cognitive tools and constructivist learning
environments.
Regardless of the approach, media and
technology have been introduced into schools because it
is believed that they can have positive effects on
teaching and learning. The purpose of this report is to
summarize the evidence for the effectiveness and impact
of media and technology in K-12 schools around the world.

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Bracewell, R., & Laferriére, T. (2016) said
that media is defined as “all means of communication,
whatever its format.” In this sense, media include symbol
systems as diverse as print, graphics, animation, audio,
and motion pictures. Technology is defined as “any object
or process of human origin that can be used to convey
media.” In this sense, technology includes phenomena as
diverse as books, films, television, and the Internet.
With respect to education, media are the symbol systems
that teachers and students use to represent knowledge;
technologies are the tools that allow them to share their
knowledge representations with others. Unfortunately, it
is common to confound the meanings of media and
technology in education, and they are often used
synonymously.
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Learning “From” Media and Technology
Chaves, E. O. C. (2013) stated that the foundation
for the use of media and technology as “tutors” in
schools is "educational communications," i.e., the
deliberate and intentional act of communicating content
to students with the assumption that they will learn
something "from" these communications. The instructional
processes inherent in the “from” approach to using media
and technology in schools can be reduced to a series of
simple steps: exposing students to messages encoded in
media and delivered by technology; assuming that students
perceive and encode these messages; requiring a response
to indicate that messages have been received; and
providing feedback as to the adequacy of the response.

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Television and the computer are the two primary
technologies used in the “from” approach. The findings
concerning the impact of television in education can be
summed up as: there is no conclusive evidence that
television stultifies the mind; there is no consistent
evidence that television increases either hyperactivity
or passivity in children; there is insufficient evidence
that television viewing displaces academic activities
such as reading or homework and thereby has a negative
impact on school achievement. The relationship between
the amount of time spent viewing television and
achievement test scores is curvilinear with achievement
rising with 1-2 hours of television per day, but falling
with longer viewing periods; and television is not widely
in classrooms because teachers experience difficulty in
previewing videos, obtaining equipment, incorporating

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programs into the curriculum, and linking television
programming to assessment activities.
According to Clark, R. E. (2014a) said that the
findings concerning the impact of computer-based
instruction (CBI) in education can be summed up as:
computers as tutors have positive effects on learning as
measured by standardized achievement tests, are more
motivating for students, are accepted by more teachers
than other technologies, and are widely supported by
administrators, parents, politicians, and the public in
general; students are able to complete a given set of
educational objectives in less time with computer-based
instruction (CBI) than needed in more traditional
approaches; limited research and evaluation studies
indicate that integrated learning systems (ILS) are
effective forms of computer-based instruction (CBI) which

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are quite likely to play an even larger role in
classrooms in the foreseeable future; intelligent
tutoring system have not had significant impact on
mainstream education because of technical difficulties
inherent in building student models and facilitating
human-like communications.
Overall, the differences that have been found
between media and technology as tutors and human teachers
have been modest and inconsistent. It appears that the
larger value of media and technology as tutors rests in
their capacity to motivate students, increase equity of
access, and reduce the time needed to accomplish a given
set of objectives.
Learning “With” Media and Technology

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Clark, R. E. (2012) said that computer-based
cognitive tools have been intentionally adapted or
developed to function as intellectual partners to enable
and facilitate critical thinking and higher order
learning. Examples of cognitive tools include: databases,
spreadsheets, semantic networks, expert systems,
communications software such as teleconferencing
programs, on-line collaborative knowledge construction
environments, multimedia/hypermedia construction
software, and computer programming languages.
In the cognitive tools approach, media and
technology are given directly to learners to use for
representing and expressing what they know. Learners
themselves function as designers using media and
technology as tools for analyzing the world, accessing

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and interpreting information, organizing their personal
knowledge, and representing what they know to others:
The foundations for using software as cognitive tools
in education are: cognitive tools will have their
greatest effectiveness when they are applied within
constructivist learning environments; cognitive tools
empower learners to design their own representations of
knowledge rather than absorbing representations
preconceived by others; cognitive tools can be used to
support the deep reflective thinking that is necessary
for meaningful learning; cognitive tools have two kinds
of important cognitive effects, those which are with the
technology in terms of intellectual partnerships and
those that are of the technology in terms of the
cognitive residue that remains after the tools are used;
cognitive tools enable mindful, challenging learning

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rather than the effortless learning promised but rarely
realized by other instructional innovations; the source
of the tasks or problems to which cognitive tools are
applied should be learners, guided by teachers and other
resources in the learning environment; ideally, tasks or
problems for the application of cognitive tools will be
situated in realistic contexts with results that are
personally meaningful for learners; using multimedia
construction programs as cognitive tools engages many
skills in learners such as: project management skills,
research skills, organization and representation skills,
presentation skills, and reflection skills; and research
concerning the effectiveness of constructivist learning
environments such as microworlds, classroom-based
learning environments, and virtual, collaborative

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environments show positive results across a wide range of
indicators.
“Learning From” and “Learning With” Media and
Technology
According to Jonassen, D.H & Reeves, T.C (2016)
there are two major approaches to using media and
technology in schools: students can learn “from” media
and technology, and they can learn “with” media and
technology. Learning “from” media and technology is often
referred to in terms such as instructional television,
computer-based instruction, or integrated learning
systems. Learning “with” technology, less widespread than

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the “from” approach, is referred to in terms such as
cognitive tools and constructivist learning environments.
The Challenge of Defining Media and Technology
Kozma, R. B. (2014) said that media has many
definitions ranging from “a particular form of
communication” as in “print versus video” to “the
industry that provides news and entertainment” as in “the
media.” For the purposes of this report, media is defined
as “all means of communication, whatever its format”. In
this sense, media include symbol systems as diverse as
print, graphics, animation, audio, and motion pictures.
Similarly, technology has many definitions
ranging from “the application of the scientific method to
solve problems as in ‘the technology of space

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exploration’” to “the things or processes which embody
knowledge or craft within a culture as in ‘the technology
of writing’.” Within this report, technology is defined
as “any object or process of human origin that can be
used to convey media.” In this sense, technology includes
phenomena as diverse as books, films, television, and the
Internet.
With respect to education, media are the symbol
systems that teachers and students use to represent
knowledge; technologies are the tools that allow them to
share their knowledge representations with others.
Unfortunately, it is common for practitioners and experts
alike to confound the meanings of media and technology in
education, and they are often used synonymously.
The confounding of media (a symbol system) with
technology (a delivery system for media) is unlikely to

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go away in popular discourse about education any time
soon, but the distinction between media and technology
must be clarified as unambiguously as possible if their
impact is to be understood.
Salomon, G. (2012) important distinctions
between media as symbol systems and technologies as tools
or vehicles for sharing media will be used throughout
this report. However, many, if not most, of the research
and evaluation studies that are cited in this report are
not informed by this distinction, an inconsistency that
is frustrating, but inevitable. Even people who prepare
dictionaries are uncomfortable with the term “media.”
The Importance of Media and Technology in Education
Why is so much attention paid to media and
technology in education? First, with respect to media,

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there are many issues of concern to students, parents,
educators, governments, and society at large. For
example, important questions are asked about the effects
of different media on the cognitive and moral development
of children. With respect to technology, people want to
know whether various new technologies are more effective
for teaching and learning than more traditional classroom
approaches, whether some technologies are more motivating
than others, or at the very least, whether technologies
can be used to increase access or reduce costs within
education. Questions about the impact of media and
technology in terms of increasing access to education and
reducing the costs of education are especially high on
the agendas of politicians and government agencies around
the world.
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Shute, V. J., & Psotka, J. (2016) cited that
still another reason for the focus on media and education
stems from sharp disagreements about the value of media
and technology in education. Enthusiastic endorsements of
new media and technologies in education are easy to find
in news reports, political speeches, and other sources.
Bringing the electronic media into the schools
could capitalize on the strong motivation qualities that
these media have for children. Many children who are
turned off by school are not turned off by one or another
of the electronic media; quite the opposite. An
educational system that capitalized on this motivation
would have a chance of much greater success...... Each
medium has its own profile of cognitive advantages and
disadvantages, and each medium can be used to enhance the
impact of others.
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All in all, media’s symbolic forms and
computers’ afforded activities often have skill-
cultivating effects. However, to claim that these effects
are specific to any one medium or media attribute is
difficult...... There is growing consensus that past
media comparison, media attribute, and motivation studies
indicate that media do not influence whether someone
learns from instruction. Learning seems to result from
factors such as task differences, instructional methods,
and learner traits.
The Effects of Learning with and of Technology
Salomon, G., Perkins, D.N., and Globerson, T. (2011)
make an important distinction between the effects of
learning with and of technology:

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First, Salomon, G., Perkins, D.N., and Globerson, T.
(2011) distinguish between two kinds of cognitive
effects: Effects with technology obtained during
intellectual partnership with it, and the effects of it
in terms of the transferable cognitive residue that this
partnership leaves behind in the form of better mastery
of skills and strategies.
Cognitive tools are important in both respects.
Salomon, G., Perkins, D.N., and Globerson, T. (2011)
maintain that "the cognitive effects with computer tools
greatly depend on the mindful engagement of learners in
the tasks afforded by these tools", and that educators
should empower learners with cognitive tools and assess
their abilities in conjunction with the use of these
tools. Such a development will entail a new conception of
ability as an intellectual partnership between learners

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and the tools they use. Although some worry that this
partnership makes learners too dependent upon the
technology, many performances (e.g., instrumental music)
are meaningless without the technologies which enable
them. Allowing students to demonstrate learning in
collaboration with cognitive tools may be attacked by
parties invested in existing assessment systems.
However, who would assess the ability of an artist
without allowing the use of brushes, paint, and other
media? Contemporary intellectual abilities should not be
assessed without cognitive tools, including books and
computers. The very conception of knowledge is changing
with a move from a conception of knowledge as possession
of facts and figures to one of knowledge as the ability
to retrieve information from databases and use it to
solve problems
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Principles, Requirement for the selection of

instructional materials and participation
Chickering, A.W. & Gamson, A.F. (2008) said that the
preceding discussion had shown that there are many
teaching aids from various sources. It is therefore very
important, of professional teachers to note and bear in
mind that every instructional materials has its definite
unique strength in teaching-learning situation that
cannot be replicated. It is necessary to note that
through effective communication, better teaching and
faster learning can only be facilitated or guaranteed by
careful selection and skillful utilization of appropriate
instructional materials by the users.
However, availability of the instructional
materials, teacher’s experience, terms of preference and
the volume of instructions should constitute intrinsic

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consideration in their selection decision. Despite of
that fact, the following principles should guide an
effective teacher in the selection of instructional
materials:
Instructional tasks; The behavioral objectives,
contents, learning activities, evaluation instruments and
techniques as element of instructional tasks, should be
taken into consideration by an effective teacher in the
selection and development of instructional materials.
Target audience attributes; These consists the learners’
features and their level of understanding, their
developmental stages such as age, sex, physical skills,
attitude towards self and others, the learners
experiences, social-economic background should be
considered.
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The economy; The available resources, financial
factors technological advancement, economic climate of
society where the materials should be operated, the
socio-cultural level of the materials users, degree of
urbanization, feasibility and acceptability of the
selected instructional materials are equally considered
in the selection and development decision. Dynamic
variables; These variables constitute the concentration
and size of the target audience, the desired level of
learners response and participation, the classroom social
climate, sitting, viewing and listening arrangement,
available time, space, teacher competence among others
are to be seriously considered in the selection decision
and development. The environmental factors; these
consists the educational community and the available
educational infrastructure. Such as people, facilities,

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equipped library, workshops, laboratories, electricity,
water supply and personnel should equally be considered
in the selection and development.
Boissiere, M., Knight, J.B. and Sabot, R.H.
(2008) posited the following criteria in the selection of
instructional materials: Appropriateness of the materials
to instructional objectives; freedom of the content from
bias, degree of the quality variety of the materials,
quality of the format, print, sound or photography,
availability of the materials to clarify objectives of
and how to operate the materials, how reasonable the
time, effort and expenses are for both the learners and
the teachers.
Problem solving, use of Instructional Materials

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Boissiere, M., Knight, J.B. and Sabot, R.H. (2008)
added that prevention is better than cure and therefore
all stakeholders and concerned population in the study
area are supposed to learn on problem solving which is a
mental process and is part of the larger problem process
that includes problem finding and problem shaping.
Problem solving is considered the most complex of
all intellectual functions. It has been defined as
higher-order cognitive process that requires the
modulation and control of more routine or fundamental
skills. Problem solving occurs when an organism or an
artificial intelligence system needs to move from a given
state to a desired goal state. In science classroom
teacher can improvise the materials which are not
adequate in order to achieve the goal.

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One of the most exciting aspects of life is the
array of choices that have on a daily basis. Some of the
decisions are simple, like deciding what to eat for
dinner or which Instructional Materials to use for during
participation in science classroom in ECE centre.
However, some choices are challenging and take
careful thought and consideration. When confronted with
these types of decisions, it can be very difficult to
decide on the best Instructional Materials, and may be
plagued by indecision. Maybe one can be forced to choose
between two equally good options, or perhaps, may have to
pick between two choices that both have drawbacks. Waver
back and forth between different alternatives and may
feel paralyzed to make the decision.
This is a very normal reaction to tough choices
in life, and at times, experience a sense of being unable

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to decide on some option. According to Capon, N. & Kuhn,
D. (2010) a technique that many learner have found useful
when they are trying to make a difficult decision or
solve a problem that seems unsolvable. This procedure
involves a series of steps that can go through when
confronted with a decision or problem that needs to be
solved. This approach may help with many of the
problems confronted within the life, though not all.
According to Capon, N. & Kuhn, D. (2010)
problem orientation is the first step in finding for a
solution. This step involves recognizing that a problem
exists and that solving the difficulty is a worthwhile
endeavor. For example learner's weakness while handling
Instructional Materials during participation in science
classroom, should be detected before it is too late. It
is important to approach the decision-making process with

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a positive attitude and view the situation as an
opportunity or challenge. Try to approach the
situation with confidence and with a willingness to
devote some time and effort to finding an appropriate
solution to your problem.
Problem definition is the second step Capon, N.
& Kuhn, D. (2010) posited that before starting to tackle
the current problem, it is important to clearly
understand the difficulty and why one is unhappy with the
current situation. This may seem obvious, but it is
important that to really think about and gather
information about the problem, and make sure that the
problem that is trying to solve is the "real" problem.
That is, sometimes people find a different problem
than the one that is really distressing them, and focus
on this one, since it is easier than dealing with the

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real problem. This step really involves thinking about
the difficulty, understanding the problem, and
contemplating why the situation is distressing. Some
people think of problems as a discrepancy between what
they want and what the current situation is like. It is
useful during this stage to think about how the current
situation is different from how you would like it to be,
and what your goals are for the state of affairs. If you
are currently facing many difficult decisions, it may be
helpful to prioritize those problems and deal with them
one at a time.
Angelo, T.A. & Cross, K.P. (2010) said that the
third step in problem solving is generation of
alternative solutions Kingdon, G. (2008). During this
stage, ask what was done in this situation in the past,
and how well has that worked? If finding that what have
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done in the past has not been as effective, it would be
useful to generate some other solutions that may work
better. Even if the behavior in the past has worked,
think of other solutions as well, because it may come up
with an even better idea. When starting to think of
possible solutions, don't limit; think of as many
possible options, even if they seem unrealistic. It can
always discard implausible ideas later, and coming up
with these may help generate even better solutions. If
writing a list of possible options, ask others what some
solutions they might have for the problem.
According to Angelo, T.A. & Cross, K.P. (2010)
decision making is another step to be thought of while
find for a solution for a certain problem in learners
participation using Instructional Materials (IM) in
science classroom It is important that you examine each

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of the options, and think about how realistic each is,
how likely it would be to implement that solution, and
the potential drawbacks of each. For example, if the
solution costs a great deal of money or requires many
hours of effort each day, this may be too difficult to
implement. Consider the likelihood that each option has
in terms of being able to achieve the goals regarding the
solution during participation in science classroom.
Start to narrow down choices, remember, no problem
solution is perfect and all will have drawbacks, but it
can always revise the solution if it does not work the
way it has to be.
Hanushek, E. (2010) said that solution
implementation and verification is the last step in
problem solving. Examined all options and decided on one
that seems to accomplish the goals and minimizes the

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costs, then it is time to test it out. Make sure that
when implementing this solution, do so whole-heartedly
and give the best effort. During this stage, should
continue to examine the chosen solution and the degree to
which it is "solving" the problem. If finding that the
solution is too hard to implement or it is just not
working, revise it or try something else. Trying to solve
these problems is never an easy task, and it may take
several solutions before something works. Do not give up
hope, because with persistence and best effort, many
difficult decisions and problems can be made better.
Synthesis of Related Literature and Studies
The literature and studies reviewed constituted
information on the importance of using technology in
the teaching process to facilitate effective
communication and faster learning. As instructional

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aids, the teachers will strengthen the learning
situation since students will be stimulated on science
lessons that provide sounds and visuals during
teaching.
The cited literature justified the purpose of the
study to make advantage of the scientific procedures
using technology media that works well with the
classroom setting. The result of the experimental study
also correlated to the theories of the authors in the
literature that using modern technology can be
effective agents in achieving the desired goals of
developing and enhancing the scientific attitudes of
the learners.
Conceptual Framework of the study
Total development of the learners is a work of an
experienced and knowledge-driven teacher. Evaluation of

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students’ learning is the ultimate test of one’s
teaching effectiveness so the study focused on
application of suitable learning activities that demand
a consistent review and serious reflection of teaching
practices.
The study also looked on the dynamic activities of
nurturing the children’s spirit of inquiry and their
learning abilities and aspirations. In the
instructional activity is the teacher whose greatest
concern is to create beneficial interests and positive
responses in every classroom encounters. Meaningful
learning then is achieved through a demonstration of
desirable attributes coupled with an aggregate of
organized methodical teaching approaches.

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Effect
Scientific
Attitudes of
Using the
Curiosity
Study
Technology
Critical in
Mindedness
Media Strengthening
Open- the
Mindedness Strategy
Pupils’
Scientific
Attitudes
Gender
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Figure 1
Paradigm of the study
Definition of Terms
Critical Mindedness. In this study, this is a scientific
attitude of reviewing the veracity of a statement in
relation to the evidence presented.
Curiosity. This refers to the interest and concern to
things
Open-Mindedness. This refers to the attitude of
receptiveness to suggestions and being impartial to other
ideas.
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Scientific Attitudes. This refers to understanding the
basic science concepts and applications of science
inquiry skills.
Statement of the Problem
The study investigated the effect of using
technology media and direct instruction in teaching
science to Grade V pupils.
Specifically, it answered the following
questions:
1. How may the respondents’ performance in scientific
attitudes be described in terms of:
1.1 curiosity;
1.2 critical mindedness; and

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1.3 open-mindedness?
2. Is there a significant relationship between the
respondents’ performance of scientific attitudes across
their gender?
3. Is there a significant difference between the
respondents’ performance of scientific attitudes before
and after the implementation of intervention
strategies?
4. What is the effect of the study in strengthening the
scientific attitudes of the pupils?
Hypotheses
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1. There is no significant relationship between the
respondents’ performance of scientific attitudes across
their gender.
2. There is no significant difference between the two
groups of respondents on their performance of
scientific attitudes before and after the
implementation of intervention strategies.
Significance of the Study
The result of the study will serve as a reference
to look for methodologies that will work well in the
classroom setting. With the advantage gained for the
result of the study, the teachers will be encouraged to
decide the most appropriate procedure and techniques in
teaching.
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The students will also benefit in terms of helping
them on self-directed learning activities, patterned
after the scientific procedures and process. In the
development of their scientific attitudes, they become
independent, autonomous learners capable of learning on
their own.
Scope and limitation of the study
The study is limited in evaluating the scientific
attitudes of the Grade V pupils based on their
understanding of basic science concepts and science
inquiry skills based on the curriculum standards in the
third grading period for November 2016 up to January
2017.
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The participants of the study were the Grade V
pupils in Camiling West Central School, Camiling West
District, Division of Tarlac.
Chapter II
Method
Research Design
The experimental method of research was used in
this study. This method is a scientific approach which
the researcher manipulates one or two variables and
control and measure the change Kothari, R.C. (2010).
One group will be the core group who will receive
direct instruction in teaching science and the other
group will be the treatment group who will be provided

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with lessons using technology media for their learning
tasks.
Participants
The participants of the study were the
researcher’s Grade V pupils which were grouped into two
(2) and subjected into two (2) separate strategies.
The Respondents
Table 1
The Respondents
NUMBER OF
THE RESPONDENTS RESPONDENTS TOTAL
MALE FEMALE
GROUP A (Control Group) 18 12 30
(Direct Instruction)
GROUP B (Treatment Group) 16 14 30
(Use of Technology Media)
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TOTAL 34 26 60
Materials and Instruments
The materials were teacher-made test that measured
the participants’ scientific attitudes. It was pre
tested and evaluated. After the implementation of the
strategies, another evaluation measured the applied
knowledge to determine its effect to the respondents
Strategies:
A. Direct Instruction (Traditional Method of
Teaching)
Teaching science begins with the basics and uses
the spiral progression approach. This is communication
of ideas between the teacher and the pupils. It is

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employed for the purpose of clarifying some points
during a learning task and check at the end to find out
if the objective of the lesson is achieved. It is
described as orderly verbal interchange and regarded as
traditional method of teaching.
B. Using Technology Media
The teaching of science is facilitated through
technology media to provide a concrete and direct
learning experience for children in the elementary age
group. The technology device captures the attention and
sustains the concentration of the young by attracting
meanings to objects and phenomena which they personally
viewed, heard, and witnessed.
Data Collection
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The researcher first conferred with the principal
on the proposed study and when given approval, she
requested permission to conduct the study from the
Schools Division Superintendent of Tarlac. She coursed
her letter of request through the principal of the
school and to the District Supervisor. She then gave
summative test to her pupils and based the selection of
each unless through their equal scores. One group which
is the core group was provided with direct instruction
or traditional method while the other group, the
experimental group was provided with lessons using
technology media.
Data Analysis
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To determine the pre and posttest results on the
respondents’ scientific attitudes, percentage and
frequency was used while t-test find out if there is a
significant relationship between the respondents’
performance of scientific attitudes across their
gender. Meanwhile, Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
determined if there is a significant difference between
the two groups of respondents’ performance of
scientific attitudes before and after the
implementation of the intervention strategies.

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Chapter III
Presentation, Analysis and Interpretation of Results
I. Summary of Scores in Pre and Post Test in Scientific
Attitudes of Control and Experimental Groups
Table 2
Summary of Scores in Pre and Post Test in Scientific
Attitudes of Control and Experimental Groups
Control Group Experimental

Pretest Posttest Pretest Posttest
F % F % F % F %
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Curiosity
0-10 Poor
11-20 Fair
21-30 Good 4 13.3 0.0 3 10.0 0.0
31-40 Very Good 25 83.3 5 16.7 19 63.3 0.0
41-50 Excellent 1 3.3 20 66.7 8 26.7 30 100.0
Total 30 100.0 30 100.0 30 100.0 30 100.0
Critical Mindedness 0.0
0-10 Poor 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
11-20 Fair 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
21-30 Good 5 16.7 0.0 2 6.7 0.0
31-40 Very Good 24 80.0 13 43.3 24 80.0 0.0
41-50 Excellent 1 3.3 17 56.7 4 13.3 30 100.0
Total 30 100.0 30 100.0 30 100.0 30 100.0
Open-mindedness
0-10 Poor 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
11-20 Fair 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
21-30 Good 3 10.0 0.0 2 6.7 0.0
Table 2 continued
31-40 Very Good 20 66.7 28 93.3 25 83.3 0.0
41-50 Excellent 7 23.3 2 6.7 3 10.0 30 100.0
Total 30 100.0 30 100.0 30 100.0 30 100.0
Curiosity
As shown in the result of pretest, there are 4
(13.3%) pupils in control group who got a rating of good;
25 (83.3%) got a very good rating and 1 (3.3%) was rated
excellent. Similarly, the experimental group has 3 (10%)

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pupils who were rated good; 19(63.3%) got a rating of
very good and 8 (26.7%) pupils got an excellent rating.
The result of the pretest indicated that pupils'
scientific knowledge and attitudes have to be sustained
and strengthened. They showed difficulty in understanding
lessons on gravitational and frictional forces
specifically in inferring how friction and gravity affect
movements of different objects. The teacher then
conducted the direct instruction or the traditional
method of teaching to the control group while the use of
technology media to reinforce the lesson was provided to
the experimental group.
After the experiment, the posttest manifested
an enhanced performance where there are 5(16.7%) pupils
who got a rating of very good and 20(66.7%) were rated

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excellent. A remarkable result of one hundred percent of
the pupils in the experimental group was rated excellent.
The result of the posttest indicated the improved
performance of both groups. However, the experimental group
posted a higher mark where all the pupils got an
excellent score. The control group have still members who
needed to be equipped with useful skills to improve their
knowledge. They have to be provided with more scientific
activities to enhance their science capabilities.
Meanwhile, the use of technology media to the
experimental group proved to be an effective tool to
improve their scientific attitudes in terms of curiosity.
They were exposed to visual images on how the different
objects moved because of gravity. Their concern and
interest were aroused that facilitated their learning.

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The use of teaching equipment sit well with the
concept of Capon, N. & Kuhn, D.(2010) that instructional
materials like print, audio and visuals, aid in the
successful delivery of lesson.
Critical Mindedness
Aside from being curious, the pupils in control and
experimental groups demonstrated their scientific
attitudes of being judicial and particular to evidences
as basis for conclusions. They exhibited their attitude
of questioning the truth of a statement in relation to
proof presented. The pretest revealed the pupils’
critical mindedness where there are 5 (16.7%) pupils who
got a rating of good; 24 (80%) were rated very good and 1
(3.3%) got an excellent rating. Similar rating in pretest
was obtained by experimental group where there are 2

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(6.0%) pupils who were rated good; 24 (80%) got a very
good rating and 4 (13.3%) were rated excellent.
Evidently, the pupils manifested their average level
of being critically minded based on the pretest scores.
Nevertheless, they have to be provided with intervention
strategies to strengthen their scientific attitudes with
the control group being subjected to the direct
instruction and the experimental group with the use of
technology media.
The posttest result effectively reinforced the
pupils’ scientific attitudes where 13 (43.3%) pupils in
the control group got a rating of very good and 17
(56.7%) got an excellent rating. A significant rating was
obtained by the experimental group where all the pupils
got an excellent score.

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The intervention strategy proved to be effective to
both groups particularly to the experimental group where
the use of technology media sustained the pupils’
scientific attitude of critical mindedness. Both groups
were able to review the truth based on the strategies
conducted, but the proof presented in the print media
strengthened the learning process of the experimental
group. It appropriately demonstrated how energy is
transferred in simple machine. The material served as a
means of specific instructional functions where the
pupils were able to justify their questions and make
answers.
The findings where technological materials served as
concrete reference to meaning and enhanced retention
supports the theory of Allen, K.E. and Hart, B. (2008)

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that the use of appropriate electronic materials
projected an important landmark in knowledge transfer.
Open-Mindedness
The pupils’ scientific attitude of being open-minded
was demonstrated on the result of pretest where there are
7 (23.3%) pupils in the control group who were rated
good; 20 (66.7%) got a rating of very good and 3 (10.0%)
were rated excellent. In the experimental group, there
are 2(6.7%) pupils who got a rating of good; 25 (83.3%)
were rated very good and 3 (10%) were rated excellent.
Based on the pretest results, both groups have three
(3) pupils each who got a rating of excellent. However,
most participants have to be educated in terms of being
open minded to build more knowledge, skills and
dispositions related to sensitivity and likelihood of all

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options. They have to be mentally alert in considering
the feasibility and acceptability of ideas and
suggestions.
After the intervention strategy, their scientific
attitude of being open-minded was strengthened as there
are 28 (93.3%) pupils in the control group who were rated
very good and 2 (6.7%) got an excellent rating. Another
remarkable feat was posted by the pupils in the
experimental group where all the 30 pupils obtained an
excellent score.
The posttest result marked a significant score to
both groups who were provided with differentiated
strategy of direct or traditional approach to control
group and the use of technological media to the
experimental group. Noted however, is the higher level of
performance manifested by the experimental group who

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demonstrated their improved skills in critical
mindedness. The provided strategy proved to be a major
factor in the intellectual development of the group.
The significant result of a high performance in the
pupils’ scientific attitude where they demonstrated their
critical mindedness, their curiosity and open mindedness
is an indication of relevant learning sustained and
strengthened by intervention strategies in science
concepts and engagements on scientific and technological
issues. The pupils’ scientific attitudes are clear
indications of their scientific literacy which is the
goal of science teaching.
The findings of effective learning through
appropriate instructional materials correlates to the
theory of Hanushek, E. (2010), that faster learning can

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only be facilitated by skillful utilization of
appropriate instructional materials.
Difference between the Respondents’ Performance of
Scientific Attitudes and Gender
Table 3
Difference between the Respondents’ Performance of
Scientific Attitudes and Gender
Sum of Mean
Squares df Square F Sig.
Curiosity Between Groups .450 1 .450 .320 .576
Within Groups 39.417 28 1.408
Total 39.867 29
Critical Between Groups .139 1 .139 .149 .702
Mindedness Within Groups 26.028 28 .930
Total 26.167 29
Open- Between Groups .006 1 .006 .010 .922
mindedness Within Groups 15.861 28 .566
Total 15.867 29
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There is no significant difference in the
pretest scores of male and female. It means that they
have similar performance in their scientific skills in
terms of curiosity, critical mindedness and open-
mindedness. They manifested uniform knowledge and skills
in science lessons.
The similarity of the pupils' performance is
based on their acquired skills on the presented science
lessons in a familiar learning environment. They learned
from direct instruction and interact with their teachers
to obtain information and knowledge. The transfer of
learning demonstrated in the same learning climate.
Teaching and learning are applied to all with
the primary function of effective instructions to be
accomplished. The pupils’ knowledge depends greatly on
the teachers' approaches and the school environment. It

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equipped the learners with the abilities to facilitate
learning.
Pupils' participation in the lesson activities
affected their understanding of the lesson concept
specifically if it is presented in a similar learning
process. This supports the view of Kozma, R.B. (2014)
that the similarity of the education and training given
to learners depends on the actualized activities in
science class that can lead to their uniform directed
learning.
Difference in the Post-test of Control and Experimental
Group
Table 4
Difference in the Posttest of Control and Experimental
Group
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Levene's Test
for Equality of
Variances t-test for Equality of Means
95% Confidence
Interval of the
Sig. (2- Mean Std. Error Difference
F Sig. t df tailed) Difference Difference Lower Upper
Curiosity Equal 1.130 .292 -9.780** 58 .000 -3.80000 .38853 -4.57773 -3.02227
variances
assumed
Equal -9.780 50.2 .000 -3.80000 .38853 -4.58030 -3.01970
variances not
assumed
Table 4 continued
Critical Equal 42.534 .000 -8.555** 58 .000 -5.66667 .66234 -6.99249 -4.34084
mindedne variances
ss assumed
Equal -8.555 33.2 .000 -5.66667 .66234 -7.01383 -4.31950
variances not
assumed
Open Equal 16.212 .000 -29.81** 58 .000 -11.966 .40139 -12.770 -
mindedne variances 11.16320
ss assumed
Equal -29.81 36.2 .000 -11.966 .40139 -12.780 -
variances not 11.15284
assumed
**t is significant at the 0.01 level
There is a significant difference in the posttest of
control and experimental groups. Pupils in experimental
group got higher scores. It can be attributed to the

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intervention strategy of using technology media in
science lessons that motivated the learners to be
scientifically literate and competent in science process
skills.
The pupils were able to discuss facts when
participating in science activity and this enabled them
to understand deeper the lesson concept. They are further
motivated to participate with the use of instructional
materials that are correlated to the lesson context. They
were encouraged to learn and use the instructional
materials to promote learning.
The experimental group make sense of the
technological tools based on the result of their
posttest. The positive impact of their enhanced science
skills enabled them to access and interpret information
and support their reflective thinking for meaningful

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learning. They effectively utilized the materials where
they showed their enjoyment and attention.
The relevant materials make the contents of the
instructions more practical and less vague. This is in
congruence to the opinion of Clark, A., Kjørholt, A.T.
and Moss, P. (eds) (2005) that the instructional
technology during the learning process make conceptual
abstraction more concrete and lasting.
Effect of the Study in Strengthening the Pupils’
Scientific Attitudes
The study served as guide to utilize the appropriate
strategies to enhance the scientific attitudes of the
learners. It emphasized the importance of developing the
scientific attitudes of the learners to enable them to
involve in purposeful engagement in science process

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skills. This is to develop their mastery and
understanding of science concepts.
As cited by Flum, H. & Kaplan, A. (2006) the quality
of education and engagement to learning depends on the
appropriate materials to equip learners with useful
skills to improve their knowledge and capabilities.

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Chapter IV
Summary, Conclusion and Recommendation
I. Respondents Performance in Scientific Attitudes

A. Curiosity
The pupils in the control and experimental group
manifested their inquisitiveness and curiosity to objects
or events where they particularly ask questions and seek
answers. They showed concern and willingness to be
involved, and show interest into digging into the “why”
of phenomenon.
B. Critical Mindedness
The respondents have the ability to appraise
statement based on evidences. They always review and
examine the truthfulness of an issue as they based their
conclusions on proofs presented. They are meticulous and
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critical on issues when they are in doubt on the

information and push on to gather evidence.
C. Open-Mindedness
The scientific attitude of being open-minded is
present to the respondents where they showed
receptiveness to suggestions and to other peoples’
opinion. They listen and accept criticism and regard it
as a challenge. They are impartial to other ideas and
listens to reasons.
Difference between the Respondents’ Gender and

Performance in Scientific Attitudes
There is no significant difference in the scores of
male and female. It means that they have similar
performance in their scientific attitudes in terms of
curiosity, critical mindedness and open-mindedness.
Difference in the Post-test of Control and

Experimental Group
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There is significant difference in the post-test of
control and experimental groups. Pupils in experimental
group got higher scores. It can be attributed to the
intervention strategy of using technology media in
science lessons that motivated the learners to be
scientifically literate and competent in science process
skills.
Conclusion
1. The pupils in both control and experimental groups
demonstrated their scientific attitudes of being curious,
critical minded and open-minded. The use of intervention
strategies reinforced and strengthened their
understanding and knowledge of science concepts through
their developed and enhanced inquisitiveness,
decisiveness and receptiveness.

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2. Gender is not significantly related to their
environmental literacy scientific attitudes. Male and
female have similar performances of curiosity, critical
mindedness and open-mindedness.
3. The experimental group marked a higher performance in
posttest which can be attributed to the use of
intervention strategy to reinforce their learning in
science where they are found out to be inquisitive and
more involved in service issues and information.
Recommendation
1. Since application of intervention strategy proved to
be effective in enhancing the scientific attitudes of the learners, it
is therefore suggested that teachers should be impelled

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to research for more strategies, more interventions and
tested techniques.
2. Teachers should provide opportunities for value
integration in science concepts to the pupils by
assigning them as leaders of an experimental study to
develop their holistic scientific literacy. This will build their
self-confidence and leadership potentials
3. Teacher should also encourage their pupils to be the
best learners in science by providing them intrinsic
and extrinsic motivation through pleasurable actualized
activities where they can establish high enjoyment and
achievement using technology and at the same time with
expectations of cheers, praise and rewards.

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Appendices
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The Materials
Part I. Profile of the Respondents
Name ___optional_______
Age: ____ 11 and below
____ 12 and above
Gender: _____ Male

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_____ Female
CURRICULUM GUIDE
THIRD QUARTER/THIRD GRADING PERIOD
Grade 6 – Force, Motion and Energy
CONTENT
CONTENT STANDARDS
PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
LEARNING COMPETENCY
CODE
LEARNING MATERIALS
1. Gravitation and Frictional Forces

The Learners The Learners The Learners
demonstrate should be able should be able
understanding to… to…
of… S6FEIIIa-b-1
produce an 1. infer how
gravity and advertisement friction and
friction affect demonstrates gravity affect
movement of road safety movements of
objects different
objects;
2. Energy how energy is create a 2. demonstrate S6FE-IIIcd-2
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2.1 Energy transformed in marketing how sound,

transformati simple strategy for a heat, light and
on in simple machines new product on electricity can
machines electrical or be transformed;
light efficiency
3. manipulate S6FEIIIe-f-1
simple
machines to
describe their
characteristics
and uses; and
4. demonstrate S6FEIIIa-1
the practical
and safe uses
of simple
machines.
Appendix B
Curriculum Vitae
Personal Data
Name : Liza Llagas Simon

Address : Arellano Street, Camiling,
Tarlac
Date of Birth : July 5, 1969
Civil Status : Married
Husband : Louie Elmer A. Simon
Children : Louis Angelo L. Simon
ARAULLOUNIVERSITY
K
GRADUATE SCHOOL
123
: Althea Ylieza L. Simon

: James Bryant L. Simon
Educational Background:
Post Graduate : Araullo Univeristy

Bitas, Cabanatuan City
Master of Arts in
Education- Major in
Educational Management 2017
College : Camiling Colleges

Bachelor of Elementary
Education
General Education 1992
Secondary : Camiling Colleges

Camiling, Tarlac 1986
Elementary : Camiling Colleges

Camiling, Tarlac 1982
ARAULLOUNIVERSITY
K
GRADUATE SCHOOL
124
Eligibility:
Professional Board Examination for Teachers (PBET)

Teaching Experiences:
June 2014 to date :Camiling West Central Elementary

School
Camiling West District
Camiling, Tarlac
March 2009 – May 2014 :Birbira Elementary School

Camiling, Tarlac
June 1, 2008 – February 2009 : Bacsay Elementary School

Camiling, Tarlac
October 8, 1996 – May 30, 2008: Isaac Lopez Integrated

School
Division Schools of
Mandaluyong City
Mandaluyong City
Seminars/Trainings Attended:
Division In-Service Training Workshop for Araling

Panlipunan
September 7-9, 2016

Division of Tarlac Province
ARAULLOUNIVERSITY
K
GRADUATE SCHOOL
125
Division Mass Training of Teachers on K to 12 Grade 5

April 1-7, 2016
Division of Tarlac Province
PACAE National Seminar-Workshop in Preparing Action

Researches, Curriculum Innovations, and Income
Generating Projects
February 19-21, 2016
Teachers’ Camp, Baguio City

Liza Simon 3-22-19

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ARAULLOUNIVERSITY

The Problem and Review of Related Literature

Teaching content and context are constantly

changing. The emerging concerns and challenges brought

about by educational reforms influenced the learning

environment and the student achievement. There is a

need therefore of reviewing the instructional practices

and a careful analysis of how learning intercorrelates

with one another.

In her long years of teaching, the researcher

believed that, it is beyond argument that the teacher

plays an important role in the learners search for

knowledge. In every teaching-learning activity, the

teacher influenced the learning styles of the students.

The students respond either positively or

negatively depending on the teachers’ attributes and

skill in presenting a learning task.

The nature of the subject matter needs to be

considered in determining the strategy to be used.

The choice of an appropriate teaching methodology

is also an important concern for the researcher as

teachers vary in their selection of strategy. As

Chickering, A.W. & Gamson, A.F. (2008) said, particular

content maybe taught successfully at one time using the

strategy which at another time with a different class

would turn out ineffective. There should be a suitable

match between subject matter and strategy to achieve

This inspired the researcher as she came up with

the study as she believed that teaching competence and

mastery of a variety of teaching strategies make

teaching effective and productive.

Review of Related Literature and Studies

Direct Instruction: a Definition

Direct instruction is a model for teaching that “…

emphasizes well-developed and carefully planned lessons

designed around small learning increments and clearly

defined and prescribed teaching tasks” (National

Institute for Direct Instruction, 2007). A major benefit

of this form of teaching is that it provides a means of

efficiently communicating large amounts of information in

a short period of time. However, it is often criticized,

as learners take on a passive, rather than an active

The direct instruction model was created by

Engelmann and colleagues in the 1960s at the University

of Illinois at Champagne-Urbana. The first implementation

of the model was known as Direct Instruction System for

Teaching and Remediation (DISTAR), which consisted of

programs that addressed reading, language, and math.

Elements of the direct-instruction model gained

recognition in 1974 with a work addressing teacher

behaviors and their relation to student performance

(Ryder, R.S., Burton, S.L. & Silberg, A. 2008). These

teacher behaviors include “…emphasizing seatwork,

directing instruction, controlling pace, supervising

seatwork, and working with students in small groups”. It

is rooted behavioral theory, specifically what Skinner

labeled as radical or selectionist behaviorism, as it

involves behaviors selected by the consequences which

Six Function of Direct Instruction

According to Magliaro, S.G., Lockee, B.B. and

Burton, S.K. (2010) there are six functions of each

direct instruction lesson, which are: review,

presentation, guided practice, corrections and feedback,